Electrical telegraphy in the United Kingdom

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The price paid for most of the telegraph companies far exceeded their capital value because of the 20-year profit calculation. In comparison, the cost of the telegraph across the whole of continental Europe was only £4 million. It was alleged in Parliament, somewhat speculatively, that a new UK telegraph system could have been built from scratch for £2 million. The discrepancy was due largely to the unbudgeted payments to the railways, but compounded by paying them based on 20 year's net profit. Most of the railway leases had far less than 20 years to run, so the Post Office would not get 20 years profit from the purchase. However, it was difficult to avoid once the principle had been established; Reuters went to arbitration over the issue when the government offered them a lesser deal and won.

797:(UPTC) was established in 1861 to provide private telegraph links for companies and institutions. They used the ABC telegraph, also known as Wheatstone's universal telegraph, an instrument patented by Charles Wheatstone in 1858. It was designed to be used by unskilled operators with no knowledge of telegraph codes. Letters were marked around a dial with a button for each. The operator pressed the desired button and then turned a handle which generated pulses of current. These pulses moved a pointer through successive positions until it reached the button that had been pressed, at which point the current was cut off. A receiving dial indicated the position that had been reached at both ends of the circuit. Although much slower than other telegraph systems, it was possible to reach 25 1858:, the telegraph rates charged to news services became a political issue. There was a preferential rate granted for news providers. They were charged one shilling (5p) for 75 or 100 words (depending whether it was inside or out of office hours respectively) and then twopence (0.4p) for each additional 75/100 words, including repeat messages to different addresses. A journalist could send 100 messages and 99 of them would cost only twopence. This was unprofitable for the Post Office, but the government was reluctant to act because they did not want to antagonise the newspapers. The issue was put on hold when war broke out, but in 1915, the minimum price of ordinary inland telegrams was raised from sixpence (2.5p) to ninepence (3.8p). Postmaster General 2234: 2176:, began producing a similar machine in 1921. From then on, the adoption of teleprinters replaced the Morse system. Morse was eliminated from Post Office landlines and submarine lines in 1932, but continued in use in radiotelegraphy. A teleprinter has a typewriter-like keyboard for sending messages, which are printed automatically at both the sending and receiving ends. The system had great cost savings for the Post Office. The operators did not need to be trained in Morse, and a receiving operator did not need to be attending the machine during receipt of the message. It was only necessary to fix the printed message to the telegram form for delivery, allowing one operator to work several telegraph lines simultaneously. 1666: 1800:. The cost to the Post Office of maintaining the telephone system was insignificant compared to the cost of the telegram system. The Post Office was careful not to allow the companies to grow into a national system. They refused the companies permission to install trunk lines in 1881, preferring to provide them themselves and rent them to the companies. Licenses were limited to one year so that only the Post Office had long term control. In response to complaints that the Post Office was hindering the development of the telephone in the UK, Fawcett allowed the companies to build trunk lines in 1874. Nevertheless, telephone development in the UK still lagged behind other countries. 2361:, which set up a telex system in the United States in 1962, but soon became a generic name for the worldwide network. The advantages of telex over telephone were that an operator was not required to staff the station to receive messages, and a printed message provided a permanent record. While the telegram service was declining post-war, in the same period business use of telegraph private wires and telex was growing. Most press traffic was also now on telex or private wires so the increase in the press rate on the public telegram system was of little concern to them. The British military also used telex to link military installations through the 826:(52.5p) per week in 1855. Further reductions occurred in the early 1860s, with both the ETC and the Magnetic attempting to compete with the UKTC's flat one shilling rate. The ETC stopped charging for the address as part of the message, reducing the cost further. In 1865, the ETC, Magnetic and UKTC fixed a common scale of charges for all three companies. The flat rate was dropped and a twenty-word message cost one shilling (5p) up to 100 miles (160 km), one shilling and sixpence (7.5p) up to 200 miles (320 km), and two shillings (10p) up to 300 miles (480 km). Local messages within London and large towns were sixpence (2.5p). 1128:, and the using overland routes. This ocean route was a shorter distance than the Red Sea route and in shallower water, but still 1,450 miles (2,330 km). Many times longer than any other submarine cables, this was the first extremely long submarine cable to be a permanent success. The British government believed the telegraph would provide the means for much greater central control of overseas possessions. Colonial officials necessarily had a great deal of latitude for independent action due to the communication delay. The telegraph greatly restricted their independence, although it took some time for embedded attitudes to change. 1140: 2308: 1736:(later known as Extel) was a news distribution service like Reuters. Founded in 1862, it was a very minor player until 1872 when the Post Office granted it a license to provide London Stock Exchange prices and other financial news to its customers in London. The license limited their operation to within 900 yards of the stock exchange. The Post Office granted similar licenses for local stock exchanges in Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Dublin. These were all linked to a central office from which news could be distributed. Extel also provided a service for calling the police, or raising a fire alarm. 1268:. The three companies were merged as the Eastern Extension, Australasia and China Telegraph Company in 1873. This company connected Australia to New Zealand in 1876. Other Pender companies included: the Western and Brazilian Telegraph Company (1873), the Brazilian Submarine Telegraph Company (1873), Marseilles, Algiers and Malta Telegraph Company (1870), Eastern & South African Telegraph Company (1879), and the African Direct Telegraph Company (1885). These companies were all merged into the Eastern Telegraph Company, which became the Eastern and Associated Cable Company—the largest multinational of the 19th century. 1610:

obligation to serve unremunerative outlying areas. Consequently, nationalisation was delayed until The Telegraph Act of 1869 was passed. This amended the 1868 Act to create a Post Office monopoly, with the actual transfer taking effect on 1 January 1870. The Act excluded companies operating submarine cables with no landlines from nationalisation. Any company the Post Office had not taken over so far could demand this happen under the Act on the same 20-year net profit basis as before. Several small companies that the Post Office considered virtually defunct and not worth buying took advantage of this. The

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new lease was taken out. Another issue concerned the railways' free use of the telegraph on their property. This was part of the leasing arrangement with the private companies inherited by the Post Office. Also, in most cases, the railway company was entitled to send free messages to stations not on its own line for the purpose of controlling trains, but it was heavily abused; in 1891 1.6 million free messages were sent, compared to 97,000 in 1871. The contractual arrangements with the railway companies were so complex arbitration cases concerning them were still being heard ten years after nationalisation.

2209:, inland telegram messages had fallen to 35 million, less than half the pre-war figure, and just over one third of the 1900 peak. At the same time, telephone usage increased rapidly as the number of subscribers grew. The number of telephone calls grew from 716 million in 1919 to over 2.2 billion in 1939. Even the number of telephone trunk calls alone, 112 million in 1939, exceeded the number of telegrams. In some cases telegrams were sent or received by telephone (phonograms), making it increasingly difficult to treat the two services separately. By 1939, 40% of telegrams were phonograms. 1132: 591:. In this context the ETC was commonly referred to as the Electric to counterpose it to the Magnetic. The Magnetic was not, however, the Electric's first competitor. The British Electric Telegraph Company (BETC), founded in 1849, was the first. Its name was later changed to the British Telegraph Company to avoid confusion with the ETC. The BETC failed because they were founded on the mistaken assumption that they could obtain railway wayleaves. They wrongly believed Parliament would force the railway companies to allow them to erect lines. They obtained very few wayleaves; one exception was the 1890:, was against charging an economic rate. Provincial papers would stop using the telegraph, or be driven out of business altogether, with little saving to the Post Office. The fixed costs of maintaining and operating the telegraph system would still have to be paid. The press rate was not increased until 1940 when it went up to one shilling and threepence (6.3p), the result of a general increase in all charges. The copy rate remained at threepence until 1955, when it was abolished. By that time, with increasing use of the telephone, income from press telegrams had become insignificant. 2197: 361: 1745: 496: 1807:(NTC). In 1891, the NTC patents ran out and the question of nationalisation was raised, but the Post Office was not ready to do so. The NTC was accused of inefficiency, high prices, and of disfiguring the landscape with haphazard overhead wires—especially in London. When the NTC's license expired in 1911, they were nationalised under the Post Office. After 1911, telegraph usage declined rapidly. At the same time, telephone use grew, especially after 1960; by 1970 there were nearly 14 million telephones in the UK, nearly double the 1960 figure. 1108:

the government for these two ventures led to a financial loss. In response, a government committee was formed in 1859 to investigate the issue. In their final report in 1861, the committee concluded that future failures of this kind were avoidable now that the technology was better understood. They recommended specifications for future cable construction, installation, and maintenance. After the Red Sea failure, the government no longer provided subsidies or guarantees and left it to private companies to assume the risk of new ventures entirely.

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pre-nationalisation, to some 12 million messages per year. More offices meant installing more lines, plus the lines handed over to the railways for operating their own internal telegraphs had to be replaced. There were 22,000 miles (35,000 km) of line, 83,000 miles (134,000 km) of wire, and over 6,000 instruments in 1872. By 1875, the Telegraph Street central office was the largest telegraph centre in the world, with 450 instruments on three floors working connections both in the UK and worldwide on the Imperial telegraph network.

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Scudamore, ensured a more rational and convenient distribution of offices and cheaper rates would lead to greater telegraph use. His opponents pointed to the United States, where rates were also cheaper but with a great profusion of private companies. Many newspapers campaigned for nationalisation. They were generally dissatisfied with the news service they got from the companies, and they especially resented being unable to choose their own news provider. They wanted the telegraph merely to deliver the product from their chosen supplier.

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codewords. There was strong opposition to this, as many existing codes would not be allowed under this scheme. In 1896, they allowed any code provided it was first submitted for approval and the words added to the official dictionary. By 1901 this had expanded to well over a million words. Maintaining the list had become too difficult, and in 1903 the requirement became that words merely had to be "pronounceable". The publication of Whitelaw's 400 million codewords permanently killed the idea of an official list.

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and blue border, and a dove logo. This service was heavily publicised to overcome a widespread belief that telegrams usually meant bad news. The message was handwritten rather than using the printed tape, and the Post Office provided a free diary service for recurring events like birthdays and anniversaries. In 1939, over four million greetings telegrams were delivered and the total number of telegrams rose back to 50 million. Another service introduced around this time was

411:, a system Cooke patented, which rapidly became ubiquitous. Cooke financed this extension as the Great Western was unwilling to finance a system it considered experimental. Up to this point, they had insisted on exclusive use and had refused Cooke permission to open public telegraph offices. Cooke's new agreement gave the railway free use of the system in exchange for the right to open public offices, establishing a public telegraph service for the first time. A flat rate of one 1792:. The telephone companies launched an appeal against the court decision. The UTC, which held all the telephone instrument patents, further claimed that Gower-Bell, by selling to the Post Office, were in breach of their license which forbade them to set up their own exchanges. However, an agreement was reached before it came to court. The companies were given licenses on more liberal terms and in exchange they dropped their appeal and recognised the Post Office monopoly. 1336: 1303:, which was also a competitor outside the Empire, supplied the transmitters for the Imperial Chain. The Electra House Group, an informal alliance of British telecommunication companies, decided that they could best compete worldwide by merging their cable and radio companies into a single entity. Thus, the Eastern Telegraph Company and the Marconi Wireless Company were merged into Imperial and International Communications Ltd, which changed its name to 2111:(ITU) attempted to control the use of codes in international telegrams to protect telegraph incomes and avoid messages difficult for operators to transmit. In 1875 they reduced the maximum length of a word (telegrams were charged by the word) from seven syllables to ten letters. In 1879, at a conference in London, they decided all words used must come from one of eight named languages. Codes using invented words could then be charged as a 1776:, starting with the Lancashire Telephone Exchange Company in Manchester in 1879. Telephones on private wires were not a threat, but if exchanges were allowed to connect people over more than a very limited distance, or even worse, connect between exchanges nationally, they could do serious damage to the telegraph business. Parliament had declined to give the Post Office a monopoly over telephones. However, the Post Office argued telephone 219: 1043: 1699:

wires and training additional staff in anticipation of the increased traffic. Traffic did increase from 33 million messages in 1884–85 to 50 million in 1886–87, reaching its peak by 1900 at over 90 million. At the same time, there was an increase in the deficit, mainly due to the cost of the increased staff. Despite the losses, the telegraph remained under national ownership as it was considered a public service.

1686:. Post Office Telegraph losses grew steadily until 1914. Interest on the capital overspend was not the only problem. Although Scudamore's estimate of the increase in traffic from expansion proved largely accurate, he badly underestimated the operating costs. As a result, net revenue did not cover the interest on loans and year on year the debt was growing, but overall the Post Office remained profitable throughout the period. 786: 2180:

on the recommendation of a committee set up by Postmaster General William Mitchell-Thomson in 1927, Creed teleprinters replaced the old Morse and Baudot equipment without waiting for it to reach end of life. The War Office expressed concern at this change; they would no longer have a pool of trained Morse operators to call upon. Another innovation in this period was the use of motorcycle messengers to speed up delivery.

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reinstatement. Scudamore blocked the telegraphic transmission of news of the strike to national newspapers. The resulting protests from the press got him officially censured. Wages were increased in 1872 and a formal staff structure introduced. Their pay was still less than that of cable and maintenance companies, resulting in more than 2,300 out of 6,000 clerks leaving the Post Office between 1872 and 1880.

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paid job in nice surroundings. The ETC paid between ten shillings (50p) and thirty shillings (£1.50) per week and the Magnetic paid a starting rate of ten shillings. The District heavily employed women when it began operating in 1859. New recruits were unpaid until they completed training—typically six weeks. At the end of training, the Magnetic expected trainees to achieve a minimum transmission speed of

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to deliver it. Walks eroded the speed advantage of the telegraph over the post, although the time between them was still usually very short; the postal service was cheaper and could guarantee next-day delivery almost anywhere in the British Isles, which for most purposes was good enough. Around 800 fewer messengers were required as a result of the introduction of this system.

554:. In 1853, they created the International Telegraph Company to overcome Dutch objections to a British company laying telegraph cables on their soil. This company was merged back into the ETC in 1854 and named the Electric and International Telegraph Company. Other subsidiary companies created to lay submarine cables were the Channel Islands Telegraph Company (1857) and the 670:

the roof. Meals were hoisted up to the workmen on rooftops until they had finished. Around seven thousand interviews and negotiations were conducted, many of them equally troublesome, to erect only 280 miles (450 km) of wire. The District's cheap prices stimulated a much more casual use of the telegraph; in 1862 the company transmitted a quarter of a million messages.

2300:, in an attempt to keep the deficit under control only made the situation worse by driving traffic down even further. Other measures were the ending or reduction of special prices for certain categories. These included the end of free messages for the railways in 1967, an increase of the press rate, and an increase of the surcharge for telegrams to the 1377:

retardation was not fully solved until the introduction of long-distance telephony made it essential to do so. However, various mitigating actions were taken. The Magnetic, operating a large number of buried cables, had an instrument that sent a delayed pulse of opposite polarity to the main pulse, cancelling the worst of the retarded signal. The

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the planned Post Office uniform rate would so damage their business that they would become unprofitable. This persuaded Hunt that private wires should also be nationalised. Another problem area was the cables to continental Europe. The Magnetic was obliged to send all continental traffic through STC's cables. The ETC was obliged to use Reuter's

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relay patent. They bought out Bain for the substantial sum of £7,500 (equivalent to £1,000,000 in 2023) after he had threatened to derail the bill forming the company because his patents would be infringed. The ETC bought out other telegraph patents when they could, often not because they wanted to use them, but to suppress competition.

1012:, a major manufacturer of electrical equipment with a 16.5-acre (6.7 ha) site. Gutta-percha production was near-monopolised by the India Rubber, Gutta Percha and Telegraph Works Company, by then a subsidiary of Telcon, at their 15-acre (6.1 ha) site in Silvertown. The company operated several cable ships, of which the 1084:. The ship could send telegraph messages directly to London via a connection to the South Eastern's overhead telegraph line. After several failed attempts, the Bretts' company, the Submarine Telegraph Company (STC), succeeded in connecting to France in 1851. The company went on to lay many other cables to European countries. 1454:

men worked the night shifts. Employment of women continued after nationalisation. The primary reason was the economic one of lower wages, but a secondary reason was the social class of the women. They usually had a well-educated middle-class background. Only men from an "inferior class" could be employed at the same wage.

