65:
2435:
256:
2580:
2121:
51:
421:
328:
2305:
579:
489:
2283:. The fabric of these crucibles is porous, probably designed to prevent a buildup of pressure, and many have small holes in the lids which may be designed to release pressure or to add additional zinc minerals near the end of the process. Dioscorides mentioned that zinc minerals were used for both the working and finishing of brass, perhaps suggesting secondary additions.
454:"Red brasses", a family of alloys with high copper proportion and generally less than 15% zinc, are more resistant to zinc loss. One of the metals called "red brass" is 85% copper, 5% tin, 5% lead, and 5% zinc. Copper alloy C23000, which is also known as "red brass", contains 84–86% copper, 0.05% each iron and lead, with the balance being zinc.
845:
240:, as it exhibits greater resistance to corrosion. Brass is not as hard as bronze and so is not suitable for most weapons and tools. Nor is it suitable for marine uses, because the zinc reacts with minerals in salt water, leaving porous copper behind; marine brass, with added tin, avoids this, as does bronze.
2060:
and it is possible that some copper-zinc alloys were accidental and perhaps not even distinguished from copper. However the large number of copper-zinc alloys now known suggests that at least some were deliberately manufactured and many have zinc contents of more than 12% wt which would have resulted
395:
in the form of globules as it cools from casting. The pattern the globules form on the surface of the brass increases the available lead surface area which, in turn, affects the degree of leaching. In addition, cutting operations can smear the lead globules over the surface. These effects can lead to
374:
because of the absence of a corrosive environment within the mixture. However, if brass is placed in contact with a more noble metal such as silver or gold in such an environment, the brass will corrode galvanically; conversely, if brass is in contact with a less-noble metal such as zinc or iron, the
404:
limits by an average factor of 19, assuming handling twice a day. In April 2001 manufacturers agreed to reduce lead content to 1.5%, or face a requirement to warn consumers about lead content. Keys plated with other metals are not affected by the settlement, and may continue to use brass alloys with
2886:
The term copper alloy should be searched for full retrievals on objects made of bronze or brass. This is because bronze and brass have at times been used interchangeably in the old documentation, and copper alloy is the Broad Term of both. In addition, the public may refer to certain collections by
2722:
cementation in a domed furnace at around 900–950 °C and lasting up to 10 hours. The
European brass industry continued to flourish into the post medieval period buoyed by innovations such as the 16th century introduction of water powered hammers for the production of wares such as pots. By 1559
2675:
described a variety of cementation brass making techniques and came closer to understanding the true nature of the process noting that copper became heavier as it changed to brass and that it became more golden as additional calamine was added. Zinc metal was also becoming more commonplace. By 1513
2651:
in
Germany. These large crucibles were capable of producing c.20 kg of brass. There are traces of slag and pieces of metal on the interior. Their irregular composition suggests that this was a lower temperature, not entirely liquid, process. The crucible lids had small holes which were blocked
725:
The keywork of most modern woodwinds, including wooden-bodied instruments, is also usually made of an alloy such as nickel silver. Such alloys are stiffer and more durable than the brass used to construct the instrument bodies, but still workable with simple hand tools—a boon to quick repairs. The
887:
from cold forming of the cases during manufacture, together with chemical attack from traces of ammonia in the atmosphere. The cartridges were stored in stables and the ammonia concentration rose during the hot summer months, thus initiating brittle cracks. The problem was resolved by
1134:
Designed for use in marine service owing to its corrosion resistance, hardness and toughness. A characteristic application is to the protection of ships' bottoms, but more modern methods of cathodic protection have rendered its use less common. Its appearance resembles that of gold.
2770:
or "the
English process". This local zinc was used in speltering and allowed greater control over the zinc content of brass and the production of high-zinc copper alloys which would have been difficult or impossible to produce using cementation, for use in expensive objects such as
3468:
712:
feature a hybrid construction, with long, straight sections of wood, and curved joints, neck, and/or bell of metal. The use of metal also avoids the risks of exposing wooden instruments to changes in temperature or humidity, which can cause sudden cracking. Even though the
835:
A large number of independent studies confirm this antimicrobial effect, even against antibiotic-resistant bacteria such as MRSA and VRSA. The mechanisms of antimicrobial action by copper and its alloys, including brass, are a subject of intense and ongoing investigation.
1023:
alloys as well as Cu-Zn-Sn alloys with high proportions (typically 40%+) of tin and/or zinc, as well as predominantly zinc casting alloys with copper additives. These have virtually no yellow colouring at all, and instead have a much more silvery appearance.
965:, with zinc atoms in the centre of the cubes, and is harder and stronger than α. Alpha-beta brasses are usually worked hot. The higher proportion of zinc means these brasses are brighter than alpha brasses. At 45% of zinc the alloy has the highest strength.
2051:
The compositions of these early "brass" objects are highly variable and most have zinc contents of between 5% and 15% wt which is lower than in brass produced by cementation. These may be "natural alloys" manufactured by smelting zinc rich copper ores in
99:, in proportions which can be varied to achieve different colours and mechanical, electrical, acoustic and chemical properties, but copper typically has the larger proportion, generally 66% copper and 34% zinc. In use since prehistoric times, it is a
4288:
The Coin
Collector's Manual: Comprising an Historical and Critical Account of the Origin and Progress of Coinage, from the Earliest Period to the Fall of the Roman Empire; with Some Account of the Coinages of Modern Europe, More Especially of Great
2286:
Brass made during the early Roman period seems to have varied between 20% and 28% wt zinc. The high content of zinc in coinage and brass objects declined after the first century AD and it has been suggested that this reflects zinc loss during
3503:
721:
are classified as woodwind instruments, they are normally made of brass for similar reasons, and because their wide, conical bores and thin-walled bodies are more easily and efficiently made by forming sheet metal than by machining wood.
1230:
An alloy of copper, zinc, and silicon which has an incredibly high tensile strength and is corrosion resistant. Doehler Die
Casting Co. of Toledo, Ohio were known for the production of Brastil. It was notably tested in 1932 on an
64:
2291:
and thus an interruption in the production of new brass. However it is now thought this was probably a deliberate change in composition and overall the use of brass increases over this period making up around 40% of all
942:
of zinc in copper. It is close in properties to copper, tough, strong, and somewhat difficult to machine. Best formability is with 32% of zinc. Corrosion-resistant red brasses, with 15% of zinc or less, belong here.
4144:
Beware of through hull fittings and tailpipes, or any other component in the assembly, made of TONVAL. This is basically brass and totally unsuitable for use below the waterline due to its tendency to dezincify and
2787:. However Champion continued to use the cheaper calamine cementation method to produce lower-zinc brass and the archaeological remains of bee-hive shaped cementation furnaces have been identified at his works at
2238:
Brass was produced by the cementation process where copper and zinc ore are heated together until zinc vapor is produced which reacts with the copper. There is good archaeological evidence for this process and
399:
In
October 1999, the California State Attorney General sued 13 key manufacturers and distributors over lead content. In laboratory tests, state researchers found the average brass key, new or old, exceeded the
2434:
2336:
were made of brass. However other alloys such as low tin bronze were also used and they vary depending on local cultural attitudes, the purpose of the metal and access to zinc, especially between the
979:
Beta brasses can only be worked hot, and are harder, stronger, and suitable for casting. The high zinc-low copper content means these are some of the brightest and least-golden of the common brasses.
2703:
had recognized that calamine was "nothing else but unmeltable zinc" and that zinc was a "half ripe metal". However some earlier high zinc, low iron brasses such as the 1530 Wightman brass memorial
448:
systems. This brass alloy must be produced with great care, with special attention placed on a balanced composition and proper production temperatures and parameters to avoid long-term failures.
2791:. By the mid-to-late 18th century developments in cheaper zinc distillation such as John-Jaques Dony's horizontal furnaces in Belgium and the reduction of tariffs on zinc as well as demand for
2419:, ranging from 22.5% in the base to 5.76% in the pan below the candle. The proportions of this mixture may suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins, probably Late Roman.
2423:
is a term for medieval alloys of uncertain and often variable composition often covering decorative borders and similar objects cut from sheet metal, whether of brass or bronze. Especially in
2731:
of brass per year. After several false starts during the 16th and 17th centuries the brass industry was also established in
England taking advantage of abundant supplies of cheap copper
5028:
2388:
2314:
4442:
792:
are also made from brass, especially inertia blocks on tremolo systems for its tonal properties, and for string nuts and saddles for both tonal properties and its low friction.
451:
An example of DZR brass is the C352 brass, with about 30% zinc, 61–63% copper, 1.7–2.8% lead, and 0.02–0.15% arsenic. The lead and arsenic significantly suppress the zinc loss.
3874:
3168:
2647:
saw important changes to both the theory and practice of brassmaking in Europe. By the 15th century there is evidence for the renewed use of lidded cementation crucibles at
4688:
4206:
de Ruette, M. (1995) "From
Contrefei and Speauter to Zinc: The development of the understanding of the nature of zinc and brass in Post Medieval Europe" in Hook, D. R. and
2112:
ingots recovered from a 2,600-year-old shipwreck off Sicily found them to be an alloy made with 75–80% copper, 15–20% zinc and small percentages of nickel, lead and iron.
3446:
2454:
seem to describe variants of a higher temperature liquid process which took place in open-topped crucibles. Islamic cementation seems to have used zinc oxide known as
461:, from the family of red brasses. Gunmetal alloys contain roughly 88% copper, 8–10% tin, and 2–4% zinc. Lead can be added for ease of machining or for bearing alloys.
173:. Brasses with higher copper content are softer and more golden in colour; conversely those with less copper and thus more zinc are harder and more silvery in colour.
3017:
436:
resistant) brasses, are used where there is a large corrosion risk and where normal brasses do not meet the requirements. Applications with high water temperatures,
2512:
and gently roasted before being added to the surface of the molten metal. A temporary lid was added at this point presumably to minimize the escape of zinc vapor.
2515:
In Europe a similar liquid process in open-topped crucibles took place which was probably less efficient than the Roman process and the use of the term tutty by
3266:
1949:
makes many references to "brass" to translate "nechosheth" (bronze or copper) from Hebrew to
English. The earliest brasses may have been natural alloys made by
5302:
Rehren, T. and
Martinon Torres, M. (2008) "Naturam ars imitate: European brassmaking between craft and science". In Martinon-Torres, M. and Rehren, T. (eds.).
3187:
3581:
2881:
4525:
Montero-Ruis, I. and Perea, A. (2007). "Brasses in the early metallurgy of the Iberian Peninsula". In La Niece, S., Hook, D., and Craddock, P. T. (eds.).
4371:
2535:, then again melted with calamine. It has been suggested that this second melting may have taken place at a lower temperature to allow more zinc to be
1717:
Invented in the early 18th century by Christopher Pinchbeck. Resembles gold to a point where people can buy the metal as budget gold "effect" jewelry.
157:. It has also been widely used to make sculpture and utensils because of its low melting point, high workability (both with hand tools and with modern
4667:
4402:
Craddock, P. T. (1978). "The Composition of Copper Alloys used by the Greek, Etruscan and Roman Civilisations: 3 The Origins and Early Use of Brass".
