549:
prevalence of 1%, while 2% of those sampled used such drugs within the last 6 months, 3% within the last 12 months, and 5% of others used the drugs over their lifetimes. Of those students who used such substances during the last 6 months, 39% reported their use once in this period, 24% twice, 12% three times, and 24% more than three times. Consumers of neuroenhancement drugs are more willing to use them again in the future due to positive experiences or a tendency towards addiction.
456:
348:
104:
445:
382:
methods are being researched and developed. Results indicate details of the stimulation procedures are crucial, with some applications impairing rather than enhancing cognition and questions being raised about whether this approach can deliver any meaningful results for cognitive domains. Stimulation
532:
In general, people under the age of 25 feel that neuroenhancement agents are acceptable or that the decision to use them is to be made individually. Healthcare officials and parents feel concerned due to safety factors, lack of complete information on these agents, and possible irreversible adverse
548:
A 2016 German study among 6,454 employees found a rather low life-time prevalence of cognitive enhancement prescription drug use (namely 3%), while the willingness to take such drugs was found in 10% of respondents. A survey of some 5,000 German university students found a relatively low 30-day
536:
A 2024 study based on a representative sample of more than 20,000 adults in
Germany showed that around 70% of those surveyed had taken substances with the aim of improving mental performance within a year, without a medical prescription. The consumption of caffeinated drinks, such as coffee and
300:
are drop-out rates and subjective rating. The drop-out rates were minimal or non-existent for donepezil, memantine, MPH, and modafinil. In the drug trials, participants reported the following adverse reactions to use of donepezil, memantine, MPH, modafinil or caffeine:
407:
may be considered a tool for enabling or extending cognition. However, it is not "a simple, uniform technology, either in its composition, or in its use" and, as "an informational resource, currently fails to enhance cognition", partly due to issues that include
233:. Modafinil may impair one's self-monitoring ability; a common trend found in research studies indicated that participants rated their performances on cognitive tests higher than it was, suggesting an "overconfidence" effect.
293:
Common drugs intended for neuroehancement are typically well-tolerated by healthy people. These drugs are already in mainstream use to treat people with different kinds of psychiatric disorders.
1376:
261:
A comparison between the sales of MPH to the number of people for whom it was prescribed revealed a disproportionate ratio, indicating high abuse. MPH may impair cognitive performance.
2553:"Evaluating the drivers of and obstacles to the willingness to use cognitive enhancement drugs: the influence of drug characteristics, social environment, and personal characteristics"
2127:
329:, diuresis. The side effects normally ceased in the course of treatment. Various factors, such as dosage, timing and concurrent behavior, may influence the onset of adverse effects.
2041:
1499:"Effectiveness of bright light exposure, modafinil and armodafinil for improving alertness during working time among nurses on the night shift: A systematic review"
135:
There are many supposed nootropics, most having only small effect sizes in healthy individuals. The most common pharmacological agents in neuroenhancement include
2425:
Sattler S, Wiegel C (2013). "Cognitive test anxiety and cognitive enhancement: the influence of students' worries on their use of performance-enhancing drugs".
897:
Repantis D, Laisney O, Heuser I (June 2010). "Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and memantine for neuroenhancement in healthy individuals: A systematic review".
537:
energy drinks, was widespread (64% of users), expressly with the aim of improving performance, followed by dietary supplements and home remedies, such as
825:"Cognitive enhancement: Effects of methylphenidate, modafinil, and caffeine on latent memory and resting state functional connectivity in healthy adults"
2152:
Marois A, Lafond D (1 November 2022). "Augmenting cognitive work: a review of cognitive enhancement methods and applications for operational domains".
1203:"Pharmacological Neuroenhancement: Current Aspects of Categorization, Epidemiology, Pharmacology, Drug Development, Ethics, and Future Perspectives"
255:
2290:
1114:
Weiergräber M, Ehninger D, Broich K (1 April 2017). "Neuroenhancement and mood enhancement – Physiological and pharmacodynamical background".
2615:
2265:
1922:
1421:
1394:
1569:
Repantis D, Schlattmann, Peter (2010). "Modafinil and methylphenidate for neuroenhancement in healthy individuals: A systematic review".