185:, or even that it would be necessary to do so. The final bill far exceeded the original estimate. The telegraph was never profitable under nationalisation because of government policies. Prices were held low to make it affordable for as many people as possible, and the telegraph was extended to every post office issuing 1580:

Many railway telegraph systems were run by the telegraph company that had the wayleave. If the Post Office were to take over the telegraph company, the railway company would, or so they claimed, have the additional expense of running their own telegraph. This difficulty came as a great surprise to the new chancellor,

950:, wind a tarred cord around the whole group of cores, and then protect the assembled cores with iron wires twisted around them. The Gutta Percha Company never made completed cables of this sort, sending them to another company for finishing instead. These companies were specialists in the manufacturing of wire rope. 540:, in 1859. The eastern portion of the road was later renamed Telegraph Street after the company. The ETC remained by far the largest telegraph company until nationalisation in 1870, after which Cooke retired. Both he and Wheatstone were knighted for their services to telegraphy in 1869 and 1868, respectively. 309:

container of mercury. The relay's importance was it allowed telegraph transmissions over long distances that would otherwise require operators at periodic intermediate stations to read and retransmit the message. Davy began experimenting in telegraphy in 1835, and in 1837 demonstrated his telegraph system in

245:, and despite it being frequently unusable because of weather, saw no need for his invention. Though never put to the test, it is unlikely that Ronalds' system would have worked over very long distances using static electricity generators. Even the relatively short test system only worked well in dry weather. 1152:, the only ship capable of holding all the required cable. With great difficulty, the transatlantic connection was achieved by 1866, creating a truly worldwide telegraph network. London could now communicate with most other telegraph offices in the world. In 1862, a new submarine cable had been laid from 595:. Magnetic took them over in 1857 under the new name of the British and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company. The Magnetic avoided the pitfalls encountered by the BETC. From the start, they planned their system based on underground cables along highways. Not only did the ETC have the railway wayleaves, but the 1088:

significant advantage in the domestic market. Both Newall and Glass, Elliot laid cables as subcontractors to the inland telegraph companies. Newall was prone to fall out with his customers and was often involved in litigation resulting in the company slowly moving away from the telegraph cable business.

1284:, because at that time British territories and colonies were usually coloured red or pink on maps, it carried long-distance telecommunications to all parts of the British Empire. The idea was to create a network that did not pass through any non-British territory to avoid security and political risks. 2335:

as a first step to its privatisation in 1984. British Telecom ended their inland telegram service in 1982. International telegrams were still handled, of which there were 13.7 million in 1970. However, incoming international telegrams were no longer delivered by messenger but by ordinary post.

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One area that continued to grow was greetings telegrams. More special occasion categories were added and premium "de luxe" telegrams were introduced for some categories in 1961. Business use of public telegrams, once the major user of the service, was now minimal. A greeting telegram unique to the

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Another issue that encouraged the decline was the introduction in 1921 of telegram delivery by "walks" similar to mail delivery. A group of telegrams was delivered by one messenger on the same outing over a predefined route. Previously, as soon as the telegram was received, a messenger was sent out

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commented, "If 6d for 12 words is unremunerative, 1s for 100 words is far more so", let alone the twopence copy rate for subsequent messages. Samuel proposed a new press scale of 1s for 60/80 words and a copy rate of threepence (1.3p). This was delayed to 1917 because of the war, and then to 1920,

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There was some criticism of the government handling of the nationalisation. The total price paid to nationalise the telegraph was £5.9 million, compared to Scudamore's original estimate of £2.5 million. By 1876, the total cost of acquisitions and extensions had exceeded £10 million.

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cable. It would be impossible for a unified nationalised organisation to meet both contractual obligations simultaneously. To solve this, the government purchased Reuter's cables and leased them back to the STC, together with other continental cables acquired by the Post Office. This was done in a

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Thomas Allan was an early advocate of nationalisation in 1854. He believed a flat rate of one shilling (5p) for 20 words regardless of distance would encourage wider use of the telegraph, which would lead to more intensive usage of lines and provide the economic case for building new ones. According

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was founded in 1845 to exploit the new material. They initially made bottle stoppers, but soon expanded to a wide range of products. In 1848, on hearing of its potential use for telegraph cables, the firm modified a machine for extruding gutta-percha tubing into one capable of continuously applying

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Competition from the District and UKTC, together with economies of scale as the network grew, steadily drove down prices. In 1851, the ETC charged ten shillings (50p) for a twenty-word inland telegram over 100 miles (160 km). This fell to four shillings (20p) in 1855, but was still expensive

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The company concentrated on their railway business first but struggled to be profitable. Their relationship with the railways, however, gave them a structural advantage over competitors that started up later. By the time they arrived on the scene, the ETC had agreements with most railways, which gave

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Because traffic was declining in the 1920s, it was not worthwhile to automate many less-busy lines. Wherever possible, the Post Office closed direct lines and diverted traffic on to the main automated lines by a more circuitous route. About eighty such circuits were closed. Between 1929 and 1935,

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The Post Office decided to standardise on the Morse telegraph system, the international standard since 1865. Companies had used a great variety of different equipment. The largest company, ETC, used the Cooke and Wheatstone needle telegraph. It is possible to send Morse code on a needle telegraph

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and compensation for the railway companies. By July, opposition had largely disappeared. Originally, the government had not planned to nationalise the UPTC because they had no lines for public use; their lines were private wires of no interest to the Post Office. However, the UPTC complained that

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The government was determined to reach a decision quickly so that future planning was not left in limbo. Rising company share prices meant any delay would likely add to the costs. In June, the companies began to negotiate, fearing that if they did not, a disadvantageous arrangement would be imposed

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The government had expected the telegraph companies' opposition. They had not expected the railway companies were going to be a problem. In costing the scheme, Scudamore had made no allowance for purchasing railway wayleaves. The railway companies started to oppose the Telegraph Bill vociferously.

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The first sign of government disquiet came in 1862 when the Act enabling the UKTC was passed. The Act included provisions to prevent the UKTC selling assets to other companies without permission. This was to discourage the UKTC from joining the emerging cartel in the telegraph industry. A further

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The biggest driver of the public take up was the fall in prices; firstly, through competition between the companies, especially competition with the District, and later price control under nationalisation. By 1860, it had become common to use the telegraph for everyday purposes, especially in areas

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working at home, for instance, earned about threepence (1.3p) per day. The pay was still less than a male operator could expect. Companies preferred to use women primarily because of their lower pay rate and because they were not organised into unions. Adolescent boys were also employed, but only

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The success of the transatlantic cable triggered the formation of many new companies to lay more submarine cables around the world. Pender founded most of these companies. His first project was to lay a new cable to India that covered most of the distance in international waters. This put it fully

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to supply foreign news. Reuters retained the right to supply shipping and commercial news directly to private subscribers in the London region. In 1865 the ETC, Magnetic, and UKTC formed a combined news service, leaving only one source of news by telegraph. This monopoly irritated the newspapers,

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The telegraph companies offered a news service useful to regional newspapers, which would otherwise have received the information some time after an event. The ETC had a staff of news gathering journalists and by 1854 had 120 newspaper customers. News items included political news from Parliament,

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Rooftop wires may have been cheap to install but getting the wayleaves could be troublesome. Thousands of individual permissions had to be obtained, and unusual conditions were sometimes imposed. One householder insisted the installers enter her property only once (after wiping their feet) to access

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established the English and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company (Magnetic Telegraph Company, or "Magnetic" for short) in 1850, initially to connect Britain and Ireland with a submarine telegraph cable. The first attempt failed, as did several attempts by rival companies. The Magnetic finally succeeded

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acting for Cooke and Daniell acting for Wheatstone. They reached a compromise with both taking some credit. Wheatstone had no interest in commercial enterprises, wishing only to publish scientific results. The ETC bought out Wheatstone's patent interest in exchange for royalties, and acquired Davy's

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in March 1836, Cooke built a prototype shortly afterwards but did not pursue this design. He looked for mechanical solutions instead because he believed (wrongly) that the needle telegraph would require multiple wires, each driving a separate needle. Cooke initially made a telegraph with a clockwork

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The telegraph was an important resource in both world wars, delaying its decline. The introduction of special greetings telegrams in 1935 proved highly popular and somewhat offset a further decline, but by 1970, telegram usage had fallen to its lowest total ever under nationalisation. Repeated price

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introduced a bill to implement the sixpence rate, which was passed into law. Shaw-Lefevre tried to mitigate the adverse effects by limiting sixpence telegrams to only 12 words, including the address. Addresses had been free but would now be charged for on all telegrams. £500,000 was spent on new

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The government attempted to stop the rot with a change in policy in 1873. It was no longer policy to open a telegraph facility at every office issuing money orders in outlying areas. It would now have to be shown the office was likely to be profitable. There was no proposal to disconnect already

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to India cable in 1859 laid by the Red Sea & India Company. The transatlantic cable's insulation failed after a few weeks. The cable to India (manufactured and laid by Newall) was too thin and laid taut over underwater peaks which soon broke it in multiple places. The guarantees provided by

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Some early submarine cables were laid with just their insulation for protection. This was often unsuccessful. The cables were easily damaged and some attempts to lay them failed because they would not sink. The configuration found to work well was to twist the cable cores together, bind them with

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took steps to increase use of the telegraph service. The sixpence (2.5p) rate was restored, but for only nine words. A priority service was introduced for an additional sixpence, delivered in a red envelope. Special envelopes were also introduced for greetings telegrams, coloured gold with a red

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Further criticism concerned the purchase of the reversionary rights of the railway wayleaves, which had been another unforeseen expense. Without these purchases, when the lease expired, the railway company would then have the right to use the line for public telegraphy on its own account unless a

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Under the act, government expenditure was not allowed immediately. They had concerns the entrepreneurs who had been bought out would set up in business again undercutting the Post Office flat rate of one shilling (5p) in lucrative city areas (the District charged sixpence (2.5p) in London) with no

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Telegraph companies began employing women as telegraph operators early on in the companies' period. The Magnetic was one of the first to do so and the ETC started employing them from 1855. It was a popular, keenly sought job with unmarried women, who had few other good employment options—a well-

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by modern engineers, and if severe enough the message cannot be read. It forces the operator to slow the speed of sending so that there is again separation between the pulses. The problem was so bad on the first transatlantic cable in 1858 that transmission speeds were in minutes per word rather

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The falling prices stimulated more traffic as the public used the telegraph for mundane everyday messages. This generated a steep increase in profits. Between 1861 and 1866, the combined net profits of the ETC and Magnetic rose from £99,000 to £178,000. This was not due solely to the increasing

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along highways. The Electric used their exclusive agreements with the railways to demand they cut down UKTC lines crossing railway property, a demand with which the railway companies mostly complied. The Electric also petitioned other landowners to exclude the UKTC; sometimes UKTC lines were cut

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of one shilling (5p) for twenty words within 100 miles (160 km) and two shillings (10p) beyond this, undercutting the established companies. The Electric, with the Magnetic's support, put a great deal of effort into obstructing the UKTC, challenging their right to use highways in Parliament.

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Enemy action caused disruption to the British telegraph system both domestically and in the imperial network worldwide, but communication was largely maintained. A German bombing raid in December 1940 destroyed the Central Telegraph Office in Telegraph Street. Service was maintained by emergency

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message at a much higher rate. The attempt was unsuccessful. The rules were abused in the UK and Europe and incoming messages from the US (which was not an ITU member) ignored them entirely. In 1890, in an attempt to stop the abuse, the ITU published a list of a quarter of a million authorised

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which replace a whole phrase or sentence. They were important in the UK, and elsewhere. Used by businesses which sent a large number of telegrams, their use reduced a message's word count, holding down its cost. This was particularly important for international traffic sent over long, expensive

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that printed the message directly without the operator needing to decode it. Transmission was from a piano-like keyboard marked with the letters of the alphabet. The system had been offered to the Electric in 1858, but they rejected it. The operation of the printing telegraph was mechanical. A

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had a distinctly military purpose; in France it was years before the public could use the telegraph. In Britain, between 1846, the formation of the first telegraph company, until nationalisation in 1870, the telegraph grew entirely at the instigation of private companies using private capital and

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After the war, telegram usage went back into decline and the deficit returned into the millions of pounds. Telegram numbers were 42 million in 1950, under 14 million in 1960, and only 7.7 million in 1970, the lowest it had ever been under nationalisation. Repeated price rises by

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In 1873, Scudamore left the Post Office under a cloud. He had been taking money out of other Post Office budgets to pay for the unforeseen costs of telegraph expansion, anticipating that Parliament would soon approve more money. He went to Turkey where he was employed to modernise the post and

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of 1857; the urgent telegram requesting assistance had taken forty days to reach London. The telegraph went only as far as the coast of India and from there the message travelled by ship. The failure of the first cable was a significant blow. A connection to India was finally achieved in 1864

1977:

The provision of telegraph connections to lightships gave them a means of calling for assistance for a ship in difficulties. Prior to having a telegraph connection, there had been cases of ships wrecked on rocks after being seen to be struggling by a lightship for as long as twelve hours. For

1575:

took up significant parliamentary time and Scudamore's bill did not come before parliament until 1868. It did not mandate nationalisation or give the Post Office a legal monopoly. It merely gave it the right to set up telegraph services on the same basis as private companies and the ability to

1359:

of a signal travelling along a line at different speeds. Early telegraph engineers did not understand frequency analysis of this sort. The effect of dispersion on a telegraph pulse is to spread it out in time. This is because a rectangular pulse (as used in telegraphy) has multiple frequency

1087:

The Magnetic had a close relationship with the STC. From about 1857, the two companies had an agreement that all STC submarine cables were to be used only with the Magnetic's landlines. The Magnetic also controlled the first cable to Ireland. This control of international traffic gave them a

1783:

The Post Office announced they would issue licenses similar to that granted to Extel in 1872, with a limit of half a mile to the distance an exchange could connect. The companies challenged the Post Office monopoly in court, but lost the case in 1880. The same year, a new Postmaster General,

1656:

Post Office Telegraphs, the branch of the Post Office running the telegraph network, located their head office in Telegraph Street in the old ETC building. "The ever open door" was their slogan above the entrance. Immediately after nationalisation, they set about extending the telegraph from

813:

Of the inland public companies, only the ETC and the Magnetic were profitable. The District, with its low prices, suffered a loss every year of its existence except 1865. The UKTC, a later start up, hoped to take business away from the big two with low prices, but they were handicapped by an

1661:

could be sent, a great increase over the existing number. For example, telegraph offices in London increased from 95 in 1869 to 334 in 1870. By the end of 1870, over 90% of telegrams were sent from post offices. By 1872, the Post Office had 5,000 offices, and traffic had increased 50% over

1566:

By 1866 it was clear the government intended to nationalise the inland telegraph. This had the effect of inhibiting growth of the network. In fact, growth temporarily went backwards that year because of a great snowstorm in January, which had damaged every above ground line within a 50-mile

1331:

Maintenance costs of submarine cables were high. Ships' anchors frequently damaged them, and their insulation deteriorated over time. They were most at risk in shallow water near the coast, but very deep water was avoided because it was difficult to retrieve cables for repair. In 1868, the

897:

in 1843 when he sent samples of Gutta-percha to them. Montgomerie thought of using the material, in place of rubber which deteriorated rapidly in damp tropical conditions, to make medical equipment. After testing some samples, Michael Faraday recognised its potential for underwater cables.

201:

in 1981. This was a first step towards its privatisation in 1984. In 1982 British Telecom ended its inland telegram service. International telegrams could be sent by telephone and were received by ordinary letter post. Some private wire use of telegraph continued after the end of the telegram

2183:

Automation, closing uneconomic lines, and staff rationalisation reduced, but did not eliminate, the deficit on the telegraph service. Between 1930 and 1934 the deficit fell from over £1 million to £650,000. Towards the end of the 1930s, teleprinter automatic switching in exchanges was

1707:

In 1871, telegraph clerks in Manchester formed the Telegraphers' Association to agitate for higher wages. This was the first active union in the public service. Scudamore demanded the clerks resign from the association and then dismissed those who refused. A strike followed to demand their

1376:

is travelling mostly in the insulation material. Uninsulated wires on overhead poles, the most common system on overland routes, are largely unaffected, even over long distances. This solution is not open to submarine cables and the very long distances maximise the problem. The problem of

308:

attached to it closed and completed a secondary circuit. A local battery provided the current for a new pulse through the contacts and onwards along the telegraph line. Davy's relay was the first device to use metallic make-and-break contacts, a great improvement on electrodes dipping into a

1557:

leading the campaign. Scudamore pointed out that telegraph offices were often located inconveniently at railway stations outside town, some towns were not served at all, and some had multiple rival companies' offices next to each other. State control in continental countries, according to

1204:

was originally intended as the landing site in England. The tiny village of Porthcurno became the largest submarine cable station in the world after numerous other cables were landed there. In 1870, the British-Indian Submarine Company (founded 1869) provided the final link from Suez via

1795:

Although the Post Office now accepted the telegraph service was going to decline, they were in a better position financially as the telephone business was very lucrative. Not only was there a fixed charge for the licenses, but the Post Office also took 10% of company gross receipts as a

2404:

amongst other things. Conveyancing can be done by post or telephone, but telex has an immediacy that the former does not and provides a written record that the latter does not. Conveyancing can also be done over the internet, but in the 1990s there was some concern over its security.