801:
2493:
4159:
4313:
274:
of brass (900 to 940 °C; 1,650 to 1,720 °F, depending on composition) and its flow characteristics make it a relatively easy material to
3732:
2627:, both also British Museum, are better described as brass, though of variable compositions. Work in brass or bronze continued to be important in
2500:, probably zinc oxide, onto the surface of molten copper produced tutiya vapor which then reacted with the metal. The 13th century Iranian writer
2176:
produced "droplets of false silver", probably metallic zinc, which could be used to turn copper into oreichalkos. In the 1st century BC the Greek
499:
3995:
2160:
and eastern Mediterranean where deliberate production of brass from metallic copper and zinc ores had been introduced. The 4th century BC writer
931:
Alpha brasses are malleable, can be worked cold, and are used in pressing, forging, or similar applications. They contain only one phase, with
142:. Historically, the distinction between the two alloys has been less consistent and clear, and increasingly museums use the more general term "
3423:
2795:-resistant high zinc alloys increased the popularity of speltering and as a result cementation was largely abandoned by the mid-19th century.
2071:
tablets mention the exploitation of the "copper of the mountains" and this may refer to "natural" brass. "Oreikhalkon" (mountain copper), the
255:
4269:
4082:
3914:
3820:
2976:
4019:
700:, are sometimes made of metal because of limited supplies of the dense, fine-grained tropical hardwoods traditionally preferred for smaller
5583:
5025:
5337:
5268:
Craddock, P. T. and Eckstein, K (2003). "Production of Brass in Antiquity by Direct Reduction". In Craddock, P. T. and Lang, J. (eds.).
4889:
Gilmore, G. R. and Metcalf, D. M. (1980). "The alloy of the Northumbrian coinage in the mid-ninth century". In Metcalf, D. and Oddy, W.
1823:, which is composed of 14–16% zinc, a minimum 0.05% iron and minimum 0.07% lead content, and the remainder copper. It may also refer to
4450:
293:
that are extruded into the desired form and size. The general softness of brass means that it can often be machined without the use of
807:
408:
Also in California, lead-free materials must be used for "each component that comes into contact with the wetted surface of pipes and
4235:
Craddock, P. T. and Eckstein, K (2003) "Production of Brass in Antiquity by Direct Reduction" in Craddock, P. T. and Lang, J. (eds.)
4039:
4985:
Rehren, T (1999) "The same... but different: A juxtaposition of Roman and Medieval brass making in Europe" in Young, S. M. M. (ed.)
4879:. Proceedings of the 31st International Symposium on Archaeometry. BAR International Series. Oxford: Archaeopress. pp. 342–349.
4195:
4137:
3866:
3742:
3165:
3080:. U.S. Department of the Interior, Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service, Technical Preservation Services. 1980. p. 119.
312:) to be formed on the surface that is thin, transparent, and self-healing. Tin has a similar effect and finds its use especially in
5290:
Martinon Torres, M.; Rehren, T. (2002). "Agricola and Zwickau: theory and practice of Renaissance brass production in SE Germany".
3130:
412:
and fixtures". On 1 January 2010, the maximum amount of lead in "lead-free brass" in California was reduced from 4% to 0.25% lead.
3291:
3110:
4719:
4179:
401:
351:, and certain acids. This often happens when the copper reacts with sulfur to form a brown and eventually black surface layer of
278:. By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the properties of the brass can be changed, allowing hard and soft brasses. The
5261:
Bayley, J. (1990). "The Production of Brass in Antiquity with Particular Reference to Roman Britain". In Craddock, P. T. (ed.).
3947:
3393:
2759:
1109:
4286:
6338:
4929:
4259:
3447:"Antimicrobial copper displaces stainless steel, germs for medical applications: Alloys have natural germ-killing properties"
2474:
514:
290:
3965:
2579:
938:. With their high proportion of copper, these brasses have a more golden hue than others. The alpha phase is a substitution
289:, ferrous scrap can be separated from it by passing the scrap near a powerful magnet. Brass scrap is melted and recast into
3614:
3024:
1254:
Defined by California Assembly Bill AB 1953 contains "not more than 0.25 percent lead content". Prior upper limit was 4%.
4825:
Craddock, P. T., La Niece, S. C., and Hook, D. (1990). "Brass in the Medieval Islamic World". In Craddock, P. T. (ed.),
3836:
2231:
may indicate a degree of state involvement in the industry, and brass even seems to have been deliberately boycotted by
811:
409:
3091:
730:
of both brass instruments and, less commonly, woodwind instruments are often made of brass among other metals as well.
324:. The addition of as little as 1% iron to a brass alloy will result in an alloy with a noticeable magnetic attraction.
4574:
Craddock, P. T., Burnett, A., and Preston, K. (1980). "Hellenistic copper-based coinage and the origins of brass". In
3255:
1531:
472:
3204:
300:
Aluminium makes brass stronger and more corrosion-resistant. Aluminium also causes a highly beneficial hard layer of
3184:
2718:
However, the cementation process was not abandoned, and as late as the early 19th century there are descriptions of
1896:
Also called CW617N or CZ122 or OT58. It is not recommended for sea water use, being susceptible to dezincification.
557:
4099:
3589:
2328:
may have contributed to the increasing popularity of brass in the east and by the 6th–7th centuries AD over 90% of
1742:
217:
5275:
Day, J. (1990). "Brass and Zinc in Europe from the Middle Ages until the 19th century". In Craddock, P. T. (ed.).
529:
464:"Naval brass", for use in seawater, contains 40% zinc but also 1% tin. The tin addition suppresses zinc leaching.
5794:
4618:
3049:
2624:
1628:
1392:
Softest type of brass commonly available. Gilding metal is typically used for ammunition bullet "jackets"; e.g.,
857:
4352:
Thornton, C. P. and Ehlers, C. B. (2003) "Early Brass in the ancient Near East", in IAMS Newsletter 23 pp. 27–36
2344:
world. Conversely the use of true brass seems to have declined in Western Europe during this period in favor of
355:
which, if regularly exposed to slightly acidic water such as urban rainwater, can then oxidize in air to form a
5630:
5452:
2120:
1624:
1393:
2531:
then topped up with copper and charcoal before being melted, stirred then filled again. The final product was
4379:
4261:
Zinc for Coin and Brass: Bureaucrats, Merchants, Artisans, and Mining Laborers in Qing China, ca. 1680s–1830s
536:
6261:
5635:
5354:
5330:
4652:
3096:. Washington DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency. September 1996. p. 7. EPA/600/R-96/103.
1937:, its true nature as a copper-zinc alloy was not understood until the post-medieval period because the zinc
1928:
820:
properties of brass have been observed for centuries, particularly in marine environments where it prevents
166:
6333:
2772:
2653:
2536:
2400:
2140:
During the later part of first millennium BC the use of brass spread across a wide geographical area from
2057:
1182:
994:
889:
697:
275:
263:
42:
4156:
3682:
Santo, C. E.; Lam, E. W.; Elowsky, C. G.; Quaranta, D.; Domaille, D. W.; Chang, C. J.; Grass, G. (2010).
2903:
2755:
of the copper helping it react and zinc contents of up to 33% wt were reported using this new technique.
2320:
Little is known about the production of brass during the centuries immediately after the collapse of the
363:. Depending on how the patina layer was formed, it may protect the underlying brass from further damage.
6161:
4325:
3896:
2814:
2740:
2719:
2685:
2664:
2279:
suggesting that zinc minerals were heated to produce zinc vapor which reacted with metallic copper in a
2271:
like vessels but all have elevated levels of zinc on the interior and are lidded. They show no signs of
2193:
1996:
early copper-zinc alloys are now known in small numbers from a number of 3rd millennium BC sites in the
1993:
1819:, and an alloy which is considered both a brass and a bronze. Red brass is also an alternative name for
734:
143:
77:
50:
3368:
543:
4473:
3991:
784:(or beat "through" the shallot in the case of a "free" reed). Although not part of the brass section,
614:, have been used for the same reasons, but brass is the most economical choice. Collectively known as
6343:
5998:
5655:
4703:
3767:
2704:
2620:
2584:
2524:
2280:
2005:
869:
367:
193:
170:
100:
3230:
1969:, and variations on this method continued until the mid-19th century. It was eventually replaced by
993:
There are also Ag-Zn and Au-Zn gamma brasses, Ag 30–50%, Au 41%. The gamma phase is a cubic-lattice
5993:
4575:
3635:"Contribution of copper ion resistance to survival of Escherichia coli on metallic copper surfaces"
3522:"Copper surfaces in the ICU reduced the relative risk of acquiring an infection while hospitalized"
3420:
2427:, analysis of some objects shows very different compositions from different ends of a large piece.
1962:
880:
773:
693:
420:
162:
525:
5402:
5382:
5323:
4508:
4016:
3797:
2867:
2563:
dating to around the 13th century confirm Theophilus' account, as they are open-topped, although
2497:
2369:
2129:
2105:
1737:
A type of alpha brass. Due to its yellow colour, it is used as an imitation of gold. Also called
962:
932:
727:
599:
429:
371:
316:
applications (naval brasses). Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon, and manganese make brass
149:
Brass has long been a popular material for its bright gold-like appearance and is still used for
54:
2968:
780:
of the reed family, brass strips (called tongues) are used as the reeds, which beat against the
4875:
Eremin, Katherine; Graham-Campbell, James; Wilthew, Paul (2002). Biro, K.T; Eremin, K. (eds.).
961:, these are suited for hot working. They contain both α and β' phases; the β'-phase is ordered
5849:
5432:
4925:
4265:
4191:
4133:
4127:
4078:
3910:
3816:
3810:
3738:
3713:
3664:
3495:
3075:
2972:
2672:
2365:
2196:
used to heat either zinc ore or copper and explaining that it can then be used to make brass.
2017:
1961:
period brass was being deliberately produced from metallic copper and zinc minerals using the
1700:
935:
655:
468:
237:
225:
5759:
5588:
5542:
5462:
5282:
Day, J. (1991). "Copper, Zinc and Brass Production". In Day, J. and Tylecote, R. F. (eds.).
5187:
4848:
4711:
4633:
4619:"Roman Military Copper Alloy Artefacts from Israel: Questions of Organisation and Ethnicity"
4500:
4411:
3841:
3775:
3703:
3695:
3654:
3646:
3543:
3533:
3487:
2848:
2632:
2309:
1946:
1440:
1156:
Aluminium improves corrosion resistance. It is used for heat exchanger and condenser tubes.
789:
615:
360:
221:
115:
35:
31:
4212:
Trade and Discovery: The Scientific Study of Artefacts from Post Medieval Europe and Beyond
3341:
2547:
could create a film to bind it to the metal. German brass making crucibles are known from
2450:
The cementation process continued to be used but literary sources from both Europe and the
5854:
5789:
5600:
5573:
5032:
4183:
4163:
4074:
4043:
4023:
3633:
Espίrito Santo, Christopher; Taudte, Nadine; Nies, Dietrich H.; and Grass, Gregor (2007).