1324:
Buckner JD, Morris PE, Abarno CN, Glover NI, Lewis EM (17 April 2021). "Biopsychosocial Model Social
Anxiety and Substance Use Revised".
593:
2475:"Prevalence of Legal, Prescription, and Illegal Drugs Aiming at Cognitive Enhancement across Sociodemographic Groups in Germany"
1791:"The ethics of AI-assisted warfighter enhancement research and experimentation: Historical perspectives and ethical challenges"
2502:"Associations Between the Big Five Personality Traits and the Non-Medical Use of Prescription Drugs for Cognitive Enhancement"
1665:"Cognitive enhancement effects of stimulants: a randomized controlled trial testing methylphenidate, modafinil, and caffeine"
274:
82:
Non-pharmacological measures of cognitive enhancement may include behavioral methods (activities, techniques, and changes),
473:
87:
480:, sampling and lab testing are commonly substandard or absent for products thought to be cognitive enhancers, including
184:
Enhancers are multidimensional and can be clustered into biochemical, physical, and behavioral enhancement strategies.
2067:
578:
302:
934:"Brain augmentation and neuroscience technologies: current applications, challenges, ethics and future prospects"
207:
2698:
545:
for cognitive enhancement (lifetime prevalence of 6%), corresponding to around 2.5 million users in
Germany.
269:
Studies are too preliminary to determine whether there are any cognitive-enhancing effects of agents such as
214:
is a wakefulness-promoting drug used to decrease fatigue, increase vigilance, and reduce daytime sleepiness.
203:
2703:
625:
573:
506:
1606:"Effects of Methylphenidate on Cognitive Function in Adults with Traumatic Brain Injury: A Meta-Analysis"
2693:
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568:
563:
76:
218:
improves alertness, attention, long-term memory, and daily performance in people with sleep disorders.
2337:
1440:
Dresler M, Sandberg A, Bublitz C, Ohla K, Trenado C, Mroczko-Wąsowicz A, et al. (20 March 2019).
1270:
626:"Modafinil for cognitive neuroenhancement in healthy non-sleep-deprived subjects: a systematic review"
403:
technologies may affect general memory enhancement, extending perception and learning-assistance. The
2374:
1498:
1282:
1201:
Daubner J, Arshaad MI, Henseler C, Hescheler J, Ehninger D, Broich K, et al. (13 January 2021).
1060:
524:(2011), which may to some degree probe and explore opportunities and threats of using such products.
409:
2474:
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2252:. Science, Technology and Innovation Studies. Springer International Publishing. pp. 243–259.
477:
49:
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2177:
1962:
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1357:
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481:
230:
56:. Agents or methods of neuroenhancement are intended to affect cognitive, social, psychological,
1152:
Marazziti D, Avella MT, Ivaldi T, Palermo S, Massa L, Della
Vecchia A, et al. (June 2021).
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57:
42:
2363:"The Rationale for Consuming Cognitive Enhancement Drugs in University Students and Teachers"
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1382:
1375:
Tennison MN, Moreno JD (2017). "Neuroenhancement and
Therapy in National Defense Contexts".
1333:
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225:, repeated use of modafinil helped individuals maintain higher levels of wakefulness than a
83:
258:(ADHD). MPH is abused by a segment of the general population, especially college students.
2629:
462:
247:
242:
140:
53:
38:
2378:
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86:, which has been used with the intent to improve cognitive and affective functions, and
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2018:
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991:
960:
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932:
Jangwan NS, Ashraf GM, Ram V, Singh V, Alghamdi BS, Abuzenadah AM, et al. (2022).
859:
824:
797:
772:
748:
713:
583:
505:
increase incentives to develop potential therapies for various brain diseases, such as
413:
297:
2092:
Glisson JK (14 March 2011). "Dietary
Supplements: Safety Issues and Quality Control".
1271:"Drugs, games, and devices for enhancing cognition: implications for work and society"
1169:
347:
103:
2672:
2275:
2181:
1691:
1540:
1361:
990:
Antal A, Luber B, Brem AK, Bikson M, Brunoni AR, Cohen Kadosh R, et al. (2022).