1319:, had been in use for some time. By then, there was no real need for distinct telegraph cables. Telegraph was declining, and multiple telegraph channels could be multiplexed into a single telephone channel since the 1920s. The Porthcurno Cable Hut where cables were landed is now the 531:

was a major user from the beginning. They had telegraph instruments installed directly in their London offices in 1851. Telegraph use by the public was slow to grow because of high prices but increased after competition drove down prices. This led to the company relocating their London

626:

which controlled the cables to Europe. For a short period, the Magnetic had control of all international traffic, shutting out the ETC. It acquired most of the railway wayleaves in Ireland, forcing the ETC to use roads and canals, the exact opposite of the situation in Great Britain.

1929:

In World War I, the telegraph was recognised as being of crucial importance. Both sides tried to damage the other's international telegraph lines. Post Office cable ships were involved in the action. Just a few hours after the declaration of war on 4 August 1914,

917: 615:'s needle telegraph. This instrument was the cheapest of the manual telegraph systems at between £2 10 shillings (£2.50) and £3 (equivalent to £370 in 2023). By the time of nationalisation, the Magnetic were also using Bright's bells on their most important lines. 1147:

Pender's motivation in creating Telcon from the merger of Glass, Elliot and the Gutta Percha companies was to create a company that could make and maintain the second transatlantic telegraph cable for the Atlantic Telegraph Company. It was also his motivation for buying

2087:, may have been the most widely used codebook worldwide. It had sold 100,000 copies by 1967. In 1905, Bentley was working for a shipping agency on the company's private code. He left to found his own company and develop a code for general use. He used codewords from 645:), formed in 1859 in London, was closely associated with the Magnetic. John Watkins Brett and Charles Kemp Dyer were directors of both companies; Edward Brailsford Bright was secretary of both. Their telegraph operators were trained at the Magnetic's headquarters in the 1537:, setting out the case for nationalisation. Ricardo's argument was the telegraph was an important government tool for diplomatic, military, and administrative purposes. He pointed out that in all European countries state control had been in place from the beginning. 189:, whether or not that office generated enough telegraph business to be profitable. Telegraph usage increased enormously under the Post Office, but it was never as cheap as the postal service, and growing competition from the telephone reduced its market share. 666:, with possible later expansion to 20 miles (32 km). The District avoided the expense of erecting telegraph poles or burying cables by stringing the wires from building to building, a technique that could only be used in heavily built-up areas. 2343:

service in which the message is dictated over the phone to an operator and delivered by post in a yellow envelope similar to the old telegram envelope. British Telecom discontinued this service in 2003 and sold the business to Telegrams Online.

2095:

could be used to generate 400 million codewords by running any two five-letter words together to make a still pronounceable ten-letter word. Pronouncability was important because the telegraph authorities only allowed pronounceable codewords.

2136:

was used to avoid the cost of erecting additional wires. The Post Office used a system that could send four messages simultaneously in each direction (eight simultaneous messages in all). These systems were usually used with high-speed paper

264:

suffered from falling voltage if used continuously because of the formation of hydrogen bubbles around the copper electrode which tended to insulate it. The Daniell cell solved this problem by placing the zinc and copper electrodes in separate

511:(ETC) in 1846, the first company formed to provide a telegraph service to the public. Wheatstone was not involved having had a serious falling out with Cooke over who should take credit for the invention. The matter went to arbitration with 392:—the first commercial telegraph in the world. The cables were laid originally in an underground conduit, but the insulation began to fail. Cooke replaced the instruments with a two-needle system using only the wires that remained intact. The 1279:

The development of the undersea telegraph cable network began in the late nineteenth century. In October 1902, a worldwide network of cables and relay stations—including some 100,000 miles of undersea cables—was inaugurated. Called the

678:

The United Kingdom Telegraph Company (UKTC), founded by Thomas Allan, was the last major telegraph company to be formed. Registered in 1850, it did not raise sufficient capital to launch until 1860. The business model was to charge a

111:

which initially supplied telegraph systems to railway companies but soon branched out into other businesses, slowly building a network that could be used by the public. Many competing companies arose; the most important of them was the

2050:—heavily abbreviated messaging using the minimum number of words. In some cases, telegraph codes also served the purpose of maintaining the secrecy of commercially sensitive information; companies developed their own private codes. 804:

The company proved to be highly profitable. It charged £4 per mile of wire per annum and had few overheads. Unlike the public companies, it did not have to staff telegraph offices or employ operators to send and receive messages.

356:

they developed and patented in May 1837 could have various arrangements of needles, but the one that initially succeeded used five needles. They were operated in pairs, so they pointed to a letter of the alphabet marked on a board.

2261:

to the Germans. The Italian navy then cut the five British telegraph cables from Gibraltar to Malta and two of the five going on from Malta to Alexandria. This was the most direct route of communication with the British forces in

2253:

centres in London set up to cover just such an eventuality. The financial centre in the City of London was important enough that messengers were stationed in the street in 1941 to collect telegrams. Italy entered the war on the

653:

in exchange for the District passing on the Magnetic's messages to and from outside London. The District's business model was to provide cheap telegrams within London and not install expensive links between cities. Prices were

2352:

At the end of World War II, the Post Office restarted their move to automatic switching, which had been put on hold for the duration. Automatic switching was established in 1947 and sowed the seed of the international

2204:

The pre-war decline was halted briefly during World War I, but usage started falling again in 1920 when the minimum charge for inland telegrams doubled to one shilling (5p). By 1935, with the country in the grip of an

1834:, controlled by the telegraph, ensured that only one train at a time could be on a section of line. The benefits of block working were not generally appreciated until the late 1860s. The number of block instruments on the 1756:

after its introduction at the end of the 19th century. Telephones were introduced to Britain when William Preece exhibited a pair he brought from America in 1877. In 1878 the Post Office entered into an agreement with the

776:

with the sending machine, otherwise the result would be unreadable. The Hughes machine did this by sending synchronisation pulses down the line, a marked improvement over earlier machines which were slow and temperamental.

689:

illegally. All this activity made it extremely difficult for the UKTC to establish trunk routes between cities. They had one good option—exclusive rights along canals, but they could not reach Scotland or Ireland this way.

1584:. The problem for the Post Office was they could not take over on the same terms as private companies, effectively becoming servants of the railway companies. They wanted the lines but not the terms that came with them. 1332:

expected life of a cable was fifteen years, and most laid to that date had not lasted that long. A similar problem with deteriorating insulation plagued buried inland cables, the Magnetic suffering the most from this.

1521:. Allan later tried to bring about cheaper telegrams through private enterprise by founding the UKTC. A surprising and influential advocate was John Ricardo, co-founder of the ETC. He was a free trade campaigning 1969:. £15,000 was spent on the project, which ultimately failed. In 1881, a proposal for a weather ship in the mid-Atlantic came to nothing. Deep-ocean weather ships had to await the commencement of radiotelegraphy. 1690:

connected unprofitable offices. However, the number of these declined with increasing traffic. The situation was not helped when in 1883, against the wishes of the government and the Chancellor of the Exchequer

1634:

was purchased in 1876–77 and the Scilly Islands Telegraph Company in 1879–80. The STC was finally nationalised in 1890, bringing their international submarine cables and cable ships under Post Office control.

1723:

government and lack of support from Gladstone, the leader of the opposition. There was concern that organised workers could have an undue influence on Members of Parliament, but this fear never materialised.

1360:

components. At the receiving end it appears as if part of the pulse has been retarded, hence the term. The problem this causes for telegraphy is that adjacent pulses smear into each other, an effect called

606:

and George Foster's needle telegraph, which did not require batteries. While the operator was sending a message, the handle's movement generated the electricity electromagnetically. This was the meaning of

1495:

the same day during opening hours, a hitherto unprecedented ability in international communication. Likewise, news stories in France could be reported promptly to London newspapers. In the same year, the

181:. Companies operating international submarine cables remained independent. A major mistake made during nationalisation was cost estimates failed to take into account the cost of purchasing railway company 814:

inability to obtain wayleaves on the best routes. The resulting price war ended with them joining the ETC/Magnetic cartel and agreeing a common price structure, destroying their original business model.

162:. He formed many additional companies to lay various cables connecting Britain with its colonies in India, the Far East and Australia. Once these were laid, these disparate companies were merged into the 2396:

mostly superseded Telex in the 1990s. The number of subscribers in the UK fell from 115,000 in 1988 to 18,000 in 1997. One of the last groups using the telex service was solicitors, who used it for

1752:

Telegraph usage never developed to the extent Scudamore predicted. Despite the introduction of the sixpence (2.5p) rate, it was still too expensive to compete on price with the letter post, and the

6644: 5663: 1369:

only succeeded in permanently damaging the cable, making it unusable. This failure represented a loss of nearly £2 million (£270 million in 2023)) for the Atlantic Telegraph Company.

2184:

introduced, eliminating the need for manual exchange operators. The possibility of direct dialing between customers' teleprinters was investigated in 1939, but nothing was done until after

1567:(80 km) radius of London; the rooftop system of the District was put out of action entirely. Across the country, the Electric had 450 miles (720 km) of line damaged. In May, the 2357:

network that developed from 1970 onwards. Telex, standing for "telegraphy exchange", was a switched network of teleprinters using automatic exchanges. It was originally a trademark of

2324:

was introduced. There were only 24 recipients in 1917, rising to 255 in 1952 and by 2015, over 8,000 messages were sent, but no longer by telegram as the service had been discontinued.

2278:

supplying their forces in North Africa. The telegraph system was resilient enough to do this, but only by a very roundabout route going round the African continent on submarine cables.

930:

gutta-percha to a copper conductor. Up to 1865, the Gutta Percha Company, which had a monopoly on the supply of the material, made nearly all the cores for submarine cables in the UK.

728:. The northern end of this line was linked to Manchester and Liverpool, connecting the two trunks together at both ends. Later, UKTC extended the trunk network into Scotland, reaching 5297: 2242: 1488:) and tried to escape by train. His description was telegraphed to Paddington station, and he was arrested shortly after arriving. The event was widely reported in the newspapers. 599:

had the wayleaves for canals and the BETC had the wayleaves for overground cables along highways. This asset of the BETC was the attraction for the Magnetic in its takeover of both.

939: 1172:

to lay it. To limit the risk, Pender founded three companies, each tasked with laying one section of the cable. The Anglo-Mediterranean Company (founded 1868) laid a cable from

1091:

The British government took a strong interest in the provision of international telegraph connections. Government assistance to telegraph projects included the provision of

1541:

cause for concern came in 1865 when the companies, including the UKTC, set common tariffs and dropped the one shilling/20-word flat rate. In 1863, a Telegraph Act gave the

662:(2.5p) for fifteen. By comparison, a long distance telegram on the Electric cost four shillings (20p). The District's area was limited to within four miles (6.4 km) of 2160: 584:

in 1853, giving Ireland a telegraphic connection to Britain for the first time, and through Britain to mainland Europe. This was the deepest submarine cable laid to date.

843:

stock exchange prices, and sports news, especially horse racing where race results were wanted quickly. Until telegraph offices were opened directly at the racetrack, (

5655: 2274:

played an important part in winning the war, and it was vital to maintain a telegraph connection. Malta was important too because of the threat it posed to the German

1602:

great hurry, and the government admitted afterwards it had not been ideal. Reuters and STC were to remain un-nationalised. Parliament passed the bill into law as the

1571:

put a further brake on growth. The financial turmoil and the resultant change of government caused a delay but did not change the policy. In the following year, the

481:

without government support. 64 telegraph companies were formed during that period, though 68% of them failed and only a handful of them grew to any significant size.

967: 151: 2331:, of which the telegraph service formed a part, was made a distinct department of the Post Office, and in 1981 it was separated entirely from the Post Office as 1780:

counted as telegraph messages under the Telegraph Act 1869, so private companies so could not set up telephone exchanges without a license from the Post Office.

2245:

were given one free telegram per month to stay in touch with their parents. Telegraph operators trained in Morse were considered important enough to make it a

1694:, parliament, under pressure from business groups, called for the minimum charge on inland telegrams be reduced to sixpence (2.5p). In 1885 Postmaster General 1631: 1546: 1788:, began setting up telephone exchanges on the Post Office's own account by modifying the ABC telegraph private wire network, and using telephones made by the 1400:

of transmission lines which described how the problem arose and suggested how it could be resolved n 1887. Heaviside believed that adding the right amount of

1164:), it dramatically reduced the distance transatlantic messages had to travel from Ireland to London from 750 miles (1,210 km) to 285 miles (459 km). 527:

After 1848, other areas of the business grew. Supplying news to newspapers and stock exchange information to the financial sector was profitable. The insurer

567: 6367: 1887: 41: 885:

in the Far East. It sets harder than rubber when exposed to air, but when soaked in hot water it becomes plastic and mouldable. On cooling it rehardens.

859:

and some campaigned vigorously against the telegraph companies. This control of the news became an argument for nationalisation of the telegraph system.

340:

mechanism operating electromagnets. The first mechanical apparatus was built in 1836. He pitched the telegraph to various railway companies as a means of

1867: 1772:'s rival patents. These two firms later merged, forming the United Telephone Company (UTC). Additionally, a number of companies were founded to set up 1761:

for the supply of telephones. They initially intended to rent telephone instruments as an alternative to the Wheatstone ABC telegraph on private wires.

867:

To connect the telegraph to anywhere outside Britain, submarine telegraph cables were needed. The lack of a good insulator held back their development.

2372:, which aided integration with computers. ASCII is a 7-bit code, compared to the Baudot 5-bit code, which means it has enough codes to represent both 1307:

in 1934. The Porthcurno station remained open for exactly one hundred years, closing in 1970 when the last cable was taken out of service. Submarine

5435: 2385: 2381: 352:. Wheatstone recommended using a needle telegraph system. After the collaboration with Wheatstone had begun, they pursued only needle telegraphs. The 6374: 5986:

Hunt, Bruce J., "Doing science in a global empire: cable telegraphy and electrical physics in Victorian Britain", ch. 15 in, Lightman, Bernard (ed),

1408:(the Post Office) to take up the idea, but as an outsider—and considered a maverick—he was ignored, largely because of his long-running dispute with 313:

over a mile of copper wire. He held an exhibition in London, but after his marriage broke down, he abandoned telegraphy and emigrated to Australia.

1550: 450:. The Bain telegraph enjoyed some popularity in the 1850s in England, but when he took it to the US in 1849 he became embroiled in litigation with 6122: 1695: 1678:

prevented imports of German-made instruments. Some needle telegraphs continued in use, mostly on the railways, well in to the 20th century.

1674:

system but this is slower than using Morse sounders. This standardisation could not be implemented everywhere immediately, not least because the

1803:

In 1889, the three main companies, UTC, the National Telephone Company, and the Lancashire & Cheshire Telephone Company amalgamated as the

1627: 5287: 966:

in London. were the principal companies involved in this early work. In 1864, the Gutta Percha Company merged with Glass, Elliot to form the

6608: 6551: 6523: 6501: 6486: 6412: 6333: 6300: 6262: 6202: 6183: 6164: 6145: 6096: 6018: 5999: 5980: 5961: 5942: 5923: 5908: 5823: 5804: 5785: 5747: 5728: 5690: 5628: 5587: 5551: 5532: 5513: 5443: 5425: 5406: 2000:

call points around 1861. The town council rejected the scheme, fearing hooliganism. The first system was not installed in Britain until the

1623: 1522: 1469: 1168:

under British control, avoiding the political and other risks associated with an overland route. Telcon manufactured the cable and used the

1534: 44:

had the world's first commercial telegraph company. British telegraphy dominated international telecommunications well into the twentieth.