3618:
3427:
3191:
3172:
3134:
3114:
2784:
2516:
2399:
brass casting, though also often described as bronze. The metal of the early 12th-century
2212:
2169:
2093:
1444:
884:
865:
666:
321:
301:
233:
103:: atoms of the two constituents may replace each other within the same crystal structure.
73:
3093:
Stagnation Time, Composition, pH, and Orthophosphate Effects on Metal Leaching from Brass
2699:
with copper to make brass, a process known as speltering, and by 1657 the German chemist
1635:, plus the centre part of the two euro coin. Formerly used for the round one pound coin.
247:
not be struck, such as in fittings and tools used near flammable or explosive materials.
114:
instead of zinc. Both bronze and brass may include small proportions of a range of other
4707:
3771:
3194:, Fact Sheet, Department of Toxic Substances Control, State of California, February 2009
3126:
2861:
2084:
meaning "golden copper" which became the standard term for brass. In the 4th century BC
327:
6328:
6207:
6151:
6139:
6068:
5712:
5650:
5427:
4207:
3708:
3683:
3659:
3634:
3548:
3521:
3469:"Potential use of copper surfaces to reduce survival of epidemic methicillin-resistant
3106:
2961:
2700:
2668:
2616:
2604:
2567:
discs from Soest may have served as loose lids which may have been used to reduce zinc
2552:
2489:
in Iran. It could then be used for brass making or medicinal purposes. In 10th century
2396:
2361:
2325:
2141:
1966:
1855:
939:
392:
352:
286:
259:
4176:
2267:
and at a number of sites in Britain. They vary in size from tiny acorn sized to large
6322:
6282:
6212:
6171:
5839:
5593:
5578:
5527:
5221:
Day, J. (1988). "The Bristol Brass Industry: Furnaces and their associated remains".
4512:
4415:
2888:
2809:
2728:
2612:
2451:
2403:
is unusual even by medieval standards in being a mixture of copper, zinc, tin, lead,
2293:
2072:
2021:
1375:
1020:
829:
709:
685:
639:
388:
294:
271:
209:
4653:"Keeping up with the Roman Romanisation and Copper Alloys in First Revolt Palestine"
1348:
The proportions used make the material harder and suitable for valves and bearings.
733:
Next to the brass instruments, the most notable use of brass in music is in various
6307:
6302:
6297:
6249:
6202:
6032:
5978:
5764:
5645:
5605:
5497:
3445:
Michel, James H.; Moran, Wilton; Michels, Harold; Estelle, Adam A. (20 June 2011).
2763:
2752:
2608:
2527:
described how preheated crucibles were one sixth filled with powdered calamine and
2478:
2443:
2329:
2321:
2252:
2244:
2013:
1958:
1605:
1232:
1019:
These are too brittle for general use. The term may also refer to certain types of
817:
718:
606:
consist of long, relatively narrow tubing, often folded or coiled for compactness;
550:
244:
229:
4637:
2304:
2156:
in the east. This seems to have been encouraged by exports and influence from the
669:
may be constructed of brass or other metals, and indeed most modern student-model
4067:
3969:
3933:
3316:
3000:
2963:
Materials and design: the art and science of material selection in product design
2519:
in the 13th century suggests influence from Islamic technology. The 12th century
864:
or substances containing or releasing ammonia. The problem is sometimes known as
6244:
6134:
5973:
5923:
5918:
5834:
5676:
5552:
5502:
5377:
5372:
3611:
3127:
News & Alerts – California Dept. of Justice – Office of the Attorney General
3107:
News & Alerts – California Dept. of Justice – Office of the Attorney General
2689:
2644:
2592:
2568:
2424:
2376:
2357:
2349:
2228:
2177:
2157:
2080:
1824:
1750:
1640:
1539:
762:
678:
651:
598:
properties of brass, have made it the usual metal of choice for construction of
488:
176:
Brass is still commonly used in applications where corrosion resistance and low
154:
150:
3538:
3491:
2656:
in the final stages. Triangular crucibles were then used to melt the brass for
578:
6078:
6023:
5898:
5811:
5779:
5769:
5671:
5620:
5557:
5532:
5407:
4504:
2748:
2560:
2501:
2486:
2470:
2439:
2428:
2223:
2189:
2161:
2109:
2025:
1997:
1934:
1668:
1660:
1632:
876:
821:
785:
647:
635:
441:
197:
127:
4474:"Unusual Metal Recovered from Ancient Greek Shipwreck – Archaeology Magazine"
3909:
Woldman’s Engineering Alloys, 9th Edition 1936, American Society for Metals,
2751:
copper, produced by pouring molten metal into cold water. This increased the
1207:
Heat exchangers, plumbing requiring excellent corrosion resistance in water.
6224:
6217:
6088:
6083:
6063:
5988:
5913:
5907:
5888:
5784:
5725:
5640:
5537:
5472:
5447:
5437:
5367:
5346:
5304:
Archaeology, History and Science: Integrating Approaches to Ancient Material
2804:
2792:
2628:
2540:
2341:
2288:
2217:
2133:
2068:
1989:
1521:
1281:
1176:
781:
777:
769:
714:
689:
643:
603:
595:
591:
587:
433:
336:
135:
131:
58:
5188:"Scientific examination of zinc-distillation remains from Warmley, Bristol"
4852:
4715:
3779:
3717:
3668:
3499:
2635:, where the metal was regarded as a more valuable material than in Europe.
2375:
These places would remain important centres of brass making throughout the
2199:
By the first century BC brass was available in sufficient supply to use as
1600:
Naval brass with added lead for machinability. Also known as 485, or C485.
1498:
Light golden colour, very ductile; used for flexible metal hoses and metal
3758:
Bradley, A. J.; Thewlis, J. (1 October 1926). "The Structure of γ-Brass".
2930:
2539:. Albertus Magnus noted that the "power" of both calamine and tutty could
2360:
and there is archaeological and historical evidence for the production of
2235:
communities in Palestine because of its association with Roman authority.
396:
significant lead leaching from brasses of comparatively low lead content.
391:
than the other constituents of the brass, it tends to migrate towards the
6292:
6266:
6255:
6192:
6119:
6058:
6048:
6043:
6003:
5943:
5933:
5893:
5875:
5864:
5859:
5774:
5730:
5615:
5610:
5547:
5487:
5477:
5442:
5417:
5392:
5387:
4372:"orichalc – definition of orichalc in English from the Oxford dictionary"
3699:
3650:
3394:"Copper in the Arts Magazine – August 2007: The Art of Brass Instruments"
2692:
in Germany were exploited for cementation brass making from around 1550.
2596:
2556:
2548:
2528:
2467:
2408:
2353:
2345:
2240:
2227:. The uniform use of brass for coinage and military equipment across the
2208:
2009:
1950:
1816:
1401:
825:
758:
701:
659:
619:
458:
437:
340:
313:
285:
Today, almost 90% of all brass alloys are recycled. Because brass is not
232:. The composition of brass makes it a favorable substitute for copper in
205:
177:
17:
4491:
Craddock, P. T.; Cowell, M.; Stead, I. (2004). "Britain's first brass".
3077:
Metals in America's Historic Buildings: Uses and Preservation Treatments
2652:
with clay plugs near the end of the process presumably to maximize zinc
2619:
and other Western collections, and the large portrait heads such as the
2462:
rather than zinc ores for brass-making, resulting in a metal with lower
6287:
6197:
6109:
6018:
5983:
5968:
5953:
5938:
5928:
5801:
5735:
5686:
5625:
5482:
5457:
5422:
2788:
2780:
2744:
2732:
2712:
2657:
2648:
2600:
2564:
2532:
2520:
2485:
or iron bars, archaeological examples of which have been identified at
2412:
2392:
2337:
2268:
2256:
2204:
2181:
2065:
1973:, the direct alloying of copper and zinc metal which was introduced to
1970:
1499:
1172:
861:
849:
705:
674:
627:
348:
344:
282:
of brass is 8.4 to 8.73 g/cm (0.303 to 0.315 lb/cu in).
279:
181:
139:
119:
69:
4877:
Analysis of Copper alloy artefacts from Pagan Norse Graves in Scotland
2431:
were typically made in brass in both the European and Islamic worlds.
2348:
and other mixed alloys but by about 1000 brass artefacts are found in
1980:
Brass has sometimes historically been referred to as "yellow copper".
1578:
Similar to admiralty brass. Also known as Tobin bronze, 464, or C464.
1235:
as it was cheaper than steel at the time as a cost-effective measure.
844:
6187:
6093:
6053:
6028:
5963:
5948:
5844:
5829:
5824:
5740:
5691:
5681:
5397:
5362:
4744:
Bachmann, H. (1976). "Crucibles from a Roman Settlement in Germany".
4689:"Small Size, Large Scale Roman Brass Production in Germania Inferior"
4314:"The Emergence and Development of Brass Smelting Techniques in China"
4040:"C23000 Copper Alloys (Red Brass, C230) Material Property Data Sheet"
3563:
2724:
2681:
2509:
2420:
2416:
2404:
2380:
2276:
2264:
2248:
2232:
2185:
2173:
2165:
2101:
2037:
1974:
1833:
1692:
1525:
754:
746:
738:
631:
607:
445:
387:
is often added in concentrations of about 2%. Since lead has a lower
356:
201:
107:
92:
3151:
Mateel Environmental Justice Foundation v. Ilco Unican Corp., et al.
1327:
Dezincification resistant brass with a small percentage of arsenic.
5106:
5104:
4839:
Ponting, M. (1999). "East Meets West in Post-Classical Bet'shan'".
4339:
4337:
4335:
6166:
6156:
6146:
6129:
6124:
6114:
6073:
5903:
5883:
5751:
5492:
5467:
5412:
2776:
2696:
2677:
2578:
2544:
2490:
2459:
2433:
2333:
2303:
2153:
2145:
2119:
2085:
2076:
2056:
conditions. Many have similar tin contents to contemporary bronze
2053:
2045:
2041:
2033:
1942:
1938:
1452:
1448:
1030:
Other phases than α, β and γ are ε, a hexagonal intermetallic CuZn
873:
843:
681:
670:
577:
419:
326:
254:
213:
185:
158:
88:
63:
49:
2947:
brass – casting, 8400–8700... brass – rolled and drawn, 8430–8730
2571:, and have slag on the interior resulting from a liquid process.
1687:
Determined from 39 ingots recovered from an ancient shipwreck in
6038:
6013:
6008:
5958:
5720:
2736:
2482:
2463:
2272:
2260:
2200:
2149:
2125:
2029:
2001:
1941:
which reacted with copper to make brass was not recognized as a
1688:
1475:
750:
742:
623:
611:
384:
317:
270:
Brass is more malleable than bronze or zinc. The relatively low
243:
Brass is often used in situations in which it is important that
189:
123:
96:
5319:
5035:
on the British Museum collection database. Accessed 26 May 2014
2931:"Mass, Weight, Density or Specific Gravity of Different Metals"
1284:
properties. Used for ammunition cases, plumbing, and hardware.
375:
less noble metal will corrode and the brass will be protected.
4920:
Noel Stratford, pp. 232, 245, in Zarnecki, George and others;
4318:
Bulletin of the Metals Museum of the Japan Institute of Metals
4017:
National Pollutant Inventory – Copper and compounds fact sheet
3205:"Corrosion-Resistant (DZR or CR) Brass For Harsh Environments"
1954:
1345:
1–3% iron with the balance consisting of various other metals.