698:
538:
434:
388:
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2333:
773:"Psychostimulants and cognition: a continuum of behavioral and cognitive activation"
657:
641:
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1966:
1310:
384:
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2105:
1939:
1514:
2438:
2387:
2257:
2042:"Prohibited, unlisted, even dangerous ingredients turn up in dietary supplements"
1958:
1457:
1411:
712:
Al-Shargie F, Tariq U, Mir H, Alawar H, Babiloni F, Al-Nashash H (August 2019).
430:
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Neuroenhancement products are mentioned in entertainment productions, such as
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2009:
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Upper photo of modafinil tablets acquired via the
Internet; below photo is a
1622:
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387:, several forms of acoustic stimulation, and physical methods like forms of
310:
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136:
68:
64:
63:
Pharmacological neuroenhancement agents may include compounds thought to be
45:
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2473:
Sattler S, van Veen F, Hasselhorn F, El Tabei L, Fuhr U, Mehlkop G (2024).
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17:
2632:(2009). "Cognitive Enhancement: Methods, Ethics, Regulatory Challenges".
1523:
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326:
306:
148:
72:
2299:: on the use of fiction in preparatory debates on cognitive enhancement"
1789:
Moreno J, Gross ML, Becker J, Hereth B, Shortland ND, Evans NG (2022).
1294:
533:
effects; such concerns may reduce the willingness to take such agents.
318:
226:
841:
2213:
2196:
1147:
1145:
444:
2246:"Emerging Technologies, Trends and Wild Cards in Human Enhancement"
1734:"Delaying memory decline: different options and emerging solutions"
492:
Neuroenhancement products or methods are used with the intent to:
1732:
Schneider F, Horowitz A, Lesch KP, Dandekar T (21 January 2020).
1413:
The
Exercise Effect on Mental Health: Neurobiological Mechanisms
1663:
Repantis D, Bovy L, Ohla K, Kühn S, Dresler M (February 2021).
1435:
1433:
2197:"Neuroethical issues in pharmacological cognitive enhancement"
383:
methods include electrical stimulation, magnetic stimulation,
341:
97:
1154:"Neuroenhancement: state of the art and future perspectives"
771:
Wood S, Sage JR, Shuman T, Anagnostaras SG (January 2014).
714:"Vigilance Decrement and Enhancement Techniques: A Review"
1442:"Hacking the Brain: Dimensions of Cognitive Enhancement"
823:
Becker M, Repantis D, Dresler M, Kühn S (October 2022).
360:
116:
2608:
1905:
Smart PR (22 November 2013). "The Web-Extended Mind".
151:
or other neurological therapies may affect cognition.
1260:
1258:
1256:
992:"Non-invasive brain stimulation and neuroenhancement"
325:, nervousness, restlessness, sleep disturbances, and
673:"Cognitive Enhancement and the Threat of Inequality"
1497:Okechukwu CE, Okechukwu CE, Torre GL (2022-10-02).
2557:Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy
2551:Sattler S, Mehlkop G, Graeff P, Sauer C (2014).
2361:Sattler S, Sauer C, Mehlkop G, Graeff P (2013).
75:, and other drugs used for treating people with
60:, or motor benefits beyond normal functioning.
1604:Chien, Chien, Liu, Wu, Chang, Wu (2019-10-24).
1053:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2295:as a neuro-pharmaceutical experiment and as a
2250:Emerging Technologies for Economic Development
1503:International Journal of Healthcare Management
169:sociability (e.g., talking-related or empathy)
52:abilities in healthy people who do not have a
8:
2468:
2466:
2464:
2420:
2418:
2416:
541:(31%). Around 4% stated that they had taken
1116:Medizinische Monatsschrift für Pharmazeuten
41:or non-pharmacological methods intended to
1275:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
619:
617:
615:
613:
611:
609:
2578:
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2527:
2517:
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2017:
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1177:
1090:
1072:
1023:
959:
949:
858:
840:
796:
747:
729:
688:
818:
816:
502:possibly encourage societal productivity
256:attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
1986:"The Internet as Cognitive Enhancement"
1909:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: 116–133.