2233: 1665: 72:

first demonstrated a working telegraph over a substantial distance in 1816, he was unable to put it into practical use. Starting in 1836,

2380:

programs for instance. Increased use of fax machines on telephone lines drove down telex traffic, a change that was precipitated by the

1882:, supported increased charges, which could discourage new rivals. In 1926 Rothermere tried to persuade the chancellor of the exchequer, 5815: 5620: 5524: 2141:

readers to maximise usage of the line. Messages were first typed on to punched tape before sending to the line. The code used was the

2004:

in London took it up in 1880, installing 40 call points. Other towns soon followed resulting in a dramatic reduction in serious fires.

1024:. Exports were a large part of the business totalling well over £2 million in 1873—one per cent of total British manufactured exports. 794: 533: 2001: 1914:. The army found the use of civilian volunteer telegraphists problematic because of their lack of military training. From 1870, the 1300: 1257: 327:

was the driving force in establishing the telegraph as a business in the United Kingdom. Inspired to build a telegraph after seeing

6639: 6589: 6570: 6431: 6319: 6281: 6217: 6115: 5889: 5842: 5766: 5709: 5671: 5609: 5462: 1589: 909:. He tried various insulations, including gutta-percha, but he could not find a suitable way of applying it to long runs of cable. 636: 463: 2172:

The teleprinter was invented in the United States in 1915, but the Post Office did not adopt it until 1922, after a British firm,

1719:

in parliament that extended the vote to Post Office workers and other civil servants. It became law, despite opposition from the

1139: 2032: 1835: 1826:

From the beginning, Cooke promoted the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph to the railways as a safer way of working, particularly on

655: 596: 592: 369: 5677:

Cookson, Gillian, "The golden age of electricity", ch. 6 in, Inkster, Ian; Griffin, Colin; Hill, Jeff; Rowbotham, Judith (eds),

1316: 2237:

Telegraph messengers collecting telephone messages for bombed-out telephone subscribers at an emergency telephone bureau, 1942

847:

did not get one until 1860) a fast rider took the results to the nearest telegraph office. In places where the office was in

6254: 6037: 6010: 5701: 2328: 353: 194: 81: 752:, Denmark, which was extended to Russia giving the UK direct telegraph access to North European and Scandinavian countries. 6515: 6292: 2108: 2012: 1096: 1073: 555: 373: 155: 5393:

Ash, Stewart, "The development of submarine cables", Ch. 1 in, Burnett, Douglas R.; Beckman, Robert; Davenport, Tara M.,

2153:

of the code, and hence to one hole in each column of holes on the tape). Later keyboards were like a typewriter and used

1287:

In 1928, British submarine cables still dominated world telecommunications, but they were increasingly under threat from

6649: 5934: 2019:'s police stations. Church steeples were used to keep the wires out of reach of vandals and criminals. In 1872–73 the 1989: 1789: 1218: 1131: 1069: 416: 6437: 5991: 5543: 5398: 1657:

outlying railway stations to town centres. It was their policy to provide telegraph facilities at every office where

1530: 1320: 623: 206:

system continued in use by an ever-diminishing group of private users. Most of these succumbed to alternatives on the

143: 5654:

Commission of the European Communities: Directorate-General for Employment, Industrial Relations and Social Affairs,

1095:

ships to assist with cable laying and monetary guarantees. Two major failures gave them cause for concern—the first

772:, was pressed against the paper at the appropriate time. The wheel in the receiving machine had to be kept in exact 472:, governments developed the telegraph for their own purposes and controlled them as a state monopoly. For instance, 296:

in 1837 and patented in 1838. It allowed the regeneration of weak telegraph pulses. The incoming pulse activated an

6562: 6175: 6156: 5900: 5579: 5451:

Local Business Voice: The History of Chambers of Commerce in Britain, Ireland, and Revolutionary America, 1760-2011

2316:

UK was the practise of the monarch sending a message to citizens reaching their hundredth birthday. Instituted by

2066: 1804: 1733: 1100: 959: 508: 490: 159: 113: 108: 6102:

Lord, Cliff; Sterling, Christopher H., "Teleprinter/teletype", pp. 447–449 in, Christopher H. Sterling (ed),

1830:, with the first installations in the 1840s. Previously, separation of trains had relied on strict timetabling. 229:

conducted the first demonstration that an electric telegraph could be operated over a substantial distance in his

2042: 1831: 1397: 1214: 1033: 543:

The ETC was heavily involved in laying submarine telegraph cables to Europe and Ireland. They operated the first

427: 163: 127: 6273: 5601: 5595:"'The Cable Wars': military and state surveillance of the British telegraph cable network during World War One" 1937:

cut the German cables in the English Channel, almost completely isolating Germany from the rest of the world.

1744: 1361: 938:, London, made waterproof clothing using rubber and gutta-percha. In 1864, an offshoot of Silver and Co., the 324: 73: 2241:

World War II saw an increase in telegraph traffic. Usage peaked in 1945 with 63 million messages.

1716: 454:. The dispute broke him financially, and he returned to clockmaking, his original profession, in later life. 360: 1462:

The ability of the telegraph was first brought to the attention of a wider public on 6 August 1844 when

6581: 6543: 6311: 6083:

Kragh, Helge, "Telephony, long distance", pp. 809–811 in, Hempstead, Colin; Worthington William (eds),

5881: 5639: 5454: 2084: 2073:, the first public code to be widely sold. Many codebooks were written for a specific trade or industry. 1821: 1526: 1491:

The 1851 channel cable boosted the telegraph's reputation further. Prices in Paris could be relayed to the

1304: 1296: 990: 951: 659: 408: 380:; both railways rejected them in favour of steam-driven whistles. Their first success came in 1838 when the 234: 167: 495: 468:

Development of the telegraph in Britain was distinctly different from that in other European countries. In

6194: 5481: 2307: 2196: 2149:. The early keyboards used were Baudot's five-key "piano" keyboards (each key corresponding to one of the 2062: 1764:

The founding of a string of private telephone companies followed; the Telephone Company had the rights to

1758: 1413: 1365:

than words per minute. Thinking he could solve the problem by using a higher voltage, telegraph engineer

1228:

The British-Indian Submarine Extension Company laid a cable going east from India in 1871. This ran from

931: 851:, the results could be signalled to an observer with a telescope at the office but only in clear weather. 616: 6441: 5646: 2376:

whereas Baudot machines printed in upper case only. Teleprinters could then be used in conjunction with

1244:. This met a cable in Singapore laid by the China Submarine Telegraph Company (founded 1869) running to 6600: 6478: 5853: 2275: 1957:, and islands got telegraph connections and became weather stations. There were even attempts to place 1765: 1492: 603: 431: 381: 301: 257: 249: 117: 1517:

ran the network as a unified whole. He compared his proposal to the effect of the introduction of the

316: 6063: 5734:

Darella, Sara L., "Transatlantic cable", pp. 302–303 in, Welch, Rosanne; Lamphier, Peg A. (eds),

1949:. In 1860, the Board of Trade contracted the Magnetic to pass weather data between London and Paris. 572: 407:

and Cooke converted it to a one-needle system. New uninsulated wires were run suspended from poles on

146:

laid the world's first international submarine cable in 1851 connecting England with France. In 1864,

6507: 6231: 2397: 1554: 1385:

made it easier to read weak signals, and larger cables with thicker insulation had less retardation.

1373: 1076:

conducted a trial of two miles (3.2 km) of cable made by the Gutta Percha Company from the ship

926: 844: 769: 745: 528: 512: 419:) was charged regardless of message length; many people paid this just to see the strange equipment. 328: 53: 1343:

A recurring problem with buried cables, and most especially submarine cables, was the phenomenon of

905:

for submarine cables as early as 1840. In 1844–1845, he tested (probably short) lengths of cable in

6029: 5796: 5777: 5682: 5292: 2301: 2246: 2020: 1923: 1827: 1773: 1675: 1514: 1429: 1405: 1378: 1344: 886: 756: 622:

Not only did the Magnetic lay the first cable to Ireland, they had an exclusive agreement with the

619:

invented this instrument; it was acoustic rather than visual allowing the operator to work faster.

305: 178: 135: 60:

service to deliver the telegraphed communication from the telegraph office. This is distinct from

2365:

period. Their Telegraph Automatic Switching System was used from 1955 until well into the 1980s.

2304:, which had not been part of the United Kingdom since 1922, and officially a republic since 1949. 1500:

featured many telegraph instruments which greatly enhanced the public awareness of the telegraph.

6530: 6423: 6344: 2799: 1611: 1603: 1518: 1366: 1352: 1201: 997:. Telcon chartered the ship using it on some of the major cable installations around the world. 765: 725: 580: 504: 469: 439: 396:

for the two-needle system could not be read off a board; it had to be learned. The profession of

385: 349: 341: 104: 77: 61: 2173: 1160:

in Wales. When this was connected to the transatlantic landing point at Valentia Bay (opposite

1157: 32: 6227: 1985:

sunk with the loss of all hands in January 1883 in view of a lightship off the coast of Wales.

524:, shutting out their competitors from the most economical way of building a telegraph network. 6619: 6604: 6585: 6566: 6547: 6519: 6497: 6482: 6463: 6427: 6408: 6389: 6348: 6329: 6315: 6296: 6277: 6258: 6239: 6213: 6198: 6179: 6160: 6141: 6111: 6092: 6073: 6069: 6052: 6033: 6014: 5995: 5976: 5972: 5957: 5938: 5919: 5904: 5885: 5857: 5838: 5819: 5800: 5781: 5762: 5743: 5724: 5705: 5686: 5667: 5624: 5605: 5583: 5564: 5547: 5528: 5509: 5494: 5473: 5458: 5439: 5421: 5402: 2266:

and East Africa. The resistance of the British forces in Egypt to first the Italians, then

1883: 1720: 1545:

the power to regulate the telegraph companies on the same basis as other utilities. In 1865,

548: 242: 238: 6401:

Power Struggles: Scientific Authority and the Creation of Practical Electricity Before Edison

2368:

As office computers became commonplace in the 1980s, telex switched to a new telegraph code,

6449: 5834: 2206: 1993: 1992:

to raise a fire alarm by electric telegraph had been installed in Berlin as early as 1849.

1581: 1497: 1438: 1393: 1356: 983: 902: 435: 332: 310: 233:

garden in 1816. He used eight miles of iron wire strung between wooden frames. High-voltage

85: 6137: 1931: 1919: 1907: 1797: 1615: 1572: 1288: 1271: 1265: 1161: 1065: 773: 650: 345: 278: 274: 226: 198: 174: 69: 65: 2146: 1188:. The Falmouth, Gibraltar and Malta Telegraph Company (founded 1869) connected Malta to 649:. The Magnetic installed the telegraph lines for the District and leased them back for a 17: 6453: 6251:

Oliver Heaviside: The Life, Work, and Times of an Electrical Genius of the Victorian Age

2091:, published in London in 1904, which contained 20,000 pronounceable five-letter words. 1392:

by analogy with heat flow after the fiasco with the first transatlantic cable. In 1881,

6048: 2810: 2377: 2297: 2258: 2047: 2016: 1859: 1683: 1542: 1476:

only 40 minutes after it was announced. A second event was even more sensational when

1473: 1409: 1389: 1335: 1248:. The British-Australian Telegraph Company (founded 1870) then connected Hong Kong to 1009: 975: 684:

This was unresolved until Parliament passed an Act in 1862, allowing the UKTC to erect

646: 393: 49: 1592:

under Hunt reached deals with the telegraph companies based on the last twenty years'

6633: 6459: 5869: 2358: 2217: 2008: 1979: 1785: 1769: 1691: 1568: 1504:

where a cheap service was available such as the London area covered by the District.

1417: 1404:

to the line would completely remove the dispersion effect. He tried to persuade the

1308: 1112: 955: 894: 663: 612: 377: 297: 281:

electrolyte. A later improvement by J. F. Fuller in 1853 replaced sulfuric acid with

270: 131: 120:, which did not require batteries. The Electric and Magnetic companies soon formed a 1111:

Getting a telegraph connection to India was a priority for the government after the

6223: 6007:

Pursuing Power and Light: Technology and Physics from James Watt to Albert Einstein

5736:

Technical Innovation in American History: An Encyclopedia of Science and Technology

2401: 2293: 2271: 2267: 2185: 2138: 2133: 1958: 1872: 1712: 1658: 1281: 1261: 979: 963: 872: 831: 451: 397: 389: 282: 266: 261: 253: 186: 139: 89: 6236:

Reports of the United States Commissioners to the Paris Universal Exposition, 1867

1576:

purchase private companies or their assets through normal commercial negotiation.

1042: 1008:. Telcon was the major supplier, with some work subcontracted to W. T. Henley at 376:

trialled a four-needle system in July 1837. Both applications were for signalling

6383: 5558: 5488: 2805: 1945:

The rapid weather reports made possible by the telegraph assisted the science of

5720: 2373: 2321: 2254: 2154: 2142: 1997: 1961:

far out into the Atlantic. The first attempt was in 1870 with the old Corvette

1954: 1950: 1946: 1899: 1855: 1619: 1477: 1382: 1249: 1117: 1005: 994: 971: 906: 760: 705: 685: 611:

in the company name. After the BETC takeover, the Magnetic acquired its founder

293: 230: 218: 147: 134:. Suitable insulation for these was unavailable until Scottish military surgeon 124:

to control the market. They were profitable, but most other companies were not.

97: 2806:"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)" 344:

without success. Cooke, who was not scientifically trained, sought advice from

5878:

The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics, 1851-1945

2165: 1918:

arranged with the Post Office to train military telegraphists. The army used

1915: 1878: 1846: 1593: 1450: 1401: 1197: 1189: 1177: 1092: 1081: 935: 697: 693: 544: 443: 45: 2053:

Many commercial codebooks were published in the UK. Popular titles included

6404: 6088: 5953: 5758: 5417: 2222: 2124: 2038: 1966: 1911: 1903: 1753: 1481: 1464: 1245: 1233: 1213:. Once the connection was complete, the three companies were merged as the 1193: 1125: 890: 881: 848: 733: 721: 713: 709: 701: 680: 521: 447: 6467: 2225:

by telegraphy (fax), which newspapers used heavily to receive photographs.

1449:

These wages compared very well with other common occupations for women. A

6623: 6393: 6243: 6228:"Examination of the Telegraphic Apparatus and the Processes in Telegraphy" 6077: 6056: 5861: 5568: 5477: 1926:

on state telegraphs, withdrawing them for overseas duties in time of war.

1446:

at the ETC. Failure to achieve this minimum speed resulted in dismissal.

6107: 5739: 5498: 2393: 2362: 2332: 2317: 1598: 1525:

and a railway entrepreneur and banker. In 1861 he wrote a memorandum to

1312: 1021: 741: 717: 537: 412: 207: 182: 57: 6559:

Connecting the Nineteenth-Century World: The Telegraph and Globalization

6358: 5679:

The Golden Age: Essays in British Social and Economic History, 1850–1870

1052: 974:

instigated this becoming chairman. Pender, with a consortium including

789:

An ABC telegraph instrument from the General Post Office era, dated 1885

785: 1241: 1121: 1104: 1017: 855: 854:

In 1859, the ETC and Magnetic entered into an exclusive agreement with

819: 749: 737: 729: 588: 477: 473: 6420:

The Queen's Speech: An Intimate Portrait of the Queen in Her Own Words

2046:

submarine cables, and much more effective than the common practise of

1412:, the Post Office chief electrician (chief engineer). It was left to 5594: 5576:

The Life Story of the Late Sir Charles Tilston Bright, Civil Engineer

2112: 1485: 1237: 1229: 1210: 1001: 868: 692:

The UKTC completed their first trunk line in 1863 connecting London,

587:

The Magnetic was the ETC's largest competitor; both formed a virtual

404: 337: 121: 116:(the "Magnetic") formed in 1850. They used the telegraph invented by 6352: 823: 2128:

Punched paper tape as used for Baudot-Murray code messages, c. 1976

2007:

The police were an early user of telegraph private wires. In 1850

5793:

A Short History of Technology from the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900

2389: 2369: 2354: 2306: 2263: 2232: 2195: 2159: 2123: 2100:

was purely a list of codewords with no meanings assigned to them.

1845: 1743: 1664: 1553:, came out in favour of nationalisation with Post Office reformer 1339:

Lord Kelvin gave the first mathematical description of retardation

1334: 1270: 1181: 1173: 1138: 1130: 1051: 1041: 916: 876: 784: 602:

The Magnetic used a telegraph system not covered by ETC's patents—

571: 494: 359: 315: 289: 217: 203: 93: 31: 1898:

The first military use of the telegraph in action was during the

5950:

Cooke and Wheatstone and the Invention of the Electric Telegraph

2311:

Wartime poster instructing users not to send greetings telegrams

2023:

connected numerous points in their district to police stations.