482:
111:
2466:
impurities. A number of Islamic writers and the 13th century
2104:
ore deposits which had been exhausted by the 1st century AD.
1815:
Both an American term for the copper-zinc-tin alloy known as
370:, the resulting brass alloy does not experience internalized
5315:
4798:
Dungworth, D (1996). "Caley's 'Zinc Decline' reconsidered".
4565:
Craddock and Eckstein 2003, pp. 222–224. Bayley 1990, p. 10.
4115:... Red brass typically has 5 percent to 10 percent zinc ...
3734:
Copper and Bronze in Art: Corrosion, Colorants, Conservation
2048:
from the 1st century AD, long after bronze was widely used.
30:"Arsenical brass" redirects here. Not to be confused with
3185:
Requirements for Low Lead Plumbing Products in California
2695:
Eventually it was discovered that metallic zinc could be
5248:
Day 1991, pp. 192–93, Craddock and Eckstein 2003, p. 228
3582:"355 Copper Alloys Now Approved by EPA as Antimicrobial"
2707:
from England may have been made by alloying copper with
2243:
used to produce brass by cementation have been found on
1873:
Used as an alternative for investment cast steel parts.
5089:
Martinon Torres and Rehren 2008, 181–82, de Ruette 1995
2715:
similar to those found in some zinc ingots from China.
1534:
coins. Other manganese brass alloy compositions exist.
510:
4034:
4032:
3369:"Here's Why Alloys Can Change the Properties of Brass"
2356:, brass was being used in the manufacture of coins in
3018:"Pub 117 The Brasses – Properties & Applications"
1850:
Often used in jewelry applications. Many variations.
3928:
3926:
3924:
3922:
2762:
patented a technique for the first industrial scale
506:
366:
Although copper and zinc have a large difference in
6237:
6180:
6102:
5873:
5810:
5749:
5711:
5704:
5664:
5566:
5520:
5513:
5353:
4186:in La Niece, S. Hook, D. and Craddock, P.T. (eds.)
4177:"Of brass and bronze in prehistoric southwest Asia"
3684:"Bacterial Killing by Dry Metallic Copper Surfaces"
2075:translation of this term, was later adapted to the
1370:Also called 360 or C360 brass. High machinability.
1053:
1050:
908:
4066:
3161:
3159:
2960:
2908:Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety
2747:brass maker Nehemiah Champion patented the use of
471:requires brasses with more than 15% zinc, used in
5207:
5205:
5136:
5134:
3467:Noyce, J. O.; Michels, H.; Keevil, C. W. (2006).
3416:
3414:
2599:castings of West Africa, mostly from what is now
2324:. Disruption in the trade of tin for bronze from
1419:E.g. British Admiralty gunmetal. Has variations.
892:the cases, and storing the cartridges elsewhere.
658:", many in variously sized families, such as the
3421:"EPA registers copper-containing alloy products"
3175:. Info.sen.ca.gov. Retrieved on 9 December 2011.
2389:baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège
2383:. Brass objects are still collectively known as
2315:baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège
788:are also sometimes made of brass. Some parts on
416:Corrosion-resistant brass for harsh environments
4582:. British Museum Occasional Papers 18 pp. 53–64
2395:(before 1117) is an outstanding masterpiece of
2296:used in the Roman world by the 4th century AD.
1933:Although forms of brass have been in use since
824:. Depending upon the type and concentration of
590:and workability, relatively good resistance to
424:Brass sampling cock with stainless steel handle
4527:Metals and mines: Studies in archaeometallurgy
4443:"Atlantis' Legendary Metal Found in Shipwreck"
4214:. London: British Museum Occasional Papers 109
4188:Metals and mines: Studies in archaeometallurgy
3612:"Doorknobs: A Source of Nosocomial Infection?"
2611:. Though normally described as "bronzes", the
828:and the medium they are in, brass kills these
5331:
4784:
4782:
4763:
4761:
4759:
3968:. Kormax Engineering Supplies. Archived from
3867:"70/30 Arsinical Brass Alloy 259, UNS-C26130"
2180:seems to have recognized a link between zinc
1034:, and η, a solid solution of copper in zinc.
677:are made of some variety of brass, usually a
432:or DR) brasses, sometimes referred to as CR (
8:
5270:Mining and Metal Production Through the Ages
5016:Rehren and Martinon Torres 2008, pp. 173–175
5007:Rehren and Martinon Torres 2008, pp. 176–178
4746:Journal of the Historical Metallurgy Society
4248:Rehren and Martinon Torres 2008, pp. 170–175
4237:Mining and Metal Production Through the Ages
3897:"Doehler-Jarvis Company Collection, MSS-202"
3050:"Is Brass Magnetic? What Is Magnetic Brass?"
515:introducing citations to additional sources
5053:Martinon Torres and Rehren 2002, pp. 105–06
5044:Martinon Torres and Rehren 2002, pp. 95–111
4767:Rehren and Martinon Torres 2008, pp. 170–71
4231:
4229:
4026:. Npi.gov.au. Retrieved on 9 December 2011.
2891:' most of which are actually made of brass.
2543:and described how the addition of powdered
2092:as rare and nearly as valuable as gold and
704:. For the same reason, some low clarinets,
686:nickel silver (also known as German silver)
618:, or simply 'the brass', these include the
5708:
5517:
5338:
5324:
5316:
2631:and other West African traditions such as
2587:", actually of "heavily leaded zinc-brass"
1041:
832:within a few minutes to hours of contact.
444:) play a role. DZR-brass is used in water
3707:
3658:
3547:
3537:
2504:describes a more complex process whereby
802:Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces
796:Germicidal and antimicrobial applications
4100:"Plumbing problems may continue to grow"
2215:of 23 BC it was also used to make Roman
1474:An alpha-beta brass with an addition of
899:
505:Relevant discussion may be found on the
5080:Martinon Torres and Rehren 2002, p. 100
5071:Martinon Torres and Rehren 2002, p. 104
5062:Martinon Torres and Rehren 2002, p. 103
4924:, 1984, Arts Council of Great Britain,
4598:. New York; American Numismatic Society
4392:Rehren and Martinon Torres 2008, p. 169
4166:. (PDF) . Retrieved on 9 December 2011.
2825:
2727:alone was capable of producing 300,000
2663:16th-century technical writers such as
2623:of "heavily leaded zinc-brass" and the
2551:dating to the 10th century AD and from
1308:. Cheap and standard for cold working.
868:after it was first discovered in brass
692:, especially low clarinets such as the
383:To enhance the machinability of brass,
297:, though there are exceptions to this.
5186:Dungworth, D. & White, H. (2007).
4940:Craddock and Eckstein 2003, pp. 224–25
4682:
4680:
4590:
4588:
4472:Jessica E. Saraceni (7 January 2015).
3861:
3859:
3837:"Aluminum Brass Arsenical, UNS C68700"
3688:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
3639:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
2866:. The Industrial Press. 1921. p.
2680:from India and China were arriving in
440:present or deviating water qualities (
4596:Orichalcum and Related Ancient Alloys
4538:Craddock and Eckstein 2003, pp. 216–7
3998:from the original on 28 November 2022
3564:"TouchSurfaces Clinical Trials: Home"
3462:
3460:
3440:
3438:
3436:
3166:AB 1953 Assembly Bill – Bill Analysis
1916:An American term for 33% zinc brass.
405:a higher percentage of lead content.
7:
4673:from the original on 9 October 2022.
4239:. London: British Museum, pp. 226–27
4073:. McGraw–Hill Professional. p.
2639:Renaissance and post-medieval Europe
2020:and from 2nd millennium BC sites in
1073:Abyssinian gold (Commercial bronze )
5284:The Industrial Revolution in Metals
5128:Craddock and Eckstein 2003, 226–27.
4223:Cruden's Complete Concordance p. 55
4132:. Adlard Coles. 2011. p. 125.
3272:from the original on 9 October 2022
3147:People v. Ilco Unican Corp., et al.
2591:Some of the most famous objects in
2168:, describes how heating earth from
2040:. Isolated examples of copper-zinc
1827:(Cu 85.0, Zn 5.0, Pb 5.0, Sn 5.0).
1530:Used as cladding for United States
765:" are also commonly made of brass.
475:, to be dezincification-resistant.
5286:. London: The Institute of Metals.
5167:Craddock and Eckstein 2003, p. 227
4788:Craddock and Eckstein 2003, p. 224
4547:Craddock and Eckstein 2003, p. 217
3992:"C48500 Naval Brass "High Leaded""
3809:Joseph R. Davis (1 January 2001).
2959:M. F. Ashby; Kara Johnson (2002).
2473:describe how this was obtained by
2415:with an unusually large amount of
1965:process, the product of which was
1623:The outer ring of the bi-metallic
808:Antimicrobial properties of copper
25:
4922:English Romanesque Art, 1066–1200
4841:Journal of Archaeological Science
4696:Journal of Archaeological Science
4580:Scientific Studies in Numismatics
4404:Journal of Archaeological Science
4343:Craddock and Eckstein 2003 p. 217
4258:Chen, Hailian (3 December 2018).
2967:. Butterworth-Heinemann. p.
2904:"Hand Tools – Non-sparking tools"
2887:their popular name, such as 'The
2684:and pellets of zinc condensed in
883:. The problem was caused by high
776:, also often made from brass. In
582:A collection of brass instruments
5223:Journal of Historical Metallurgy
4989:Oxford: Archaeopress pp. 252–257
4190:London: Archetype Publications.
4129:Surveying Yachts and Small Craft
3966:"464 Naval Brass (Tobin Bronze)"
3877:from the original on 8 June 2023
3815:. ASM International. p. 7.
3760:Proceedings of the Royal Society
3016:Copper Development Association.
3002:Newnes Engineer's Reference Book
2937:. United Kingdom: SImetric.co.uk
2061:in a distinctive golden colour.
1684:Trace amounts of nickel and iron
498:relies largely or entirely on a
487:
410:pipe fittings, plumbing fittings
5110:Craddock and Eckstein 2003, 228
4998:Craddock and Eckstein 2003, 226
4958:Craddock et al. 1990, pp. 73–76
4829:. London: British Museum, p. 73
4529:. London: Archetype, pp. 136–40
1396:bullets. Almost red in colour.
594:, and traditionally attributed
110:, a copper alloy that contains
4285:Humphreys, Henry Noel (1897).
4098:Jeff Pope (23 February 2009).
3952:Copper Development Association
3588:. 28 June 2011. Archived from
3473:in the healthcare environment"
3145:San Francisco Superior Court,
1:
4638:10.1111/1475-4754.t01-1-00086
4449:. 10 May 2017. Archived from
3480:Journal of Hospital Infection
3346:National Bronze Manufacturing
3005:. George Newnes. p. 594.
2999:Frederick James Camm (1949).