985:
983:
981:
979:
605:
154:Neuroenhancement may also occur from:
1850:"Extended Cognition and the Internet"
1378:The Routledge Handbook of Neuroethics
624:Battleday R, Brem AK (28 July 2015).
27:Extension of cognition in the healthy
7:
2306:Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy
1564:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1550:
2068:"Setting Standards for Supplements"
1410:Budde H, Wegner M (17 April 2018).
892:
890:
888:
886:
884:
882:
880:
878:
250:(MPH), also known as Ritalin, is a
1940:"Human-extended machine cognition"
296:Assessment to determine potential
25:
1170:10.36131/cnfioritieditore20210303
996:Clinical Neurophysiology Practice
938:Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience
594:Transcranial magnetic stimulation
229:, but did not help attention and
2154:Cognition, Technology & Work
677:Journal of Cognitive Enhancement
630:European Neuropsychopharmacology
454:
443:
346:
102:
2128:"Are Dietary Supplements Safe?"
642:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.07.028
385:optical stimulation with lasers
275:acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
2634:Science and Engineering Ethics
2100:(5): 476–7, author reply 477.
1990:Science and Engineering Ethics
1980:Voinea C, Vică C, Mihailov E,
425:Validation and quality control
84:non-invasive brain stimulation
1:
2500:Sattler S, Schunck R (2016).
2487:10.1080/01639625.2024.2334274
2195:Mohamed AD (September 2014).
2106:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.53
2094:Archives of Internal Medicine
1515:10.1080/20479700.2022.2054508
2606:Blank RH (5 November 2016).
2439:10.3109/10826084.2012.751426
2388:10.1371/journal.pone.0068821
2258:10.1007/978-3-030-04370-4_11
1959:10.1016/j.cogsys.2017.11.001
1848:Smart P (1 September 2017).
1458:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00571
1854:Philosophy & Technology
488:Well-being and productivity
303:gastrointestinal complaints
37:is the experimental use of
2720:
2166:10.1007/s10111-022-00715-1
2002:10.1007/s11948-020-00210-8
1947:Cognitive Systems Research
1682:10.1007/s00213-020-05691-w
1583:10.1016/j.phrs.2010.04.002
1338:10.1007/s11920-021-01249-5
1326:Current Psychiatry Reports
951:10.3389/fnsys.2022.1000495
911:10.1016/j.phrs.2010.02.009
579:Intelligence amplification
428:
240:
191:
2646:10.1007/s11948-009-9142-5
2610:. Palgrave Macmillan UK.
2318:10.1007/s11019-013-9481-5
1915:10.1002/9781118700143.ch8
1907:Philosophical Engineering
1866:10.1007/s13347-016-0250-2
1808:10.3389/fdata.2022.978734
1750:10.1038/s41398-020-0697-x
1692:21.11116/0000-0007-453B-A
1446:ACS Chemical Neuroscience
1049:"Brain–machine interface"
1008:10.1016/j.cnp.2022.05.002
690:10.1007/s41465-018-0108-x
420:Quality and social issues
208:shift work sleep disorder
2519:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01971
2427:Substance Use and Misuse
1738:Translational Psychiatry
1571:Pharmacological Research
1387:10.4324/9781315708652-12
1158:Clinical Neuropsychiatry
899:Pharmacological Research
289:Possible adverse effects
180:psychological resilience
88:brain-machine interfaces
2506:Frontiers in Psychology
2201:WIREs Cognitive Science
1623:10.3390/brainsci9110291
1074:10.1073/pnas.1319310110
777:Pharmacological Reviews
731:10.3390/brainsci9080178
204:obstructive sleep apnea
147:in general and various
574:Deep brain stimulation
254:that is used to treat
198:Approved for treating
77:neurological disorders
2570:10.1186/1747-597X-9-8
1795:Frontiers in Big Data
1047:Nair P (2013-11-12).
789:10.1124/pr.112.007054
569:Cosmetic pharmacology
564:Cognitive development
35:cognitive enhancement
1381:. pp. 150–165.