1253: 1206: 1185: 1153: 947: 434:

demonstrated another fax machine with an improved design at the

193:

increases to control the deficit drove usage down even further.

6104:

Military Communications: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

5897:

Circuits in the Sea: The Men, the Ships, and the Atlantic Cable

5617:

Communications: An International History of the Formative Years

704:. In 1864, a second trunk ran along the route from London, to 277:

it to water, before it could reach the copper electrode in the

36:

A map of the Eastern Telegraph Company's submarine cables, 1901

6153:

The Economics of Innovation in the Telecommunications Industry

2150: 2077:, for instance, published a supplement especially for mining. 1292: 871:

was tried but degraded in salt water. The solution came with

798: 423: 56:

used conducting wires to send messages, often incorporating a

1996:

had proposed a system in Manchester using the now ubiquitous

1838:, for instance, increased from 311 in 1869 to 3,000 in 1879. 1295:

in the US, but they were also losing business because of the

5664:

Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

1299:

set up by the British government to connect the empire. The

464:

List of historical British telcos § Telegraph companies

48:

is the sending of textual messages by human operators using

1135:

The nondescript hut where the Porthcurno cables were landed

248:

Nearly all the successful telegraph systems used extensive

6326:

The Telecommunications Function of the British Post Office

1000:

By 1880, cable production was centred on the banks of the

499:

Cooke and Wheatstone single-needle instrument c. 1872–1873

430:

in 1848. He patented an earlier unbuilt design in 1843.

5651:, London: Rock Terrace, Talfourd Road, Peckham, SE, 1873. 1072:

had been planning such a cable since 1847. In 1849, the

237:

were his power source. Ronalds offered his system to the

422:

The earliest machine for sending pictures by telegraph (

6341:

History, Theory, and Practice of the Electric Telegraph

2065:, a shipping manager, who later became a Fellow of the 442:. He used a dot-dash code with this machine similar to 5648:

The ABC Universal Commercial Electric Telegraphic Code

5288:"Edward Prince of Wales visits London's telegram boys" 2104:

was the first codebook of such five-letter codewords.

2055:

The ABC Universal Commercial Electric Telegraphic Code

940:

India Rubber, Gutta Percha and Telegraph Works Company

368:

Cooke proposed the Cooke and Wheatstone system to the

222:

Ronalds' eight miles of iron wire strung in his garden

29:

History of electrical telegraphy in the United Kingdom

6065:

The Electric Telegraph: A Social and Economic History

1372:

Retardation is worse in insulated cables because the

1275:

British telegraph All Red Line global network in 1902

5774:

Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology

5717:

Intercept: The Secret History of Computers and Spies

2015:. In 1860, the Wheatstone ABC system connected the 1902:(1853–1856). A submarine cable was laid across the 736:. In 1865, the network was extended west, reaching 6645:

History of telecommunications in the United Kingdom

5490:

Mining Supplement to Bentley's Complete Phrase Code

2320:in 1917, in the 1940s a special telegram bearing a 6385:History of the Invention of the Electric Telegraph 5831:Submarine Telegraphy and the Hunt for Gutta Percha 5791:Derry, Thomas Kingston; Williams, Trevor Illtyd, 5597:in, Marklund, Andreas (ed); Mogens, Rüdiger (ed), 1323:and the historic archive of Cable & Wireless. 1315:, which carried multiple telephone channels using 1180:in Egypt. From there, a short overland cable via 1064:The world's first ocean cable was laid across the 6618:, London: Whitelaw's Telegraph Cypher Co., 1904 5931:The Struggle for Control of Global Communication 5395:Submarine Cables: The Handbook of Law and Policy 1768:'s patent, and the Edison Telephone Company had 1420:to a telephone line for the first time in 1900. 6289:International Telecommunications Law and Policy 5656:"Office automation and social change in Europe" 1120:had laid a new cable made by W. T. Henley from 893:, brought the material to the attention of the 6455:The Rise and Extension of Submarine Telegraphy 6388:, New York: William C. Bryant & Co., 1853 6238:, vol. 4, US Government Printing Office, 1870 1416:in the US to implement the idea when he added 1200:, Portugal. The company was so named because 968:Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company 152:Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company 6172:The Telephone: The Life Story of a Technology 6045:The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing 1232:, which was connected overland to Bombay, to 942:, was founded as a rival cable manufacturer. 130:were required to extend the telegraph beyond 8: 6578:Kind Regards: The Lost Art of Letter Writing 6191:Introduction to the History of Communication 6026:Work, Gender and Family in Victorian England 5574:Bright, Edward Brailsford; Bright, Charles, 2200:Female telegram messenger during World War I 568:British and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company 403:In 1843, the telegraph line was extended to 252:as their power source. The invention of the 6134:A History of Platinum and its Allied Metals 5969:The Worldwide History of Telecommunications 5698:Faxed: The Rise and Fall of the Fax Machine 2339:The telegram service was replaced with the 1866:Some London newspaper proprietors, notably 1020:also had a cable manufacturing facility at 42:United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland 6540:The Case-by-case Approach to Privatization 5540:Making Modern Science: A Historical Survey 989:, a huge, failing passenger ship built by 921:Telcon cable works at Greenwich, 1865–1866 818:for a typical Victorian worker to use. A 547:permanently fitted out for laying cables, 364:Cooke and Wheatstone five-needle telegraph 100:were important components of this system. 6366:ch. 4, "The Electric Telegraph Company", 6308:Blue Skies: A History of Cable Television 5436:Institution of Engineering and Technology 2802:inflation figures are based on data from 1260:, running 2,000 miles (3,200 km) to 177:in 1870 and then operated as part of the 90:battery invented by John Frederic Daniell 5506:The History of Electric Wires and Cables 5414:An Economic History of London, 1800–1914 2774:Bowler & Morus, pp. 146–147, 403–404 1632:Orkneys & Shetland Telegraph Company 1513:to Allen, this could only happen if the 889:, the head of the medical department in 755:The UKTC used the printing telegraph of 536:to bigger premises in Great Bell Alley, 269:with a porous barrier between them. The 88:instrument suggested by Wheatstone, the 6129:, vol. 98, no. 1, pp. 20–29, 2002. 6085:Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology 2413: 1390:mathematical description of retardation 1143:The equipment inside the Porthcurno hut 744:. In 1858, the UKTC laid a cable from 641:London District Telegraph Company (the 438:in 1851. Bain also invented a chemical 384:installed a five-needle telegraph from 6210:Inventors of Communications Technology 1628:Isle of Man Electric Telegraph Company 834:per mile of wire was also increasing. 288:Another important development was the 197:was separated from the Post Office as 6595:Winseck, Dwayne R.; Pike, Robert M., 6538:Welch, Dick; Frémond, Olivier (eds), 6475:The Fortifications of Malta 1530–1945 5634:Burns, Russel W., "Bain, Alexander", 5412:Ball, Michael; Sunderland, David T., 1624:Jersey and Guernsey Telegraph Company 7: 6212:, Cavendish Square Publishing, 2015 5538:Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys, 2164:Motorcycle telegraph messenger from 173:The inland telegraph companies were 76:, with the scientific assistance of 6270:How the Telegraph Changed Diplomacy 6132:McDonald, Donald; Hunt, Leslie B., 1622:, resulting in the purchase of the 1347:, which produces the effect called 901:Wheatstone introduced plans in the 795:Universal Private Telegraph Company 781:Universal Private Telegraph Company 426:) is credited to Scottish inventor 6123:"On Shannon and Shannon's formula" 5867:Hamer, Mick, "Quicker by phone?", 5755:The United States in World History 1327:Maintenance and technical problems 1301:Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company 1258:Australian Overland Telegraph Line 822:, for instance, earned on average 764:spinning wheel with the character 576:Henley-Foster two-needle telegraph 273:electrolyte consumed the hydrogen 25: 6373:ch. 5, "Competitors and allies", 5521:Sir Charles Wheatstone: 1802–1875 1863:when it was finally implemented. 1612:Telegraph Acts Extension Act 1870 1256:. This was the end point of the 637:London District Telegraph Company 631:London District Telegraph Company 476:early telegraph installations in 400:(telegraphist) had been created. 5642:, 2004b, retrieved 4 April 2020. 5636:Dictionary of National Biography 5563:, London: Crosby Lockwood, 1898 2483:McDonald & Hunt, pp. 306–307 2292:successive postmasters general, 2033:Commercial code (communications) 1836:London and North Western Railway 1351:. Dispersion, as it relates to 674:United Kingdom Telegraph Company 597:United Kingdom Telegraph Company 593:Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway 370:Liverpool and Manchester Railway 260:made this possible. The earlier 166:, established in 1872. In 1934, 154:to manufacture and maintain the 5850:Cableships and Submarine Cables 5493:, London: E. L. Bentley, 1907, 1606:, to take effect in July 1869. 1317:frequency division multiplexing 1016:was the largest in the world. 40:In the nineteenth century, the 6529:Walker, Peter M., "Contract", 6494:The Provincial Stock Exchanges 6255:Johns Hopkins University Press 6011:Johns Hopkins University Press 5702:Johns Hopkins University Press 5472:, London: E. L. Bentley, 1906 5470:Bentley's Complete Phrase Code 3785:Bright & Bright, pp. 72–73 3560:Bright & Bright, pp. 73–74 3128:Bright & Bright, pp. 73–74 3116:Bright & Bright, pp. 67–71 3074:Bright & Bright, pp. 72–73 3065:Bright & Bright, pp. 74–75 2329:Post Office Telecommunications 2257:side in June 1940, before the 2059:Bentley's Complete Phrase Code 1886:, but the postmaster general, 1740:Competition from the telephone 1225:, was made managing director. 354:Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph 195:Post Office Telecommunications 82:Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph 1: 6516:American Mathematical Society 6446:, Pudney & Russell, 1859. 6293:Cambridge Scholars Publishing 4570:Ball & Sunderland, p. 286 2109:International Telegraph Union 2013:Charing Cross railway station 1614:extended the monopoly to the 1192:, Cornwall, with landings at 1097:transatlantic telegraph cable 1074:South Eastern Railway Company 913:Cable manufacturing companies 759:. This was an early form of 556:Isle of Man Telegraph Company 374:London and Birmingham Railway 241:. They were already using an 156:transatlantic telegraph cable 103:In 1846, Cooke and financier 6616:Whitelaw's Telegraph Cyphers 6438:Shaffner, Taliaferro Preston 5988:Victorian Science in Context 5935:University of Illinois Press 5873:, no. 1689, 4 November 1989. 5812:Electric Railways: 1880–1990 5599:Historicizing Infrastructure 2447:Derry & Williams, p. 611 2429:Derry & Williams, p. 611 2216:In 1935, Postmaster General 2089:Whitelaw's Telegraph Cyphers 2057:, first published 1873, and 1790:Gower Bell Telephone Company 1291:. A particular concern was 1070:Jacob and John Watkins Brett 342:signalling to control trains 6508:Thompson, Silvanus Phillips 6339:Prescott, George Bartlett, 5992:University of Chicago Press 5848:Haigh, Kenneth Richardson, 5544:University of Chicago Press 5399:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 5363:Commission of the EC, p. 15 5336:Lord & Sterling, p. 449 2456:McDonald & Hunt, p. 306 2243:Children evacuated overseas 1531:chancellor of the exchequer 1388:In 1854, Kelvin produced a 1321:Porthcurno Telegraph Museum 993:. They converted it into a 960:Glass, Elliot & Company 624:Submarine Telegraph Company 144:Submarine Telegraph Company 6666: 6563:Cambridge University Press 6176:Greenwood Publishing Group 6157:Greenwood Publishing Group 5901:Greenwood Publishing Group 5580:Cambridge University Press 5508:, Peter Peregrinus, 1983, 5260:Welch & Frémond, p. 16 2155:Murray's 1901 modification 2067:Royal Geographical Society 2030: 1965:50 miles (80 km) off 1819: 1805:National Telephone Company 1734:Exchange Telegraph Company 1728:Exchange Telegraph Company 1427: 1101:Atlantic Telegraph Company 1031: 824:ten shillings and sixpence 634: 565: 562:Magnetic Telegraph Company 520:them exclusive use of the 509:Electric Telegraph Company 491:Electric Telegraph Company 488: 485:Electric Telegraph Company 461: 160:Atlantic Telegraph Company 128:Submarine telegraph cables 114:Magnetic Telegraph Company 109:Electric Telegraph Company 5772:Day, Lance; McNeil, Ian, 3488:Winseck & Pike, p. 23 2002:Metropolitan Fire Brigade 1215:Eastern Telegraph Company 1056:Jacob Brett in later life 1034:Submarine telegraph cable 830:size of the network, the 658:(1.7p) for ten words and 164:Eastern Telegraph Company 64:that preceded it and the 18:British Telegraph Company 6640:History of the telegraph 6597:Communication and Empire 6492:Thomas, William Arthur, 6363:, distantwriting.co.uk, 6274:Harvard University Press 5602:Aalborg University Press 4528:Day & McNeil, p. 998 3992:Burns (2004a), pp. 78–79 2831:Burns (2004a), pp. 93–94 2282:End of the telegraph era 2061:, first published 1906. 1888:William Mitchell-Thomson 1816:Railway block signalling 1362:intersymbol interference 1305:Cable & Wireless Ltd 879:from trees of the genus 325:William Fothergill Cooke 320:William Fothergill Cooke 168:Cable & Wireless Ltd 74:William Fothergill Cooke 6544:World Bank Publications 6532:The Solicitors' Journal 6526:(first published 1910). 6512:The Life of Lord Kelvin 6312:Temple University Press 5882:Oxford University Press 5696:Coopersmith, Jonathan, 5645:Clauson-Thue, William, 5640:Oxford University Press 5590:(first published 1898). 5455:Oxford University Press 4861:>Wenzlhuemer, p. 247 4303:Kieve, pp. 171–172, 191 3650:Huurdeman, pp. 132, 136 3506:Huurdeman, pp. 132, 136 2804:Clark, Gregory (2017). 2348:Telex and private wires 1822:Signalling block system 1297:Imperial Wireless Chain 1156:in southern Ireland to 991:Isambard Kingdom Brunel 952:R.S. Newall and Company 6399:Schiffer, Michael B., 6287:Orji, Uchenna Jerome, 6268:Nickles, David Paull, 6208:Morrison, Heather S., 5916:Engineering Science II 5753:Davies, Edward J. II, 5372:Huurdeman, pp. 512–513 5309:Huurdeman, pp. 510–511 4375:Huurdeman, pp. 106–107 4285:, 21 July 1869, p. 250 3884:Hunt (2010), pp. 88–89 3803:Hunt (2010), pp. 87–88 3752:Huurdeman, pp. 324–325 3713:Huurdeman, pp. 289–291 3695:Huurdeman, pp. 137–138 2384:, and most especially 2382:postal strikes of 1971 2312: 2238: 2201: 2169: 2129: 2107:Starting in 1896, the 2085:Ernest Lungley Bentley 1851: 1759:Bell Telephone Company 1749: 1670: 1652:Post Office Telegraphs 1468:reported the birth of 1414:George Ashley Campbell 1340: 1276: 1144: 1136: 1099:, laid in 1858 by the 1057: 1047: 922: 790: 768:, similar to a modern 617:Charles Tilston Bright 577: 500: 365: 321: 292:, invented by surgeon 223: 170:absorbed the company. 68:that followed. Though 37: 6601:Duke University Press 6557:Wenzlhuemer, Roland, 6479:Bloomsbury Publishing 6473:Stephenson, Charles, 6460:J.S. Virtue & Co. 6306:Parsons, Patrick R., 6232:Blake, William Phipps 5967:Huurdeman, Anton A., 5876:Headrick, Daniel R., 5504:Black, Robert Monro, 5432:History of Telegraphy 4280:Kieve, p. 166 citing, 3914:McNamara, pp. 131–132 3866:Thompson, pp. 347–349 3848:McNamara, pp. 131–132 2546:Shaffner, pp. 191–201 2519:Shaffner, pp. 185–187 2398:exchange of contracts 2310: 2276:line of communication 2236: 2199: 2163: 2127: 1876:and cofounder of the 1850:Lord Rothermere, 1914 1849: 1766:Alexander Graham Bell 1747: 1717:private member's bill 1668: 1493:London Stock Exchange 1338: 1274: 1221:, the captain of the 1142: 1134: 1055: 1045: 1028:Ocean cable companies 920: 788: 604:William Thomas Henley 575: 498: 446:, but with different 432:Frederick C. Bakewell 382:Great Western Railway 363: 319: 258:John Frederic Daniell 250:electrochemical cells 221: 118:William Thomas Henley 54:Electrical telegraphy 35: 6582:Michael O'Mara Books 6443:The Telegraph Manual 6382:Russell, Robert W., 6328:, Saxon House, 1980 5778:Taylor & Francis 5683:Taylor & Francis 5560:Submarine Telegraphs 5487:Bentley, Ernest L., 5468:Bentley, Ernest L., 5449:Bennett, Robert J., 4510:Beauchamp, pp. 80–81 4420:Huurdeman, pp. 67–69 3515:pp. 169–170, 182–183 2603:Huurdeman, pp. 67–68 2374:upper and lower case 2192:Decline and recovery 2157:of the Baudot code. 2063:William Clausen-Thue 2041:comprise many short 2027:Commercial codebooks 1870:, proprietor of the 1748:William Preece, 1904 1555:Frank Ives Scudamore 1523:Member of Parliament 1480:murdered a woman in 1470:Alfred Ernest Albert 1458:Spread of public use 1374:electromagnetic wave 1357:frequency components 932:S. W. Silver and Co. 927:Gutta Percha Company 513:Marc Isambard Brunel 503:Cooke and financier 329:Georg Wilhelm Muncke 6650:General Post Office 6189:Moran, Terence P., 6151:McNamara, John R., 6062:Kieve, Jeffrey L., 5948:Hubbard, Geoffrey, 5895:Hearn, Chester G., 5810:Duffy, Michael C., 5797:Courier Corporation 5662:, supplement 5/91, 5593:Bruton, Elizabeth, 5107:Kieve, pp. 248, 250 5071:Kieve, pp. 248, 195 4858:Clauson-Thue (1873) 4837:Wenzlhuemer, p. 247 4711:Kieve, pp. 223, 290 4136:Kieve, pp. 138, 150 3875:Hunt (1997), p. 327 3794:Lundheim, pp. 24–25 2705:Morrison, pp. 36–37 2528:Bowers, pp. 123–125 2302:Republic of Ireland 2247:reserved occupation 2207:economic depression 2174:Creed & Company 2021:Metropolitan Police 1924:Telegraph Battalion 1774:telephone exchanges 1696:George Shaw-Lefevre 1676:Franco-Prussian War 1669:Hugh Childers, 1878 1430:Women in telegraphy 1424:Employment of women 1406:General Post Office 1379:mirror galvanometer 1078:Princess Clementine 1046:John Brett c. 1850s 887:William Montgomerie 770:daisy wheel printer 757:David Edward Hughes 458:Telegraph companies 306:Electrical contacts 179:General Post Office 136:William Montgomerie 6496:, Routledge, 2012 6424:Simon and Schuster 6345:Ticknor and Fields 6324:Pitt, Douglas C., 5918:, Macmillan, 1978 5615:Burns, Russel W., 5206:Kieve, pp. 262–264 5197:Kieve, pp. 262–263 5188:Kieve, pp. 261–262 5116:Kieve, pp. 257–259 5089:Kieve, pp. 256–257 5035:Kieve, pp. 255–256 4981:Kieve, pp. 249–250 4756:Kieve, pp. 240–241 4729:Kieve, pp. 225–226 4720:Kieve, pp. 223–224 4693:Kieve, pp. 216–217 4621:Kieve, pp. 211–212 4612:Kieve, pp. 210–211 4603:Kieve, pp. 205–207 4594:Kieve, pp. 204–205 4585:Kieve, pp. 203–204 4567:Kieve, pp. 201–202 4474:Kieve, pp. 193–195 4456:Kieve, pp. 185–186 4438:Kieve, pp. 180–183 4294:Kieve, pp. 164–165 4190:Kieve, pp. 159–160 4181:Kieve, pp. 148–151 4172:Kieve, pp. 147–149 4100:Kieve, pp. 144–145 4091:Kieve, pp. 129–134 4046:Kieve, pp. 120–121 4037:Kieve, pp. 119-120 4019:Kieve, pp. 193–195 3917:Nahin, pp. 275–276 3902:Nahin, pp. 139–184 3683:Kieve, pp. 115–116 3641:Nickles, pp. 33–34 3632:Kieve, pp. 105–113 3524:Kieve, pp. 116–117 3470:Smith, pp. 7–8, 22 2939:Haigh, pp. 195–196 2800:Retail Price Index 2702:Russell, pp. 62–63 2681:Coopersmith, p. 14 2663:Kieve, pages 31–32 2636:Huurdeman, page 69 2564:Hubbard, pp. 47–55 2555:Hubbard, pp. 33–46 2313: 2239: 2202: 2170: 2130: 1973:Emergency services 1852: 1750: 1671: 1604:Telegraph Act 1868 1562:Telegraph Act 1868 1551:postmaster general 1367:Wildman Whitehouse 1353:transmission lines 1341: 1277: 1145: 1137: 1058: 1048: 923: 791: 581:John Watkins Brett 578: 505:John Lewis Ricardo 501: 470:Continental Europe 440:printing telegraph 409:ceramic insulators 398:telegraph operator 386:Paddington station 378:rope-hauled trains 366: 350:Charles Wheatstone 322: 224: 105:John Lewis Ricardo 78:Charles Wheatstone 62:optical telegraphy 38: 6609:978-0-8223-8999-6 6552:978-0-8213-4196-4 6535:, vol. 142, 1998. 