1793:Sometimes called "red brass"
1769:Sometimes called "red brass"
1659:Used in 10, 20, and 50 cents
1583:Naval brass, high lead (C485)
339:in the presence of moisture,
220:. It is used extensively for
72:with an eagle. Attributed to
5277:2000 Years of Zinc and Brass
5263:2000 Years of Zinc and Brass
4827:2000 Years of Zinc and Brass
4416:10.1016/0305-4403(78)90015-8
2192:) was found on the walls of
2128:in brass with copper inlay,
1798:Red brass, Rose brass (C230)
1741:, the alloy was named after
1478:for improved machinability.
848:Cracking in brass caused by
812:Copper alloys in aquaculture
473:piping and plumbing fittings
218:electrical plugs and sockets
4976:Craddock et al. 1990, p. 76
4967:Craddock et al. 1990, p. 75
2882:"copper alloy (Scope note)"
2863:Bearings and bearing metals
1557:Used as a lining on boats.
1353:Free machining brass (C360)
1204:Arsenic 0.2-0.6, Iron ≤0.05
428:Dezincification-resistant (
165:machines), durability, and
6360:
4302:Thornton 2007, pp. 189–201
3948:"The Presidential Dollars"
3539:10.1186/1753-6561-5-S6-O53
3492:10.1016/j.jhin.2005.12.008
2768:distillation per descencum
2766:of metallic zinc known as
2064:By the 8th–7th century BC
1926:
1743:Prince Rupert of the Rhine
1240:California lead-free brass
805:
799:
747:orchestral (tubular) bells
479:Use in musical instruments
266:brass (400× magnification)
40:
29:
6275:
5279:. London: British Museum.
5272:. London: British Museum.
5265:. London: British Museum.
5031:20 September 2016 at the
4891:Metallurgy in Numismatics
4505:10.1017/S000358150004587X
4182:24 September 2015 at the
3610:Kuhn, Phyllis J. (1983).
3171:25 September 2009 at the
2835:30(3): 6–9, May–July 2004
2625:Bronze Head of Queen Idia
2211:, and after the Augustan
2184:and brass describing how
1048:Proportion by weight (%)
1047:
1044:
906:Proportion by weight (%)
905:
902:
858:stress corrosion cracking
610:and its alloys, and even
457:Another such material is
402:California Proposition 65
4949:Craddock et al. 1990, 78
3812:Copper and Copper Alloys
3731:Scott, David A. (2002).
3617:16 February 2012 at the
3263:Metal Alloys Corporation
2603:, produced first by the
2496:described how spreading
1984:Early copper-zinc alloys
879:during the 1920s in the
856:Brass is susceptible to
27:Alloy of copper and zinc
5840:Nickel silver (alpacca)
4324:: 87–98. Archived from
4175:Thornton, C. P. (2007)
3568:coppertouchsurfaces.org
3321:Encyclopædia Britannica
3317:"Gunmetal | metallurgy"
3113:26 October 2008 at the
2758:In 1738 Nehemiah's son
1929:Art in bronze and brass
1631:sterling coins and the
4853:10.1006/jasc.1998.0373
4716:10.1006/jasc.1999.0402
4376:oxforddictionaries.com
3994:. Aviva Metals. 2023.
3794:A Dictionary of Alloys
3792:Simons, E. N. (1970).
3780:10.1098/rspa.1926.0134
3737:. Getty Publications.
3342:"What is Naval Brass?"
3190:2 October 2009 at the
2773:scientific instruments
2711:and include traces of
2588:
2447:
2401:Gloucester Candlestick
2317:
2137:
1259:Cartridge brass (C260)
1112:in many environments.
995:intermetallic compound
853:
735:percussion instruments
583:
425:
332:
267:
180:are required, such as
81:
61:
43:Brass (disambiguation)
6339:History of metallurgy
6181:Other natural objects
5292:Historical Metallurgy
5239:Day 1991, pp. 186–189
5192:Historical Metallurgy
5176:Day 1991, pp. 179–181
5149:Day 1991, pp. 135–144
5119:de Ruette 1995, 198–9
4911:Day 1990, pp. 124–133
4902:Day 1990, pp. 123–150
4594:Caley, E. R. (1964).
4312:Zhou Weirong (2001).
4162:8 August 2007 at the
4065:Ammen, C. W. (2000).
3934:"Brass Product Guide"
3871:Austral Wright Metals
3471:Staphylococcus aureus
3451:Tube and Pipe Journal
3426:29 April 2015 at the
3292:"Red Brass/Gunmetals"
2815:List of copper alloys
2741:reverberatory furnace
2582:
2437:
2307:
2123:
1994:Eastern Mediterranean
1977:in the 16th century.
1927:Further information:
1739:Prince Rupert's metal
1227:Copper, Silicon, Zinc
847:
753:are normally made of
581:
423:
330:
258:
78:Limburg (Netherlands)
67:
53:
5656:Wire wrapped jewelry
5636:Repoussé and chasing
4816:Craddock 1978, p. 14
4800:Numismatic Chronicle
4651:Ponting, M. (2002).
4617:Ponting, M. (2002).
4022:2 March 2008 at the
3700:10.1128/AEM.01599-10
3651:10.1128/AEM.01938-07
3520:Schmidt, MG (2011).
2935:Density of Materials
2851:, Edition 24, p. 501
2833:Engineering Designer
2723:the Germany city of
2621:Bronze Head from Ife
2615:, now mostly in the
2585:Bronze Head from Ife
2313:on the 12th-century
2281:solid state reaction
2124:7th-century Persian
2006:United Arab Emirates
511:improve this article
368:electrical potential
331:Binary phase diagram
171:thermal conductivity
106:Brass is similar to
101:substitutional alloy
41:For other uses, see
6198:Ebonite (vulcanite)
5306:. Left Coast Press.
5098:de Ruette 1995, 198
4987:Metals in antiquity
4725:on 10 December 2004
4708:1999JArSc..26.1083R
4493:Antiquaries Journal
4328:on 25 January 2012.
3772:1926RSPSA.112..678B
3622:Diagnostic Medicine
3509:on 17 January 2012.
3109:. 12 October 1999.
2477:from zinc ores and
2379:period, especially
1821:copper alloy C23000
1775:copper alloy C23000
1190:Arsenical brass 259
881:British Indian Army
774:free reed aerophone
600:musical instruments
222:musical instruments
5543:Jewellery designer
5255:General references
4865:Bayley 1990, p. 22
4687:Rehren, T (1999).
4607:Bayley 1990, p. 21
4430:Historia Naturalis
4382:on 9 January 2015.
3798:Cornell University
3586:Appliance Magazine
3133:2008-10-26 at the
3054:Scrap Metal Junkie
3030:on 30 October 2012
2884:. British Museum.
2845:Machinery Handbook
2589:
2448:
2446:, Germany, c. 1250
2318:
2138:
2130:Walters Art Museum
2106:X-ray fluorescence
1790:minimum 0.05% iron
1562:Naval brass (C464)
963:body-centred cubic
948:Alpha-beta brasses
933:face-centred cubic
860:, especially from
854:
654:, and many other "
584:
426:
372:galvanic corrosion
333:
268:
82:
62:
55:Islamic Golden Age
6316:
6315:
6233:
6232:
6103:Organic gemstones
5700:
5699:
4847:(10): 1311–1321.
4556:Bayley 1990, p. 9
4361:Bayley 1990, p. 8
4271:978-90-04-38304-3
4208:Gaimster, D. R. M
4084:978-0-07-134246-9
3972:on 17 August 2020
3915:978-0-87170-691-1
3822:978-0-87170-726-0
3149:(No. 307102) and
3129:. 27 April 2001.
2978:978-0-7506-5554-5
2910:. 1 December 2017
2366:the Low Countries
2310:Baptism of Christ
1953:zinc-rich copper
1920:
1919:
1394:full metal jacket
1028:
1027:
936:crystal structure
885:residual stresses
616:brass instruments
576:
575:
561:
469:NSF International
16:(Redirected from
6351:
5760:Britannia silver
5709:
5518:
5340:
5333:
5326:
5317:
5299:
5249:
5246:
5240:
5237:
5231:
5230:
5218:
5212:
5211:Day 1991, p. 183
5209:
5200:
5199:
5183:
5177:
5174:
5168:
5165:
5159:
5158:Day 1990, p. 138
5156:
5150:
5147:
5141:
5140:Day 1990, p. 131
5138:
5129:
5126:
5120:
5117:
5111:
5108:
5099:
5096:
5090:
5087:
5081:
5078:
5072:
5069:
5063:
5060:
5054:
5051:
5045:
5042:
5036:
5023:
5017:
5014:
5008:
5005:
4999:
4996:
4990:
4983:
4977:
4974:
4968:
4965:
4959:
4956:
4950:
4947:
4941:
4938:
4932:
4918:
4912:
4909:
4903:
4900:
4894:
4887:
4881:
4880:
4872:
4866:
4863:
4857:
4856:
4836:
4830:
4823:
4817:
4814:
4808:
4807:
4795:
4789:
4786:
4777:
4774:
4768:
4765:
4754:
4753:
4741:
4735:
4734:
4732:
4730:
4724:
4718:. Archived from
4702:(8): 1083–1087.
4693:
4684:
4675:
4674:
4672:
4657:
4648:
4642:
4641:
4623:
4614:
4608:
4605:
4599:
4592:
4583:
4572:
4566:
4563:
4557:
4554:
4548:
4545:
4539:
4536:
4530:
4523:
4517:
4516:
4488:
4482:
4481:
4469:
4463:
4462:
4460:
4458:
4439:
4433:
4428:Pliny the Elder
4426:
4420:
4419:
4399:
4393:
4390:
4384:
4383:
4378:. Archived from
4368:
4362:
4359:
4353:
4350:
4344:
4341:
4330:
4329:
4309:
4303:
4300:
4294:
4293:
4282:
4276:
4275:
4255:
4249:
4246:
4240:
4233:
4224:
4221:
4215:
4204:
4198:
4173:
4167:
4154:
4148:
4147:
4124:
4118:
4117:
4112:
4110:
4095:
4089:
4088:
4072:
4062:
4056:
4055:
4053:
4051:
4046:on 30 March 2010
4042:. Archived from
4036:
4027:
4014:
4008:
4007:
4005:
4003:
3988:
3982:
3981:
3979:
3977:
3962:
3956:
3955:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3930:
3917:
3907:
3901:
3900:
3893:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3882:
3863:
3854:
3853:
3851:
3849:
3833:
3827:
3826:
3806:
3800:
3790:
3784:
3783:
3766:(762): 678–692.
3755:
3749:
3748:
3728:
3722:
3721:
3711:
3679:
3673:
3672:
3662:
3630:
3624:
3608:
3602:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3578:
3572:
3571:
3560:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3541:
3532:(Suppl 6): O53.