1220:10.1155/2021/8823383
410:information overload
161:('mood enhancement')
2379:2013PLoSO...868821S
2072:Scientific American
1287:2016NYASA1369..195B
1065:2013PNAS..11018343N
829:Human Brain Mapping
507:Alzheimer's disease
482:dietary supplements
472:Quality standards,
463:mail order pharmacy
333:Non-pharmacological
177:cognitive endurance
149:dementia treatments
2244:Saritas O (2019).
1669:Psychopharmacology
1295:10.1111/nyas.13040
543:prescription drugs
514:In popular culture
395:Software and media
359:. You can help by
231:executive function
115:. You can help by
2617:978-1-349-84797-6
2289:Zwart H. (2014).
2267:978-3-030-04370-4
1984:(1 August 2020).
1938:Smart PR (2018).
1924:978-1-118-70014-3
1423:978-1-4987-3953-5
1396:978-1-315-70865-2
1207:Neural Plasticity
842:10.1002/hbm.25949
835:(14): 4225–4238.
636:(11): 1865–1881.
589:Neuroregeneration
401:augmented reality
377:
376:
223:sleep deprivation
133:
132:
16:(Redirected from
2711:
2665:
2621:
2593:
2592:
2582:
2572:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2531:
2521:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2479:Deviant Behavior
2470:
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2458:
2422:
2411:
2410:
2400:
2390:
2358:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2348:
2342:
2336:. Archived from
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2279:
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2235:
2234:
2216:
2214:10.1002/wcs.1306
2192:
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1996:(4): 2345–2362.
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1452:(3): 1137–1148.
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761:
751:
733:
709:
703:
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692:
668:
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621:
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416:and persuasion.
399:Applications of
380:Neurostimulation
372:
369:
350:
342:
338:Neurostimulation
128:
125:
106:
98:
94:Potential agents
31:Neuroenhancement
21:
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2699:Neurotechnology
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2600:Further reading
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2046:Washington Post
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357:needs expansion
351:
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298:adverse effects
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243:Methylphenidate
239:
237:Methylphenidate
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2640:(3): 311–341.
2622:
2616:
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2598:
2595:
2594:
2543:
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2460:
2412:
2353:
2297:Daseinsanalyse
2281:
2266:
2236:
2207:(5): 533–549.
2187:
2160:(4): 589–608.
2144:
2132:www.cancer.org
2119:
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2066:Eisenstein M.
2058:
2033:
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1930:
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1655:
1610:Brain Sciences
1596:
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1489:
1429:
1422:
1402:
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1316:
1281:(1): 195–217.
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718:Brain Sciences
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663:
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584:Neuromarketing
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478:authentication
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414:misinformation
396:
393:
375:
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354:
352:
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339:
336:
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331:
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287:
266:
263:
241:Main article:
238:
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192:Main article:
189:
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182:
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178:
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54:mental illness
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2704:Transhumanism
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2343:on 2019-05-04
2339:
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2020:
2015:
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1968:
1964:
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539:ginkgo biloba
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389:neurofeedback
386:
381:
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368:February 2024
362:
358:
355:This section
353:
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124:February 2024
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70:
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2689:Intelligence
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2338:the original
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2309:
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2135:. Retrieved
2131:
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2071:
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2049:. Retrieved
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1267:Sahakian BJ
1002:: 146–165.
431:Food safety
283:galantamine
277:(examples:
143:(Ritalin).
2679:Nootropics
2673:Categories
2630:Sandberg A
2347:2016-05-07
1801:: 978734.
1265:Brühl AB,
724:(8): 178.
600:References
528:Prevalence
498:well-being
474:validation
429:See also:
323:drowsiness
315:nightmares
305:(nausea),
200:narcolepsy
173:creativity
165:motivation
145:Stimulants
67:, such as
65:nootropics
18:Brain food
2684:Cognition
2626:Bostrom N
2293:Limitless
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2010:1471-5546
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559:Alertness
521:Limitless
465:dispenser
311:dizziness
279:donepezil
271:memantine
252:stimulant
216:Modafinil
212:modafinil
194:Modafinil
188:Modafinil
137:modafinil
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553:See also
496:improve
405:Internet
327:insomnia
307:headache
73:caffeine
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2580:3928621
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2375:Bibcode
2019:7417391
1967:4327856
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227:placebo
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654:S2CID
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