6524:978-0-8218-3743-6 6502:978-0-7146-2981-0 6487:978-1-84908-015-6 6450:Smith, Willoughby 6413:978-0-262-19582-9 6357:Roberts, Steven, 6334:978-0-566-00273-1 6301:978-1-5275-2641-9 6263:978-0-8018-6909-9 6203:978-1-4331-0412-1 6184:978-0-313-33207-4 6165:978-0-89930-558-5 6146:978-0-905118-83-3 6097:978-1-135-45551-4 6070:David and Charles 6019:978-0-8018-9358-2 6000:978-0-226-48112-8 5981:978-0-471-20505-0 5962:978-1-135-02850-3 5943:978-0-7099-3701-2 5924:978-1-349-03180-1 5909:978-0-275-98231-7 5824:978-0-85296-805-5 5805:978-0-486-27472-0 5786:978-0-415-19399-3 5748:978-1-61069-094-2 5729:978-0-297-87174-3 5691:978-1-351-88874-5 5629:978-0-86341-327-8 5588:978-1-108-05288-7 5557:Bright, Charles, 5552:978-0-226-06862-6 5533:978-0-85296-103-2 5514:978-0-86341-001-7 5444:978-0-85296-792-8 5426:978-0-415-24691-0 5407:978-90-04-26032-0 5345:Huurdeman, p. 512 5173:Stephenson, p. 50 5062:Huurdeman, p. 510 4999:Huurdeman, p. 142 4879:Kahn, pp. 843–844 4792:Kieve, p. 242–243 4639:Kieve, p. 212–213 4546:Kieve, p. 199-200 4070:Huurdeman, p. 106 3767:Huurdeman, p. 136 3731:Huurdeman, p. 136 3722:Huurdeman, p. 291 3680:Huurdeman, p. 136 3443:Beauchamp, p. 137 2951:Huurdeman, p. 129 2912:Huurdeman, p. 107 2876:Huurdeman, p. 106 2858:Kieve, pp. 49, 52 2498:Shaffner, 179–185 2186:World War II 2168:Post Office, 1941 1884:Winston Churchill 1721:Benjamin Disraeli 1682:telegraph of the 1527:William Gladstone 1252:, Australia, via 1118:Indian government 1062: 1061: 529:Lloyd's of London 243:optical telegraph 235:friction machines 214:Early development 202:service, and the 16:(Redirected from 6657: 6418:Seward, Ingrid, 6249:Nahin, Paul J., 6121:Lundheim, Lars, 6005:Hunt, Bruce J., 5829:Godfrey, Helen, 5715:Corera, Gordon, 5430:Beauchamp, Ken, 5382: 5379: 5373: 5370: 5364: 5361: 5355: 5352: 5346: 5343: 5337: 5334: 5328: 5325: 5319: 5316: 5310: 5307: 5301: 5285: 5279: 5276: 5270: 5267: 5261: 5258: 5252: 5249: 5243: 5231: 5225: 5222: 5216: 5213: 5207: 5204: 5198: 5195: 5189: 5186: 5180: 5168: 5162: 5159: 5153: 5150: 5144: 5141: 5135: 5132: 5126: 5123: 5117: 5114: 5108: 5105: 5099: 5096: 5090: 5087: 5081: 5078: 5072: 5069: 5063: 5060: 5054: 5051: 5045: 5042: 5036: 5033: 5027: 5024: 5018: 5015: 5009: 5006: 5000: 4997: 4991: 4988: 4982: 4979: 4973: 4970: 4964: 4961: 4955: 4952: 4946: 4943: 4937: 4934: 4928: 4925: 4919: 4916: 4910: 4898: 4892: 4889: 4883: 4871: 4865: 4853: 4847: 4844: 4838: 4835: 4829: 4826: 4820: 4817: 4811: 4808: 4802: 4799: 4793: 4790: 4784: 4781: 4775: 4774:Corera, Prologue 4772: 4766: 4763: 4757: 4754: 4748: 4745: 4739: 4736: 4730: 4727: 4721: 4718: 4712: 4709: 4703: 4700: 4694: 4691: 4685: 4682: 4676: 4675:Kieve, pp. 33–34 4673: 4667: 4664: 4658: 4655: 4649: 4646: 4640: 4637: 4631: 4628: 4622: 4619: 4613: 4610: 4604: 4601: 4595: 4592: 4586: 4583: 4577: 4562: 4556: 4553: 4547: 4544: 4538: 4535: 4529: 4526: 4520: 4517: 4511: 4508: 4502: 4499: 4493: 4490: 4484: 4481: 4475: 4472: 4466: 4463: 4457: 4454: 4448: 4445: 4439: 4436: 4430: 4427: 4421: 4418: 4412: 4409: 4403: 4400: 4394: 4391: 4385: 4382: 4376: 4373: 4367: 4364: 4358: 4355: 4349: 4346: 4340: 4337: 4331: 4328: 4322: 4319: 4313: 4310: 4304: 4301: 4295: 4292: 4286: 4278: 4272: 4269: 4263: 4260: 4254: 4251: 4245: 4242: 4236: 4233: 4227: 4224: 4218: 4215: 4209: 4206: 4200: 4197: 4191: 4188: 4182: 4179: 4173: 4170: 4164: 4161: 4155: 4152: 4146: 4143: 4137: 4134: 4128: 4125: 4119: 4116: 4110: 4107: 4101: 4098: 4092: 4089: 4083: 4080: 4074: 4062: 4056: 4053: 4047: 4044: 4038: 4035: 4029: 4026: 4020: 4017: 4011: 4008: 4002: 3999: 3993: 3990: 3984: 3981: 3975: 3972: 3966: 3963: 3957: 3956:Beauchamp, p. 77 3954: 3948: 3947:Beauchamp, p. 77 3945: 3939: 3936: 3930: 3929:Beauchamp, p. 77 3927: 3921: 3909: 3903: 3900: 3894: 3893:McNamara, p. 131 3891: 3885: 3882: 3876: 3873: 3867: 3864: 3858: 3855: 3849: 3846: 3840: 3837: 3831: 3828: 3822: 3815:Schiffer, p. 231 3810: 3804: 3801: 3795: 3792: 3786: 3783: 3777: 3774: 3768: 3765: 3759: 3755:Beauchamp, p. 85 3747: 3741: 3738: 3732: 3729: 3723: 3720: 3714: 3711: 3705: 3702: 3696: 3693: 3687: 3675: 3669: 3666: 3660: 3657: 3651: 3648: 3642: 3639: 3633: 3630: 3624: 3621: 3615: 3612: 3606: 3603: 3597: 3594: 3588: 3585: 3579: 3576: 3570: 3569:Hills, pp. 62–63 3567: 3561: 3558: 3552: 3549: 3543: 3540: 3534: 3531: 3525: 3522: 3516: 3513: 3507: 3504: 3498: 3495: 3489: 3486: 3480: 3477: 3471: 3468: 3462: 3459: 3453: 3450: 3444: 3441: 3435: 3432: 3426: 3423: 3417: 3414: 3408: 3405: 3399: 3396: 3390: 3387: 3381: 3380:Kieve, pp. 71–72 3378: 3372: 3369: 3363: 3360: 3354: 3351: 3345: 3344:Kieve, pp. 66–67 3342: 3336: 3333: 3327: 3324: 3318: 3317:Kieve, pp. 66–67 3315: 3309: 3308:Kieve, pp. 92–93 3306: 3300: 3297: 3291: 3288: 3282: 3281:Beauchamp, p. 89 3279: 3273: 3270: 3264: 3261: 3255: 3252: 3246: 3245:Kieve, pp. 63–64 3243: 3237: 3234: 3228: 3227:Kieve, pp. 61–62 3225: 3219: 3216: 3210: 3209:Prescott, p. 359 3207: 3201: 3200:Kieve, pp. 58–59 3198: 3192: 3189: 3183: 3180: 3174: 3171: 3165: 3162: 3156: 3153: 3147: 3144: 3138: 3137:Hills, pp. 62–63 3135: 3129: 3126: 3120: 3108: 3102: 3099: 3093: 3092:Beauchamp, p. 77 3090: 3084: 3081: 3075: 3072: 3066: 3063: 3057: 3053:Beauchamp, p. 77 3045: 3039: 3038:Beauchamp, p. 77 3036: 3030: 3027: 3021: 3018: 3012: 3009: 3003: 3000: 2994: 2991: 2985: 2973: 2967: 2964: 2958: 2946: 2940: 2937: 2931: 2919: 2913: 2910: 2904: 2901: 2895: 2892: 2886: 2883: 2877: 2874: 2868: 2865: 2859: 2856: 2850: 2847: 2841: 2838: 2832: 2829: 2823: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2796: 2790: 2787: 2781: 2769: 2763: 2756:Kieve, pp. 31–32 2751: 2745: 2742: 2736: 2733: 2727: 2726:Kieve, pp. 46–47 2724: 2718: 2715: 2709: 2697: 2691: 2688: 2682: 2679: 2673: 2670: 2664: 2661: 2655: 2652: 2646: 2643: 2637: 2634: 2628: 2627:Kieve, pp. 32–33 2625: 2619: 2616: 2610: 2606:Beauchamp, p. 35 2598: 2592: 2591:Huurdeman, p. 67 2589: 2583: 2580: 2574: 2571: 2565: 2562: 2556: 2553: 2547: 2544: 2538: 2537:Shaffner, p. 191 2535: 2529: 2526: 2520: 2517: 2511: 2510:Shaffner, p. 187 2508: 2502: 2495:Kieve, pp. 17–19 2490: 2484: 2481: 2475: 2472: 2466: 2463: 2457: 2454: 2448: 2445: 2439: 2436: 2430: 2427: 2421: 2420:Kieve, pp. 15–16 2418: 1994:Siemens Brothers 1856:World War I 1590:select committee 1582:George Ward Hunt 1498:Great Exhibition 1445: 1441: 1394:Oliver Heaviside 1038: 1037: 903:House of Commons 863:Submarine cables 507:established the 436:Great Exhibition 333:needle telegraph 132:mainland Britain 86:needle telegraph 80:, developed the 21: 6665: 6664: 6660: 6659: 6658: 6656: 6655: 6654: 6630: 6629: 6576:Williams, Liz, 6504:(1973 reprint). 6360:Distant Writing 6170:Mercer, David, 6138:Johnson Matthey 6024:Ittmann, Karl, 5519:Bowers, Brian, 5390: 5385: 5380: 5376: 5371: 5367: 5362: 5358: 5354:Bennett, p. 579 5353: 5349: 5344: 5340: 5335: 5331: 5326: 5322: 5317: 5313: 5308: 5304: 5296:, 9 June 2017, 5286: 5282: 5277: 5273: 5268: 5264: 5259: 5255: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5236:Williams, pt. 1 5232: 5228: 5223: 5219: 5214: 5210: 5205: 5201: 5196: 5192: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5169: 5165: 5160: 5156: 5151: 5147: 5142: 5138: 5133: 5129: 5124: 5120: 5115: 5111: 5106: 5102: 5097: 5093: 5088: 5084: 5079: 5075: 5070: 5066: 5061: 5057: 5052: 5048: 5043: 5039: 5034: 5030: 5025: 5021: 5016: 5012: 5007: 5003: 4998: 4994: 4989: 4985: 4980: 4976: 4971: 4967: 4962: 4958: 4953: 4949: 4944: 4940: 4935: 4931: 4927:Whitelaw (1904) 4926: 4922: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4899: 4895: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4854: 4850: 4845: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4827: 4823: 4818: 4814: 4809: 4805: 4800: 4796: 4791: 4787: 4782: 4778: 4773: 4769: 4764: 4760: 4755: 4751: 4746: 4742: 4737: 4733: 4728: 4724: 4719: 4715: 4710: 4706: 4701: 4697: 4692: 4688: 4683: 4679: 4674: 4670: 4665: 4661: 4656: 4652: 4647: 4643: 4638: 4634: 4629: 4625: 4620: 4616: 4611: 4607: 4602: 4598: 4593: 4589: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4563: 4559: 4554: 4550: 4545: 4541: 4536: 4532: 4527: 4523: 4518: 4514: 4509: 4505: 4500: 4496: 4491: 4487: 4482: 4478: 4473: 4469: 4464: 4460: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4442: 4437: 4433: 4428: 4424: 4419: 4415: 4410: 4406: 4401: 4397: 4392: 4388: 4383: 4379: 4374: 4370: 4365: 4361: 4356: 4352: 4347: 4343: 4338: 4334: 4329: 4325: 4320: 4316: 4311: 4307: 4302: 4298: 4293: 4289: 4281: 4279: 4275: 4270: 4266: 4261: 4257: 4252: 4248: 4243: 4239: 4234: 4230: 4225: 4221: 4216: 4212: 4207: 4203: 4198: 4194: 4189: 4185: 4180: 4176: 4171: 4167: 4162: 4158: 4153: 4149: 4144: 4140: 4135: 4131: 4126: 4122: 4117: 4113: 4108: 4104: 4099: 4095: 4090: 4086: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4063: 4059: 4054: 4050: 4045: 4041: 4036: 4032: 4027: 4023: 4018: 4014: 4009: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3991: 3987: 3982: 3978: 3973: 3969: 3964: 3960: 3955: 3951: 3946: 3942: 3937: 3933: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3910: 3906: 3901: 3897: 3892: 3888: 3883: 3879: 3874: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3856: 3852: 3847: 3843: 3838: 3834: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3818:Darella, p. 302 3811: 3807: 3802: 3798: 3793: 3789: 3784: 3780: 3775: 3771: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3748: 3744: 3739: 3735: 3730: 3726: 3721: 3717: 3712: 3708: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3676: 3672: 3667: 3663: 3658: 3654: 3649: 3645: 3640: 3636: 3631: 3627: 3623:Headrick, p. 19 3622: 3618: 3613: 3609: 3604: 3600: 3596:Headrick, p. 20 3595: 3591: 3586: 3582: 3577: 3573: 3568: 3564: 3559: 3555: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3537: 3532: 3528: 3523: 3519: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3501: 3496: 3492: 3487: 3483: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3438: 3433: 3429: 3424: 3420: 3415: 3411: 3406: 3402: 3397: 3393: 3388: 3384: 3379: 3375: 3370: 3366: 3361: 3357: 3352: 3348: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3330: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3312: 3307: 3303: 3298: 3294: 3289: 3285: 3280: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3253: 3249: 3244: 3240: 3235: 3231: 3226: 3222: 3217: 3213: 3208: 3204: 3199: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3181: 3177: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3159: 3154: 3150: 3145: 3141: 3136: 3132: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3109: 3105: 3100: 3096: 3091: 3087: 3082: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3046: 3042: 3037: 3033: 3028: 3024: 3019: 3015: 3010: 3006: 3001: 2997: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2947: 2943: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2920: 2916: 2911: 2907: 2902: 2898: 2893: 2889: 2884: 2880: 2875: 2871: 2866: 2862: 2857: 2853: 2848: 2844: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2826: 2816: 2814: 2803: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2698: 2694: 2689: 2685: 2680: 2676: 2671: 2667: 2662: 2658: 2653: 2649: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2622: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2599: 2595: 2590: 2586: 2581: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2559: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2541: 2536: 2532: 2527: 2523: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2491: 2487: 2482: 2478: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2460: 2455: 2451: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2433: 2428: 2424: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2350: 2333:British Telecom 2289: 2284: 2231: 2194: 2132:On busy lines, 2122: 2035: 2029: 1975: 1943: 1920:Royal Engineers 1896: 1868:Lord Rothermere 1844: 1824: 1818: 1813: 1811:Specialist uses 1798:royalty payment 1742: 1730: 1705: 1654: 1641: 1616:Channel Islands 1564: 1510: 1508:Nationalisation 1460: 1443: 1436: 1432: 1426: 1355:, is different 1329: 1289:radiotelegraphy 1266:South Australia 1162:Valentia Island 1158:St David's Head 1066:English Channel 1036: 1030: 915: 865: 840: 811: 801:with practice. 783: 676: 651:peppercorn rent 639: 633: 570: 564: 493: 487: 466: 460: 346:Michael Faraday 279:copper sulphate 227:Francis Ronalds 216: 199:British Telecom 70:Francis Ronalds 66:radiotelegraphy 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6663: 6661: 6653: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6632: 6631: 6628: 6627: 6612: 6593: 6574: 6555: 6536: 6527: 6505: 6490: 6471: 6447: 6435: 6416: 6397: 6380: 6379: 6378: 6371: 6355: 6337: 6322: 6304: 6285: 6266: 6247: 6221: 6206: 6187: 6168: 6149: 6130: 6119: 6100: 6081: 6060: 6041: 6022: 6003: 5984: 5965: 5946: 5927: 5914:Hewitt, D.E., 5912: 5893: 5874: 5865: 5846: 5827: 5808: 5789: 5770: 5751: 5732: 5713: 5694: 5675: 5652: 5643: 5632: 5613: 5591: 5572: 5555: 5536: 5517: 5502: 5485: 5466: 5447: 5428: 5410: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5383: 5381:Walker, p. 492 5374: 5365: 5356: 5347: 5338: 5329: 5320: 5311: 5302: 5280: 5271: 5262: 5253: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5239:Seward, p. 256 5237: 5233: 5226: 5217: 5208: 5199: 5190: 5181: 5178: 5177: 5174: 5170: 5163: 5154: 5145: 5136: 5127: 5118: 5109: 5100: 5091: 5082: 5073: 5064: 5055: 5046: 5037: 5028: 5019: 5010: 5001: 4992: 4983: 4974: 4965: 4956: 4947: 4938: 4929: 4920: 4918:Bentley (1907) 4911: 4908: 4907: 4904: 4903:Godfrey, p. 30 4900: 4893: 4884: 4881: 4880: 4877: 4876:Bentley (1906) 4873: 4866: 4863: 4862: 4859: 4855: 4848: 4846:Godfrey, p. 29 4839: 4830: 4821: 4812: 4803: 4794: 4785: 4776: 4767: 4758: 4749: 4740: 4731: 4722: 4713: 4704: 4695: 4686: 4677: 4668: 4659: 4650: 4641: 4632: 4623: 4614: 4605: 4596: 4587: 4578: 4575: 4574: 4573:Thomas, p. 126 4571: 4568: 4564: 4557: 4548: 4539: 4530: 4521: 4512: 4503: 4494: 4485: 4476: 4467: 4458: 4449: 4440: 4431: 4422: 4413: 4404: 4395: 4386: 4377: 4368: 4359: 4350: 4341: 4332: 4323: 4314: 4305: 4296: 4287: 4273: 4264: 4255: 4246: 4237: 4228: 4219: 4210: 4201: 4192: 4183: 4174: 4165: 4156: 4147: 4138: 4129: 4120: 4111: 4102: 4093: 4084: 4075: 4072: 4071: 4068: 4064: 4057: 4048: 4039: 4030: 4021: 4012: 4003: 3994: 3985: 3976: 3967: 3958: 3949: 3940: 3931: 3922: 3919: 3918: 3915: 3911: 3904: 3895: 3886: 3877: 3868: 3859: 3850: 3841: 3832: 3830:Lindey, p. 141 3823: 3820: 3819: 3816: 3812: 3805: 3796: 3787: 3778: 3769: 3760: 3757: 3756: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3733: 3724: 3715: 3706: 3697: 3688: 3685: 3684: 3681: 3677: 3670: 3661: 3652: 3643: 3634: 3625: 3616: 3607: 3598: 3589: 3580: 3578:Cookson, p. 81 3571: 3562: 3553: 3544: 3535: 3526: 3517: 3508: 3499: 3490: 3481: 3472: 3463: 3461:Bright, p. 157 3454: 3452:Bright, p. 158 3445: 3436: 3427: 3418: 3409: 3400: 3391: 3382: 3373: 3364: 3355: 3346: 3337: 3335:Ittmann, p. 53 3328: 3319: 3310: 3301: 3292: 3283: 3274: 3265: 3256: 3247: 3238: 3229: 3220: 3211: 3202: 3193: 3184: 3175: 3166: 3157: 3148: 3139: 3130: 3121: 3118: 3117: 3114: 3110: 3103: 3094: 3085: 3076: 3067: 3058: 3055: 3054: 3051: 3047: 3040: 3031: 3022: 3013: 3004: 2995: 2986: 2983: 2982: 2979: 2975: 2968: 2959: 2956: 2955: 2952: 2948: 2941: 2932: 2929: 2928: 2925: 2921: 2914: 2905: 2896: 2894:Roberts, ch. 4 2887: 2878: 2869: 2860: 2851: 2842: 2840:Roberts, ch. 4 2833: 2824: 2811:MeasuringWorth 2791: 2782: 2779: 2778: 2777:Bowers, p. 119 2775: 2771: 2764: 2761: 2760: 2759:Roberts, ch. 4 2757: 2753: 2746: 2737: 2728: 2719: 2710: 2707: 2706: 2703: 2699: 2692: 2690:Parsons, p. 13 2683: 2674: 2665: 2656: 2647: 2638: 2629: 2620: 2611: 2608: 2607: 2604: 2600: 2593: 2584: 2582:Bowers, p. 129 2575: 2573:Bowers, p. 129 2566: 2557: 2548: 2539: 2530: 2521: 2512: 2503: 2500: 2499: 2496: 2492: 2485: 2476: 2467: 2458: 2449: 2440: 2438:Hewitt, p. 137 2431: 2422: 2412: 2410: 2407: 2378:word processor 2349: 2346: 2342: 2298:Ernest Marples 2288: 2285: 2283: 2280: 2259:fall of France 2230: 2227: 2193: 2190: 2145:, invented by 2121: 2118: 2048:telegram style 2031:Main article: 2028: 2025: 2017:City of London 2011:had a line to 1978:instance, the 1974: 1971: 1942: 1939: 1895: 1892: 1860:Herbert Samuel 1843: 1840: 1820:Main article: 1817: 1814: 1812: 1809: 1779: 1741: 1738: 1729: 1726: 1704: 1701: 1684:Ottoman Empire 1653: 1650: 1640: 1637: 1563: 1560: 1543:Board of Trade 1535:prime minister 1509: 1506: 1474:Queen Victoria 1459: 1456: 1425: 1422: 1410:William Preece 1328: 1325: 1309:coaxial cables 1219:James Anderson 1060: 1059: 1049: 1029: 1026: 1010:North Woolwich 976:Thomas Brassey 914: 911: 864: 861: 839: 836: 810: 807: 782: 779: 675: 672: 635:Main article: 632: 629: 610: 566:Main article: 563: 560: 534:central office 489:Main article: 486: 483: 459: 456: 428:Alexander Bain 331:demonstrate a 300:that moved an 215: 212: 210:in the 1990s. 50:symbolic codes 28: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6662: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6637: 6635: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6610: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6591: 6590:1-84317-713-7 6587: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6572: 6571:1-107-02528-1 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6553: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6537: 6534: 6533: 6528: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6506: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6469: 6465: 6461: 6457: 6456: 6451: 6448: 6445: 6444: 6439: 6436: 6433: 6432:1-4711-5097-6 6429: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6395: 6391: 6387: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6372: 6369: 6365: 6364: 6362: 6361: 6356: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6321: 6320:1-59213-706-7 6317: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6290: 6286: 6283: 6282:0-674-01035-3 6279: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6224:Morse, Samuel 6222: 6219: 6218:1-5026-0656-9 6215: 6211: 6207: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6117: 6116:1-85109-732-5 6113: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6066: 6061: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6043:Kahn, David, 6042: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6023: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5944: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5929:Hills, Jill, 5928: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5891: 5890:0-19-972819-4 5887: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5872: 5871: 5870:New Scientist 5866: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5844: 5843:90-04-35728-9 5840: 5836: 5832: 5828: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5768: 5767:1-134-47716-3 5764: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5711: 5710:1-4214-1591-7 5707: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5673: 5672:92-826-3757-3 5669: 5665: 5661: 5660:Social Europe 5657: 5653: 5650: 5649: 5644: 5641: 5637: 5633: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5611: 5610:87-7112-594-9 5607: 5603: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5561: 5556: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5491: 5486: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5464: 5463:0-19-958473-7 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5391: 5387: 5378: 5375: 5369: 5366: 5360: 5357: 5351: 5348: 5342: 5339: 5333: 5330: 5327:Kieve, p. 264 5324: 5321: 5318:Kieve, p. 263 5315: 5312: 5306: 5303: 5300:4 March 2019. 