3517:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3502:. Archived from
3477:
3464:
3455:
3454:
3442:
3431:
3418:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3390:
3384:
3383:
3381:
3379:
3364:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3353:
3338:
3332:
3331:
3329:
3327:
3313:
3307:
3306:
3304:
3302:
3288:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3271:
3260:
3256:"Specifications"
3252:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3241:
3227:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3201:
3195:
3182:
3176:
3163:
3154:
3143:
3137:
3124:
3118:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3088:
3082:
3081:
3072:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3061:
3056:. 1 January 2020
3046:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3035:
3029:
3023:. Archived from
3022:
3013:
3007:
3006:
2996:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2966:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2944:
2942:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2917:
2915:
2900:
2894:
2893:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2858:
2852:
2849:Industrial Press
2842:
2836:
2830:
2760:William Champion
2633:Akan goldweights
2368:, areas rich in
2247:sites including
1947:King James Bible
1890:
1832:Rich low brass,
1443:and is used for
1441:tensile strength
1274:
1181:Used for boiler
1042:
900:
790:electric guitars
749:(large "church"
667:wind instruments
571:
568:
562:
560:
519:
491:
483:
393:grain boundaries
361:copper carbonate
36:arsenical copper
32:arsenical bronze
21:
6359:
6358:
6354:
6353:
6352:
6350:
6349:
6348:
6319:
6318:
6317:
6312:
6271:
6229:
6218:Spondylus shell
6176:
6098:
5869:
5855:Stainless steel
5806:
5790:Sterling silver
5750:Precious metal
5745:
5713:Precious metals
5696:
5660:
5562:
5509:
5349:
5344:
5314:
5309:
5289:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5243:
5238:
5234:
5220:
5219:
5215:
5210:
5203:
5185:
5184:
5180:
5175:
5171:
5166:
5162:
5157:
5153:
5148:
5144:
5139:
5132:
5127:
5123:
5118:
5114:
5109:
5102:
5097:
5093:
5088:
5084:
5079:
5075:
5070:
5066:
5061:
5057:
5052:
5048:
5043:
5039:
5033:Wayback Machine
5024:
5020:
5015:
5011:
5006:
5002:
4997:
4993:
4984:
4980:
4975:
4971:
4966:
4962:
4957:
4953:
4948:
4944:
4939:
4935:
4919:
4915:
4910:
4906:
4901:
4897:
4888:
4884:
4874:
4873:
4869:
4864:
4860:
4838:
4837:
4833:
4824:
4820:
4815:
4811:
4797:
4796:
4792:
4787:
4780:
4775:
4771:
4766:
4757:
4743:
4742:
4738:
4728:
4726:
4722:
4691:
4686:
4685:
4678:
4670:
4655:
4650:
4649:
4645:
4621:
4616:
4615:
4611:
4606:
4602:
4593:
4586:
4573:
4569:
4564:
4560:
4555:
4551:
4546:
4542:
4537:
4533:
4524:
4520:
4490:
4489:
4485:
4478:archaeology.org
4471:
4470:
4466:
4456:
4454:
4441:
4440:
4436:
4427:
4423:
4401:
4400:
4396:
4391:
4387:
4370:
4369:
4365:
4360:
4356:
4351:
4347:
4342:
4333:
4311:
4310:
4306:
4301:
4297:
4284:
4283:
4279:
4272:
4257:
4256:
4252:
4247:
4243:
4234:
4227:
4222:
4218:
4205:
4201:
4184:Wayback Machine
4174:
4170:
4164:Wayback Machine
4155:
4151:
4140:
4126:
4125:
4121:
4108:
4106:
4097:
4096:
4092:
4085:
4064:
4063:
4059:
4049:
4047:
4038:
4037:
4030:
4024:Wayback Machine
4015:
4011:
4001:
3999:
3990:
3989:
3985:
3975:
3973:
3964:
3963:
3959:
3946:
3945:
3941:
3932:
3931:
3920:
3908:
3904:
3895:
3894:
3890:
3880:
3878:
3865:
3864:
3857:
3847:
3845:
3835:
3834:
3830:
3823:
3808:
3807:
3803:
3791:
3787:
3757:
3756:
3752:
3745:
3730:
3729:
3725:
3681:
3680:
3676:
3632:
3631:
3627:
3619:Wayback Machine
3609:
3605:
3595:
3593:
3592:on 18 July 2011
3580:
3579:
3575:
3562:
3561:
3557:
3526:BMC Proceedings
3519:
3518:
3514:
3506:
3475:
3466:
3465:
3458:
3444:
3443:
3434:
3428:Wayback Machine
3419:
3412:
3402:
3400:
3392:
3391:
3387:
3377:
3375:
3367:Bell, Terence.
3366:
3365:
3361:
3351:
3349:
3340:
3339:
3335:
3325:
3323:
3315:
3314:
3310:
3300:
3298:
3290:
3289:
3285:
3275:
3273:
3269:
3258:
3254:
3253:
3249:
3239:
3237:
3235:Ocean Footprint
3229:
3228:
3224:
3214:
3212:
3203:
3202:
3198:
3192:Wayback Machine
3183:
3179:
3173:Wayback Machine
3164:
3157:
3144:
3140:
3135:Wayback Machine
3125:
3121:
3115:Wayback Machine
3105:
3101:
3090:
3089:
3085:
3074:
3073:
3069:
3059:
3057:
3048:
3047:
3043:
3033:
3031:
3027:
3020:
3015:
3014:
3010:
2998:
2997:
2993:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2958:
2957:
2953:
2940:
2938:
2929:Walker, Roger.
2928:
2927:
2923:
2913:
2911:
2902:
2901:
2897:
2880:
2879:
2875:
2860:
2859:
2855:
2843:
2839:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2801:
2785:costume jewelry
2641:
2577:
2517:Albertus Magnus
2508:was mixed with
2387:in French. The
2364:in Germany and
2332:artefacts from
2302:
2300:Medieval period
2213:currency reform
2148:in the west to
2118:
2108:analysis of 39
1986:
1931:
1925:
1888:
1507:Manganese brass
1272:
1161:Arsenical brass
1140:Aluminium brass
1092:Admiralty brass
1040:
1033:
1004:
1000:
898:
866:season cracking
842:
840:Season cracking
814:
804:
798:
737:, most notably
602:whose acoustic
572:
566:
563:
520:
518:
504:
492:
481:
418:
381:
311:
307:
302:aluminium oxide
253:
238:fashion jewelry
234:costume jewelry
74:Aert van Tricht
46:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6357:
6355:
6347:
6346:
6341:
6336:
6331:
6321:
6320:
6314:
6313:
6311:
6310:
6305:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6280:
6279:Related topics
6276:
6273:
6272:
6270:
6269:
6264:
6259:
6253:
6247:
6241:
6239:
6235:
6234:
6231:
6230:
6228:
6227:
6222:
6221:
6220:
6210:
6205:
6200:
6195:
6190:
6184:
6182:
6178:
6177:
6175:
6174:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6143:
6142:
6137:
6127:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6106:
6104:
6100:
6099:
6097:
6096:
6091:
6086:
6081:
6076:
6071:
6066:
6061:
6056:
6051:
6046:
6041:
6036:
6026:
6021:
6016:
6011:
6006:
6001:
5996:
5991:
5986:
5981:
5976:
5971:
5966:
5961:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5941:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5921:
5916:
5911:
5901:
5896:
5891:
5886:
5880:
5878:
5871:
5870:
5868:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5816:
5814:
5808:
5807:
5805:
5804:
5799:
5798:
5797:
5787:
5782:
5777:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5756:
5754:
5747:
5746:
5744:
5743:
5738:
5733:
5728:
5723:
5717:
5715:
5706:
5702:
5701:
5698:
5697:
5695:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5674:
5668:
5666:
5662:
5661:
5659:
5658:
5653:
5651:Wire sculpture
5648:
5643:
5638:
5633:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5613:
5608:
5603:
5598:
5597:
5596:
5591:
5586:
5576:
5570:
5568:
5564:
5563:
5561:
5560:
5555:
5550:
5545:
5540:
5535:
5530:
5524:
5522:
5515:
5511:
5510:
5508:
5507:
5506:
5505:
5500:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5430:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5359:
5357:
5351:
5350:
5345:
5343:
5342:
5335:
5328:
5320:
5313:
5312:External links
5310:
5308:
5307:
5300:
5287:
5280:
5273:
5266:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5250:
5241:
5232:
5213:
5201:
5178:
5169:
5160:
5151:
5142:
5130:
5121:
5112:
5100:
5091:
5082:
5073:
5064:
5055:
5046:
5037:
5026:"The Ife Head"
5018:
5009:
5000:
4991:
4978:
4969:
4960:
4951:
4942:
4933:
4913:
4904:
4895:
4882:
4867:
4858:
4831:
4818:
4809:
4790:
4778:
4769:
4755:
4736:
4676:
4643:
4632:(4): 555–571.
4609:
4600:
4584:
4567:
4558:
4549:
4540:
4531:
4518:
4483:
4464:
4453:on 17 May 2016
4434:
4421:
4394:
4385:
4363:
4354:
4345:
4331:
4304:
4295:
4277:
4270:
4250:
4241:
4225:
4216:
4199:
4168:
4157:Print Layout 1
4149:
4138:
4119:
4090:
4083:
4057:
4028:
4009:
3983:
3957:
3939:
3918:
3902:
3888:
3855:
3828:
3821:
3801:
3785:
3750:
3743:
3723:
3694:(3): 794–802.
3674:
3625:
3603:
3573:
3555:
3512:
3486:(3): 289–297.
3456:
3432:
3410:
3385:
3359:
3333:
3308:
3283:
3247:
3222:
3196:
3177:
3155:
3138:
3119:
3099:
3083:
3067:
3041:
3008:
2991:
2977:
2951:
2921:
2895:
2873:
2853:
2837:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2800:
2797:
2701:Johann Glauber
2676:metallic zinc
2640:
2637:
2617:British Museum
2605:Kingdom of Ife
2583:12th century "
2576:
2573:
2362:calamine brass
2326:Western Europe
2301:
2298:
2136:, Maryland, US
2117:
2114:
2100:had come from
2096:describes how
1985:
1982:
1967:calamine brass
1924:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1898:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1875:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1856:Silicon tombac
1852:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1829:
1828:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1795:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1722:Prince's metal
1719:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1665:
1664:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1580:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1558:
1555:
1554:Traces of iron
1552:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1536:
1535:
1528:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1504:
1503:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1480:
1479:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1457:
1456:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1372:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1350:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1329:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1310:
1309:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1286:
1285:
1278:
1276:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1249:< 0.25
1247:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1237:
1236:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1209:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1187:
1186:
1179:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1113:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1070:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1039:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1025:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1007:
1006:
1002:
998:
991:
988:
985:
981:
980:
977:
974:
971:
967:
966:
959:duplex brasses
955:
952:
949:
945:
944:
940:solid solution
929:
926:
923:
919:
918:
915:
911:
910:
907:
904:
897:
894:
841:
838:
830:microorganisms
800:Main article:
797:
794:
710:contrabassoons
574:
573:
509:. Please help
495:
493:
486:
480:
477:
417:
414:
380:
377:
359:of green-blue
353:copper sulfide
322:tear-resistant
309:
305:
262:of rolled and
260:Microstructure
252:
249:
210:hose couplings
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6356:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6334:Copper alloys
6332:
6330:
6327:
6326:
6324:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6283:Body piercing
6281:
6278:
6277:
6274:
6268:
6265:
6263:
6260:
6257:
6254:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6242:
6240:
6236:
6226:
6223:
6219:
6216:
6215:
6214:
6211:
6209:
6206:
6204:
6201:
6199:
6196:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6185:
6183:
6179:
6173:
6172:Tortoiseshell
6170:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6145:
6141:
6138:
6136:
6133:
6132:
6131:
6128:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6107:
6105:
6101:
6095:
6092:
6090:
6087:
6085:
6082:
6080:
6077:
6075:
6072:
6070:
6067:
6065:
6062:
6060:
6057:
6055:
6052:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6034:
6030:
6027:
6025:
6022:
6020:
6017:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5985:
5982:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5972:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5945:
5942:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5915:
5912:
5909:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5881:
5879:
5877:
5872:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5817:
5815:
5813:
5809:
5803:
5800:
5796:
5793:
5792:
5791:
5788:
5786:
5783:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5757:
5755:
5753:
5748:
5742:
5739:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5718:
5716:
5714:
5710:
5707:
5703:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5669:
5667:
5663:
5657:
5654:
5652:
5649:
5647:
5644:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5634:
5632:
5629:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5619:
5617:
5614:
5612:
5609:
5607:
5604:
5602:
5599:
5595:
5592:
5590:
5587:
5585:
5582:
5581:
5580:
5577:
5575:
5572:
5571:
5569:
5565:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5546:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5536:
5534:
5531:
5529:
5528:Bench jeweler
5526:
5525:
5523:
5519:
5516:
5512:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5495:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5360:
5358:
5356:
5352:
5348:
5341:
5336:
5334:
5329:
5327:
5322:
5321:
5318:
5311:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5293:
5288:
5285:
5281:
5278:
5274:
5271:
5267:
5264:
5260:
5259:
5254:
5245:
5242:
5236:
5233:
5228:
5224:
5217:
5214:
5208:
5206:
5202:
5197:
5193:
5189:
5182:
5179:
5173:
5170:
5164:
5161:
5155:
5152:
5146:
5143:
5137:
5135:
5131:
5125:
5122:
5116:
5113:
5107:
5105:
5101:
5095:
5092:
5086:
5083:
5077:
5074:
5068:
5065:
5059:
5056:
5050:
5047:
5041:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5027:
5022:
5019:
5013:
5010:
5004:
5001:
4995:
4992:
4988:
4982:
4979:
4973:
4970:
4964:
4961:
4955:
4952:
4946:
4943:
4937:
4934:
4931:
4927:
4923:
4917:
4914:
4908:
4905:
4899:
4896:
4892:
4886:
4883:
4878:
4871:
4868:
4862:
4859:
4854:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4835:
4832:
4828:
4822:
4819:
4813:
4810:
4805:
4801:
4794:
4791:
4785:
4783:
4779:
4773:
4770:
4764:
4762:
4760:
4756:
4751:
4747:
4740:
4737:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4690:
4683:
4681:
4677:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4654:
4647:
4644:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4620:
4613:
4610:
4604:
4601:
4597:
4591:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4577:
4571:
4568:
4562:
4559:
4553:
4550:
4544:
4541:
4535:
4532:
4528:
4522:
4519:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4487:
4484:
4479:
4475:
4468:
4465:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4438:
4435:
4431:
4425:
4422:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4398:
4395:
4389:
4386:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4367:
4364:
4358:
4355:
4349:
4346:
4340:
4338:
4336:
4332:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4308:
4305:
4299:
4296:
4291:
4290:
4281:
4278:
4273:
4267:
4263:
4262:
4254:
4251:
4245:
4242:
4238:
4232:
4230:
4226:
4220:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4203:
4200:
4197:
4196:1-904982-19-0
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4178:
4172:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4158:
4153:
4150:
4146:
4141:
4139:9781408114032
4135:
4131:
4130:
4123:
4120:
4116:
4105:
4104:Las Vegas Sun
4101:
4094:
4091:
4086:
4080:
4076:
4071:
4070:
4061:
4058:
4045:
4041:
4035:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4018:
4013:
4010:
3997:
3993:
3987:
3984:
3971:
3967:
3961:
3958:
3954:. April 2007.
3953:
3949:
3943:
3940:
3935:
3929:
3927:
3925:
3923:
3919:
3916:
3912:
3906:
3903:
3898:
3892:
3889:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3862:
3860:
3856:
3844:
3843:
3838:
3832:
3829:
3824:
3818:
3814:
3813:
3805:
3802:
3799:
3795:
3789:
3786:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3754:
3751:
3746:
3744:9780892366385
3740:
3736:
3735:
3727:
3724:
3719:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3678:
3675:
3670:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3645:(4): 977–86.
3644:
3640:
3636:
3629:
3626:
3623:
3620:
3616:
3613:
3607:
3604:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3577:
3574:
3569:
3565:
3559:
3556:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3516:
3513:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3474:
3472:
3463:
3461:
3457:
3452:
3448:
3441:
3439:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3422:
3417:
3415:
3411:
3399:
3395:
3389:
3386:
3374:
3370:
3363:
3360:
3348:. 17 May 2013
3347:
3343:
3337:
3334:
3322:
3318:
3312:
3309:
3297:
3293:
3287:
3284:
3268:
3264:
3257:
3251:
3248:
3236:
3232:
3226:
3223:
3211:. 24 May 2016
3210:
3206:
3200:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3186:
3181:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3167:
3162:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3123:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3100:
3095:
3094:
3087:
3084:
3079:
3078:
3071:
3068:
3055:
3051:
3045:
3042:
3026:
3019:
3012:
3009:
3004:
3003:
2995:
2992:
2980:
2974:
2970:
2965:
2964:
2955:
2952:
2948:
2936:
2932:
2925:
2922:
2909:
2905:
2899:
2896:
2892:
2890:
2889:Benin Bronzes
2883:
2877:
2874:
2869:
2865:
2864:
2857:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2841:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2826:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2810:Brass rubbing
2808:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2756:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2693:
2691:
2688:flues at the
2687:
2683:
2679:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2661:
2659:
2655:
2650:
2646:
2638:
2636:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2613:Benin Bronzes
2610:
2607:and then the
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2586:
2581:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2513:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2452:Islamic world
2445:
2441:
2436:
2432:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2316:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2294:copper alloys
2290:
2284:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2236:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2122:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2073:Ancient Greek
2070:
2067:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2049:
2047:
2044:are known in
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2022:western India
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1930:
1922:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1893:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1876:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1789:
1787:minimum 0.07%
1786:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1721:
1720:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1633:one euro coin
1630:
1626:
1622:
1620:4–5.5% nickel
1619:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1537:
1533:
1532:golden dollar
1529:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1426:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1376:Gilding metal
1374:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1330:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1277:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1178:
1175:; frequently
1174:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1111:
1108:Tin inhibits
1107:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1043:
1037:
1035:
1022:
1021:nickel silver
1018:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1008:
996:
992:
989:
986:
984:Gamma brasses
983:
982:
978:
975:
972:
969:
968:
964:
960:
956:
953:
950:
947:
946:
941:
937:
934:
930:
927:
924:
922:Alpha brasses
921:
920:
916:
913:
912:
901:
895:
893:
891:
886:
882:
878:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
851:
846:
839:
837:
833:
831:
827:
823:
819:
813:
809:
803:
795:
793:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
766:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
731:
729:
723:
720:
719:sarrusophones
716:
711:
707:
703:
699:
698:subcontrabass
695:
691:
687:
683:
680:
676:
672:
668:
663:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
640:baritone horn
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
580:
570:
559:
556:
552:
549:
545:
542:
538:
535:
531:
528: –
527:
523:
522:Find sources:
516:
512:
508:
502:
501:
500:single source
496:This section
494:
490:
485:
484:
478:
476:
474:
470:
465:
462:
460:
455:
452:
449:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
422:
415:
413:
411:
406:
403:
397:
394:
390:
389:melting point
386:
378:
376:
373:
369:
364:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
329:
325:
323:
319:
315:
303:
298:
296:
295:cutting fluid
292:
288:
287:ferromagnetic
283:
281:
277:
273:
272:melting point
265:
261:
257:
250:
248:
246:
241:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
147:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
104:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
79:
75:
71:
66:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
37:
33:
19:
6308:Wearable art
6303:Phaleristics
6298:Metalworking
6203:Gutta-percha
5979:Lapis lazuli
5819:
5765:Colored gold
5646:Stonesetting
5303:
5298:(2): 95–111.
5295:
5291:
5283:
5276:
5269:
5262:
5244:
5235:
5226:
5222:
5216:
5195:
5191:
5181:
5172:
5163:
5154:
5145:
5124:
5115:
5094:
5085:
5076:
5067:
5058:
5049:
5040:
5021:
5012:
5003:
4994:
4986:
4981:
4972:
4963:
4954:
4945:
4936:
4921:
4916:
4907:
4898:
4890:
4885:
4876:
4870:
4861:
4844:
4840:
4834:
4826:
4821:
4812:
4803:
4799:
4793:
4772:
4749:
4745:
4739:
4727:. Retrieved
4720:the original
4699:
4695:
4663:
4659:
4646:
4629:
4626:Archaeometry
4625:
4612:
4603:
4595:
4579:
4570:
4561:
4552:
4543:
4534:
4526:
4521:
4496:
4492:
4486:
4477:
4467:
4455:. Retrieved
4451:the original
4446:
4437:
4429:
4424:
4410:: 1–16 (8).
4407:
4403:
4397:
4388:
4380:the original
4375:
4366:
4357:
4348:
4326:the original
4321:
4317:
4307:
4298:
4287:
4280:
4260:
4253:
4244:
4236:
4219:
4211:
4202:
4187:
4171:
4152:
4145:disintegrate
4143:
4128:
4122:
4114:
4107:. Retrieved
4103:
4093:
4069:Metalcasting
4068:
4060:
4048:. Retrieved
4044:the original
4012:
4000:. Retrieved
3986:
3974:. Retrieved
3970:the original
3960:
3951:
3942:
3905:
3891:
3879:. Retrieved
3870:
3846:. Retrieved
3840:
3831:
3811:
3804:
3793:
3788:
3763:
3759:
3753:
3733:
3726:
3691:
3687:
3677:
3642:
3638:
3628:
3621:
3606:
3594:. Retrieved
3590:the original
3585:
3576:
3567:
3558:
3529:
3525:
3515:
3504:the original
3483:
3479:
3470:
3450:
3401:. Retrieved
3397:
3388:
3376:. Retrieved
3372:
3362:
3350:. Retrieved
3345:
3336:
3324:. Retrieved
3320:
3311:
3299:. Retrieved
3295:
3286:
3274:. Retrieved
3262:
3250:
3238:. Retrieved
3234:
3225:
3213:. Retrieved
3208:
3199:
3180:
3153:(No. 305765)
3150:
3146:
3141:
3122:
3102:
3092:
3086:
3076:
3070:
3058:. Retrieved
3053:
3044:
3032:. Retrieved
3025:the original
3011:
3001:
2994:
2982:. Retrieved
2962:
2954:
2946:
2939:. Retrieved
2934:
2924:
2912:. Retrieved
2907:
2898:
2885:
2876:
2862:
2856:
2847:, New York,
2844:
2840:
2832:
2828:
2767:
2764:distillation
2757:
2753:surface area
2717:
2708:
2694:
2662:
2642:
2609:Benin Empire
2590:
2514:
2505:
2455:
2449:
2444:Lower Saxony
2384:
2374:
2350:Scandinavian
2330:copper alloy
2322:Roman Empire
2319:
2308:
2285:
2245:Roman period
2237:
2222:
2216:
2198:
2164:, quoted by
2139:
2097:
2089:
2079:
2063:
2050:
2014:Turkmenistan
1987:
1979:
1932:
1901:Yellow brass
1878:Tonval brass
1820:
1774:
1738:
1606:Nickel brass
1460:Leaded brass
1305:
1304:Also called
1289:Common brass
1282:cold working
1233:M1911 pistol
1153:2% aluminium
1117:Aich's alloy
1110:loss of zinc
1038:Brass alloys
1029:
1016:> 50
1013:< 50
970:Beta brasses
958:
957:Also called
928:< 35
925:> 65
855:
834:
818:bactericidal
815:
767:
763:jingle bells
732:
724:
664:
588:malleability
585:
567:January 2021
564:
554:
547:
540:
533:
521:
497:
466:
463:
456:
453:
450:
427:
407:
398:
382:
379:Lead content
365:
334:
299:
284:
269:
242:
175:
151:drawer pulls
148:
144:copper alloy
105:
84:
83:
47:
6344:Zinc alloys
6245:Art jewelry
6069:Tiger's eye
5974:Labradorite
5924:Chrysocolla
5919:Chrysoberyl
5835:Mokume-gane
5812:Base metals
5584:centrifugal
5553:Silversmith
5428:Ferronnière
5378:Belt buckle
5373:Belly chain
4893:1 pp. 83–98
4776:Bayley 1990
4576:Oddy, W. A.
2735:in the new
2720:solid-state
2690:Rammelsberg
2665:Biringuccio
2645:Renaissance
2593:African art
2569:evaporation
2498:al-iglimiya
2475:sublimation
2429:Aquamaniles
2425:Tibetan art
2377:Middle Ages
2358:Northumbria
2229:Roman world
2178:Dioscorides
2158:Middle East
2116:Roman world
2098:aurichalcum
2081:aurichalcum
2036:, Iraq and
1963:cementation
1825:ounce metal
1751:ounce metal
1656:5% aluminum
1641:Nordic gold
1540:Muntz metal
1469:> 0
1439:Has a high
1332:Delta metal
1306:rivet brass
1045:Alloy name
1010:White brass
786:snare drums
778:organ pipes
728:mouthpieces
684:similar to
679:cupronickel
652:French horn
335:Brass will
6323:Categories
6079:Tourmaline
6024:Prasiolite
5899:Aventurine
5770:Crown gold
5672:Draw plate
5621:Metal clay
5558:Watchmaker
5548:Lapidarist
5533:Clockmaker
5408:Collar pin
5403:Chatelaine
4930:0728703866
4806:: 228–234.
4752:(1): 34–5.
4499:: 339–46.
4002:18 October
3976:4 December
3881:18 October
3848:18 October
3430:, May 2008
3398:Copper.org
3378:28 January
3296:Copper.org
3060:19 January
2749:granulated
2743:. In 1723
2654:absorption
2561:Westphalia
2525:Theophilus
2502:al-Kashani
2494:al-Hamdani
2471:Marco Polo
2440:aquamanile
2397:Romanesque
2391:in modern
2385:dinanderie
2352:graves in
2190:zinc oxide
2162:Theopompus
2110:orichalcum
2090:orichalkos
2026:Uzbekistan
1971:speltering
1935:prehistory
1870:4% silicon
1705:89% or 93%
1669:Orichalcum
1661:euro coins
1424:High brass
1367:0.35% iron
1131:1.74% iron
877:ammunition
870:cartridges
822:biofouling
806:See also:
715:saxophones
694:contrabass
648:tenor horn
636:flugelhorn
604:resonators
537:newspapers
442:soft water
251:Properties
198:ammunition
167:electrical
128:phosphorus
118:including
80:, c. 1500.
6225:Toadstone
6162:Operculum
6089:Variscite
6084:Turquoise
6064:Tanzanite
5999:Moonstone
5994:Marcasite
5989:Malachite
5914:Carnelian
5889:Amazonite
5876:gemstones
5850:Pinchbeck
5795:Argentium
5785:Shibuichi
5726:Palladium
5705:Materials
5641:Soldering
5631:Polishing
5606:Engraving
5601:Enameling
5567:Processes
5538:Goldsmith
5473:Tie chain
5448:Neck ring
5438:Lapel pin
5347:Jewellery
4513:163717910
4457:9 January
4264:. BRILL.
4050:26 August
3596:23 August
3373:ThoughtCo
3276:6 January
2941:9 January
2821:Citations
2805:Brass bed
2793:corrosion
2629:Benin art
2541:evaporate
2479:condensed
2346:gunmetals
2342:Byzantine
2289:recycling
2275:or metal
2241:crucibles
2224:sestertii
2134:Baltimore
2069:cuneiform
2058:artefacts
1990:West Asia
1957:. By the
1708:11% or 7%
1701:Pinchbeck
1629:two pound
1625:one pound
1522:manganese
1483:Low brass
1313:DZR brass
1183:fireboxes
1177:aluminium
890:annealing
872:used for
826:pathogens
770:harmonica
759:handbells
757:). Small
702:woodwinds
690:Clarinets
644:euphonium
592:corrosion
586:The high
507:talk page
438:chlorides
434:corrosion
341:chlorides
200:casings,
155:doorknobs
136:manganese
132:aluminium
59:astrolabe
18:Brassware
6293:Gemology
6267:Fineness
6258:(purity)
6193:Bog-wood
6140:Precious
6120:Ammolite
6059:Sunstone
6049:Sodalite
6044:Sapphire
6004:Obsidian
5944:Fluorite
5934:Diopside
5894:Amethyst
5874:Mineral
5865:Tungsten
5860:Titanium
5775:Electrum
5731:Platinum
5616:Kazaziye
5611:Filigree
5589:lost-wax
5488:Toe ring
5478:Tie clip
5453:Pectoral
5443:Necklace
5418:Cufflink
5393:Bracelet
5388:Bolo tie
5368:Barrette
5229:(1): 24.
5198:: 77–83.
5029:Archived
4668:Archived
4180:Archived
4160:Archived
4020:Archived
3996:Archived
3875:Archived
3873:. 2021.
3718:21148701
3669:18156321
3615:Archived
3500:16650507
3424:Archived
3267:Archived
3188:Archived
3169:Archived
3131:Archived
3111:Archived
2914:30 April
2799:See also
2779:, brass
2673:Agricola
2597:lost wax
2595:are the
2557:Schwerte
2549:Dortmund
2537:absorbed
2529:charcoal
2409:antimony
2407:, iron,
2370:calamine
2354:Scotland
2269:amphorae
2218:dupondii
2209:Bithynia
2194:furnaces
2182:minerals
2066:Assyrian
2010:Kalmykia
1992:and the
1951:smelting
1817:gunmetal
1402:Gunmetal
706:bassoons
675:piccolos
660:saxhorns
620:trombone
596:acoustic
459:gunmetal
345:acetates
314:seawater
264:annealed
224:such as
206:plumbing
194:bearings
178:friction
116:elements
6288:Fashion
6262:Finding
6110:Abalone
6019:Peridot
5984:Larimar
5969:Kyanite
5954:Howlite
5939:Emerald
5929:Diamond
5802:Tumbaga
5780:Shakudō
5736:Rhodium
5687:Mandrel
5626:Plating
5579:Casting
5574:Carving
5483:Tie pin
5458:Pendant
5433:Genital
5423:Earring
4704:Bibcode
4666:: 3–6.
4578:(ed.).
4432:XXXIV 2
4292:. Bell.
4210:(eds).
3768:Bibcode
3709:3028699
3660:2258564
3549:3239467
3231:"Brass"
3209:RuB Inc
2789:Warmley
2781:buttons
2745:Bristol
2733:smelted
2713:cadmium
2697:alloyed
2686:furnace
2658:casting
2649:Zwickau
2601:Nigeria
2565:ceramic
2510:raisins
2468:Italian
2413:arsenic
2393:Belgium
2338:Islamic
2257:Germany
2205:Phrygia
2201:coinage
2170:Andeira
2142:Britain
2102:Cypriot
2018:Georgia
1923:History
1779:84–85.9
1613:20–24.5
1500:bellows
1445:springs
1364:2.5–3.7
1324:Arsenic
1268:—
1212:Brastil
1173:Arsenic
1059:Copper
914:Copper
862:ammonia
850:ammonia
782:shallot
739:cymbals
628:trumpet
551:scholar
526:"Brass"
349:ammonia
337:corrode
291:billets
280:density
202:zippers
163:milling
159:turning
140:silicon
120:arsenic
70:lectern
6252:(mass)
6188:Bezoar
6094:Zircon
6054:Spinel
6029:Quartz
5964:Jasper
5949:Garnet
5845:Pewter
5830:Copper
5825:Bronze
5752:alloys
5741:Silver
5692:Pliers
5682:Hammer
5594:vacuum
5521:People
5514:Making
5498:pocket
5398:Brooch
5363:Anklet
4928:
4729:12 May
4511:
4268:
4194:
4136:
4109:9 July
4081:
3913:
3842:MatWeb
3819:
3741:
3716:
3706:
3667:
3657:
3546:
3498:
3403:26 May
3352:26 May
3326:26 May
3301:26 May
3240:26 May
3215:26 May
2984:12 May
2975:
2777:clocks
2739:fired
2725:Aachen
2705:plaque
2682:London
2678:ingots
2669:Ercker
2575:Africa
2521:German
2506:tutiya
2456:tutiya
2438:Brass
2421:Latten
2417:silver
2405:nickel
2381:Dinant
2277:prills
2265:France
2249:Xanten
2233:Jewish
2186:Cadmia
2174:Turkey
2166:Strabo
2152:, and
2042:alloys
2038:Canaan
2004:, the
1998:Aegean
1975:Europe
1945:. The
1889:
1834:Tombac
1693:Sicily
1526:nickel
1453:rivets
1451:, and
1449:screws
1273:
1054:Notes
1051:Other
909:Notes
903:Class
852:attack
755:bronze
745:, and
671:flutes
665:Other
650:, and
632:cornet
608:silver
553:
546:
539:
532:
524:
446:boiler
357:patina
320:- and
245:sparks
214:valves
186:hinges
108:bronze
93:copper
87:is an
68:Brass
57:brass
6329:Brass
6256:Carat
6250:Carat
6238:Terms
6213:Shell
6167:Pearl
6157:Nacre
6147:Ivory
6135:Black
6130:Coral
6125:Copal
6115:Amber
6074:Topaz
6033:smoky
5904:Beryl
5884:Agate
5820:Brass
5665:Tools
5503:strap
5493:Watch
5468:Tiara
5413:Crown
5383:Bindi
5355:Forms
4723:(PDF)
4692:(PDF)
4671:(PDF)
4656:(PDF)
4622:(PDF)
4509:S2CID
4447:DNews
3507:(PDF)
3476:(PDF)
3270:(PDF)
3259:(PDF)
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