5299: 5295: 5294: 5293:The Telegraph 5289: 5284: 5281: 5275: 5272: 5269:Kieve, p. 266 5266: 5263: 5257: 5254: 5248: 5245: 5238: 5235: 5234: 5230: 5227: 5224:Kieve, p. 263 5221: 5218: 5215:Kieve, p. 265 5212: 5209: 5203: 5200: 5194: 5191: 5185: 5182: 5176:Kieve, p. 261 5175: 5172: 5171: 5167: 5164: 5161:Kieve, p. 261 5158: 5155: 5149: 5146: 5143:Kieve, p. 261 5140: 5137: 5134:Kieve, p. 260 5131: 5128: 5125:Kieve, p. 260 5122: 5119: 5113: 5110: 5104: 5101: 5098:Kieve, p. 259 5095: 5092: 5086: 5083: 5080:Kieve, p. 248 5077: 5074: 5068: 5065: 5059: 5056: 5053:Kieve, p. 260 5050: 5047: 5044:Kieve, p. 256 5041: 5038: 5032: 5029: 5026:Kieve, p. 250 5023: 5020: 5017:Kieve, p. 250 5014: 5011: 5008:Kieve, p. 249 5005: 5002: 4996: 4993: 4990:Kieve, p. 249 4987: 4984: 4978: 4975: 4969: 4966: 4960: 4957: 4951: 4948: 4942: 4939: 4933: 4930: 4924: 4921: 4915: 4912: 4905: 4902: 4901: 4897: 4894: 4888: 4885: 4878: 4875: 4874: 4870: 4867: 4860: 4857: 4856: 4852: 4849: 4843: 4840: 4834: 4831: 4825: 4822: 4819:Kieve, p. 245 4816: 4813: 4810:Kieve, p. 245 4807: 4804: 4801:Kieve, p. 241 4798: 4795: 4789: 4786: 4783:Kieve, p. 241 4780: 4777: 4771: 4768: 4765:Kieve, p. 241 4762: 4759: 4753: 4750: 4747:Kieve, p. 239 4744: 4741: 4738:Kieve, p. 228 4735: 4732: 4726: 4723: 4717: 4714: 4708: 4705: 4702:Kieve, p. 223 4699: 4696: 4690: 4687: 4684:Kieve, p. 239 4681: 4678: 4672: 4669: 4666:Kieve, p. 266 4663: 4660: 4657:Kieve, p. 236 4654: 4651: 4648:Kieve, p. 214 4645: 4642: 4636: 4633: 4630:Kieve, p. 213 4627: 4624: 4618: 4615: 4609: 4606: 4600: 4597: 4591: 4588: 4582: 4579: 4572: 4569: 4566: 4565: 4561: 4558: 4555:Kieve, p. 201 4552: 4549: 4543: 4540: 4537:Kieve, p. 199 4534: 4531: 4525: 4522: 4519:Kieve, p. 196 4516: 4513: 4507: 4504: 4501:Kieve, p. 246 4498: 4495: 4492:Kieve, p. 187 4489: 4486: 4483:Kieve, p. 195 4480: 4477: 4471: 4468: 4465:Kieve, p. 193 4462: 4459: 4453: 4450: 4447:Kieve, p. 247 4444: 4441: 4435: 4432: 4429:Kieve, p. 180 4426: 4423: 4417: 4414: 4411:Kieve, p. 178 4408: 4405: 4402:Moran, p. 201 4399: 4396: 4390: 4387: 4384:Kieve, p. 176 4381: 4378: 4372: 4369: 4366:Kieve, p. 178 4363: 4360: 4357:Kieve, p. 176 4354: 4351: 4348:Kieve, p. 178 4345: 4342: 4339:Kieve, p. 177 4336: 4333: 4327: 4324: 4321:Kieve, p. 190 4318: 4315: 4312:Kieve, p. 174 4309: 4306: 4300: 4297: 4291: 4288: 4284: 4277: 4274: 4271:Kieve, p. 166 4268: 4265: 4262:Kieve, p. 169 4259: 4256: 4253:Kieve, p. 175 4250: 4247: 4244:Kieve, p. 161 4241: 4238: 4235:Haigh, p. 193 4232: 4229: 4226:Kieve, p. 160 4223: 4220: 4217:Kieve, p. 159 4214: 4211: 4205: 4202: 4199:Kieve, p. 176 4196: 4193: 4187: 4184: 4178: 4175: 4169: 4166: 4163:Kieve, p. 140 4160: 4157: 4154:Kieve, p. 139 4151: 4148: 4145:Kieve, p. 141 4142: 4139: 4133: 4130: 4127:Kieve, p. 136 4124: 4121: 4118:Kieve, p. 135 4115: 4112: 4106: 4103: 4097: 4094: 4088: 4085: 4082:Kieve, p. 128 4079: 4076: 4069: 4067:Kieve, p. 125 4066: 4065: 4061: 4058: 4055:Kieve, p. 115 4052: 4049: 4043: 4040: 4034: 4031: 4025: 4022: 4016: 4013: 4007: 4004: 3998: 3995: 3989: 3986: 3983:Kieve, p. 190 3980: 3977: 3971: 3968: 3962: 3959: 3953: 3950: 3944: 3941: 3935: 3932: 3926: 3923: 3916: 3913: 3912: 3908: 3905: 3899: 3896: 3890: 3887: 3881: 3878: 3872: 3869: 3863: 3860: 3857:Bright, p. 26 3854: 3851: 3845: 3842: 3836: 3833: 3827: 3824: 3817: 3814: 3813: 3809: 3806: 3800: 3797: 3791: 3788: 3782: 3779: 3773: 3770: 3764: 3761: 3754: 3751: 3750: 3746: 3743: 3740:Kragh, p. 810 3737: 3734: 3728: 3725: 3719: 3716: 3710: 3707: 3701: 3698: 3692: 3689: 3682: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3671: 3665: 3662: 3659:Davies, p. 71 3656: 3653: 3647: 3644: 3638: 3635: 3629: 3626: 3620: 3617: 3614:Kieve, p. 117 3611: 3608: 3605:Kieve, p. 117 3602: 3599: 3593: 3590: 3587:Kieve, p. 117 3584: 3581: 3575: 3572: 3566: 3563: 3557: 3554: 3551:Haigh, p. 193 3548: 3545: 3542:Kieve, p. 102 3539: 3536: 3533:Haigh, p. 192 3530: 3527: 3521: 3518: 3512: 3509: 3503: 3500: 3494: 3491: 3485: 3482: 3479:Kieve, p. 104 3476: 3473: 3467: 3464: 3458: 3455: 3449: 3446: 3440: 3437: 3434:Kieve, p. 102 3431: 3428: 3422: 3419: 3416:Kieve, p. 102 3413: 3410: 3407:Kieve, p. 101 3404: 3401: 3395: 3392: 3389:Kieve, p. 101 3386: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3368: 3365: 3359: 3356: 3350: 3347: 3341: 3338: 3332: 3329: 3323: 3320: 3314: 3311: 3305: 3302: 3296: 3293: 3287: 3284: 3278: 3275: 3269: 3266: 3260: 3257: 3251: 3248: 3242: 3239: 3233: 3230: 3224: 3221: 3215: 3212: 3206: 3203: 3197: 3194: 3188: 3185: 3179: 3176: 3170: 3167: 3161: 3158: 3152: 3149: 3143: 3140: 3134: 3131: 3125: 3122: 3115: 3113:Morse, p. 116 3112: 3111: 3107: 3104: 3101:Morse, p. 117 3098: 3095: 3089: 3086: 3080: 3077: 3071: 3068: 3062: 3059: 3052: 3049: 3048: 3044: 3041: 3035: 3032: 3029:Roberts, ch.5 3026: 3023: 3020:Roberts, ch.5 3017: 3014: 3008: 3005: 2999: 2996: 2993:Bright, p. 14 2990: 2987: 2980: 2977: 2976: 2972: 2969: 2963: 2960: 2954:Hills, p. 294 2953: 2950: 2949: 2945: 2942: 2936: 2933: 2927:Haigh, p. 195 2926: 2923: 2922: 2918: 2915: 2909: 2906: 2900: 2897: 2891: 2888: 2882: 2879: 2873: 2870: 2864: 2861: 2855: 2852: 2846: 2843: 2837: 2834: 2828: 2825: 2813: 2812: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2792: 2786: 2783: 2776: 2773: 2772: 2768: 2765: 2758: 2755: 2754: 2750: 2747: 2744:Haigh, p. 195 2741: 2738: 2732: 2729: 2723: 2720: 2717:Burns (2004b) 2714: 2711: 2704: 2701: 2700: 2696: 2693: 2687: 2684: 2678: 2675: 2669: 2666: 2660: 2657: 2651: 2648: 2642: 2639: 2633: 2630: 2624: 2621: 2615: 2612: 2605: 2602: 2601: 2597: 2594: 2588: 2585: 2579: 2576: 2570: 2567: 2561: 2558: 2552: 2549: 2543: 2540: 2534: 2531: 2525: 2522: 2516: 2513: 2507: 2504: 2497: 2494: 2493: 2489: 2486: 2480: 2477: 2471: 2468: 2462: 2459: 2453: 2450: 2444: 2441: 2435: 2432: 2426: 2423: 2417: 2414: 2408: 2406: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2386:those of 1988 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2366: 2364: 2360: 2359:Western Union 2356: 2347: 2345: 2340: 2337: 2334: 2330: 2325: 2323: 2319: 2318:George V 2309: 2305: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2286: 2281: 2279: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2260: 2256: 2250: 2248: 2244: 2235: 2228: 2226: 2224: 2219: 2218:Kingsley Wood 2214: 2210: 2208: 2198: 2191: 2189: 2187: 2181: 2177: 2175: 2167: 2162: 2158: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2135: 2126: 2119: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2083:, written by 2082: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2049: 2044: 2040: 2034: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2009:Scotland Yard 2005: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1986: 1984: 1983: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1959:weather ships 1956: 1952: 1948: 1940: 1938: 1936: 1935: 1927: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1893: 1891: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1880: 1875: 1874: 1869: 1864: 1861: 1857: 1848: 1841: 1839: 1837: 1833: 1832:Block working 1829: 1823: 1815: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1801: 1799: 1793: 1791: 1787: 1786:Henry Fawcett 1781: 1777: 1775: 1771: 1770:Thomas Edison 1767: 1762: 1760: 1755: 1746: 1739: 1737: 1735: 1727: 1725: 1722: 1718: 1715:introduced a 1714: 1709: 1702: 1700: 1697: 1693: 1692:Hugh Childers 1687: 1685: 1679: 1677: 1667: 1663: 1660: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1638: 1636: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1607: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1591: 1585: 1583: 1577: 1574: 1570: 1569:Panic of 1866 1561: 1559: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1538: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1499: 1494: 1489: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1466: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1447: 1440: 1431: 1423: 1421: 1419: 1418:loading coils 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1398:full analysis 1395: 1391: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1337: 1333: 1326: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1285: 1283: 1273: 1269: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1226: 1224: 1223:Great Eastern 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1184:connected to 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1170:Great Eastern 1165: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1150:Great Eastern 1141: 1133: 1129: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1114: 1113:Indian Mutiny 1109: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1089: 1085: 1083: 1080:anchored off 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1054: 1050: 1044: 1040: 1039: 1035: 1027: 1025: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 998: 996: 992: 988: 987: 986:Great Eastern 982:, bought the 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 956:Tyne and Wear 953: 949: 943: 941: 937: 933: 928: 919: 912: 910: 908: 904: 899: 896: 895:Royal Society 892: 888: 884: 883: 878: 874: 870: 862: 860: 857: 852: 850: 849:line of sight 846: 837: 835: 833: 827: 825: 821: 815: 809:Profitability 808: 806: 802: 800: 796: 787: 780: 778: 775: 771: 767: 762: 758: 753: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 690: 687: 682: 673: 671: 667: 665: 664:Charing Cross 661: 657: 652: 648: 644: 638: 630: 628: 625: 620: 618: 614: 613:Henry Highton 608: 605: 600: 598: 594: 590: 585: 582: 574: 569: 561: 559: 557: 553: 552: 546: 541: 539: 535: 530: 525: 523: 517: 514: 510: 506: 497: 492: 484: 482: 479: 475: 471: 465: 457: 455: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 420: 418: 417:decimal pence 414: 410: 406: 401: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 371: 362: 358: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 334: 330: 326: 318: 314: 312: 311:Regent's Park 307: 303: 299: 298:electromagnet 295: 291: 286: 284: 280: 276: 272: 271:sulfuric acid 268: 263: 259: 255: 251: 246: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 220: 213: 211: 209: 205: 200: 196: 190: 188: 184: 180: 176: 171: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 142:in 1843. The 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 123: 119: 115: 110: 106: 101: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 34: 27: 19: 6615: 6596: 6577: 6558: 6539: 6531: 6511: 6493: 6474: 6454: 6442: 6419: 6400: 6384: 6377:1 July 2016. 6370:1 July 2016, 6359: 6340: 6325: 6307: 6288: 6269: 6250: 6235: 6209: 6190: 6171: 6152: 6133: 6127:Telektronikk 6126: 6103: 6084: 6064: 6047:, New York: 6044: 6025: 6006: 5987: 5968: 5949: 5930: 5915: 5896: 5877: 5868: 5854:Adlard Coles 5849: 5830: 5811: 5792: 5773: 5754: 5735: 5716: 5697: 5678: 5659: 5647: 5635: 5616: 5598: 5575: 5559: 5539: 5520: 5505: 5489: 5482:1909 edition 5469: 5450: 5431: 5413: 5394: 5388:Bibliography 5377: 5368: 5359: 5350: 5341: 5332: 5323: 5314: 5305: 5291: 5283: 5278:Hamer, p. 75 5274: 5265: 5256: 5251:Pitt, p. 154 5247: 5229: 5220: 5211: 5202: 5193: 5184: 5166: 5157: 5152:Hamer, p. 75 5148: 5139: 5130: 5121: 5112: 5103: 5094: 5085: 5076: 5067: 5058: 5049: 5040: 5031: 5022: 5013: 5004: 4995: 4986: 4977: 4972:Kahn, p. 843 4968: 4963:Kahn, p. 842 4959: 4954:Kahn, p. 842 4950: 4941: 4936:Kahn, p. 843 4932: 4923: 4914: 4906:Kahn, p. 844 4896: 4891:Kahn, p. 838 4887: 4869: 4851: 4842: 4833: 4828:Kahn, p. 838 4824: 4815: 4806: 4797: 4788: 4779: 4770: 4761: 4752: 4743: 4734: 4725: 4716: 4707: 4698: 4689: 4680: 4671: 4662: 4653: 4644: 4635: 4626: 4617: 4608: 4599: 4590: 4581: 4560: 4551: 4542: 4533: 4524: 4515: 4506: 4497: 4488: 4479: 4470: 4461: 4452: 4443: 4434: 4425: 4416: 4407: 4398: 4389: 4380: 4371: 4362: 4353: 4344: 4335: 4330:Hamer, p. 75 4326: 4317: 4308: 4299: 4290: 4282: 4276: 4267: 4258: 4249: 4240: 4231: 4222: 4213: 4208:Hills, p. 26 4204: 4195: 4186: 4177: 4168: 4159: 4150: 4141: 4132: 4123: 4114: 4109:Kieve, p. 65 4105: 4096: 4087: 4078: 4060: 4051: 4042: 4033: 4028:Kieve, p. 59 4024: 4015: 4010:Kieve, p. 59 4006: 4001:Kieve, p. 51 3997: 3988: 3979: 3974:Kieve, p. 87 3970: 3965:Kieve, p. 87 3961: 3952: 3943: 3938:Kieve, p. 85 3934: 3925: 3907: 3898: 3889: 3880: 3871: 3862: 3853: 3844: 3839:Hearn, p. 51 3835: 3826: 3808: 3799: 3790: 3781: 3776:Kieve, p. 90 3772: 3763: 3745: 3736: 3727: 3718: 3709: 3704:Bruton, p. 3 3700: 3691: 3673: 3668:Kieve, p. 66 3664: 3655: 3646: 3637: 3628: 3619: 3610: 3601: 3592: 3583: 3574: 3565: 3556: 3547: 3538: 3529: 3520: 3511: 3502: 3497:Haigh, p. 27 3493: 3484: 3475: 3466: 3457: 3448: 3439: 3430: 3425:Haigh, p. 26 3421: 3412: 3403: 3398:Black, p. 11 3394: 3385: 3376: 3371:Kieve, p. 71 3367: 3362:Kieve, p. 67 3358: 3353:Kieve, p. 59 3349: 3340: 3331: 3326:Kieve, p. 53 3322: 3313: 3304: 3299:Kieve, p. 70 3295: 3290:Kieve, p. 64 3286: 3277: 3272:Kieve, p. 65 3268: 3263:Kieve, p. 90 3259: 3254:Kieve, p. 64 3250: 3241: 3236:Kieve, p. 62 3232: 3223: 3218:Kieve, p. 59 3214: 3205: 3196: 3191:Kieve, p. 56 3187: 3182:Kieve, p. 53 3178: 3173:Kieve, p. 56 3169: 3164:Kieve, p. 59 3160: 3155:Kieve, p. 56 3151: 3146:Kieve, p. 54 3142: 3133: 3124: 3106: 3097: 3088: 3083:Mercer, p. 8 3079: 3070: 3061: 3050:Bright, p. 5 3043: 3034: 3025: 3016: 3011:Kieve, p. 50 3007: 3002:Hills, p. 22 2998: 2989: 2978:Smith, p. 22 2971: 2966:Smith, p. 21 2962: 2944: 2935: 2924:Kieve, p. 52 2917: 2908: 2903:Hills, p. 22 2899: 2890: 2885:Kieve, p. 49 2881: 2872: 2867:Kieve, p. 49 2863: 2854: 2849:Kieve, p. 49 2845: 2836: 2827: 2815:. Retrieved 2809: 2794: 2789:Kieve, p. 24 2785: 2767: 2749: 2740: 2735:Kieve, p. 96 2731: 2722: 2713: 2695: 2686: 2677: 2672:Kieve, p. 33 2668: 2659: 2650: 2645:Kieve, p. 32 2641: 2632: 2623: 2618:Mercer, p. 7 2614: 2596: 2587: 2578: 2569: 2560: 2551: 2542: 2533: 2524: 2515: 2506: 2488: 2479: 2474:Kieve, p. 23 2470: 2465:Kieve, p. 24 2461: 2452: 2443: 2434: 2425: 2416: 2402:conveyancing 2367: 2351: 2338: 2326: 2314: 2294:Ness Edwards 2290: 2272:Afrika Korps 2268:Erwin Rommel 2251: 2240: 2229:World War II 2215: 2211: 2203: 2182: 2178: 2171: 2147:Émile Baudot 2139:punched tape 2134:multiplexing 2131: 2106: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2088: 2080: 2079: 2074: 2070: 2069:, wrote the 2058: 2054: 2052: 2036: 2006: 1987: 1981: 1976: 1962: 1944: 1933: 1928: 1897: 1877: 1873:Daily Mirror 1871: 1865: 1853: 1842:News service 1828:single lines 1825: 1802: 1794: 1782: 1763: 1751: 1731: 1713:Charles Monk 1710: 1706: 1703:Unionisation 1688: 1680: 1672: 1659:money orders 1655: 1646: 1642: 1608: 1588:on them. A 1586: 1578: 1565: 1547:Lord Stanley 1539: 1511: 1502: 1490: 1463: 1461: 1448: 1433: 1387: 1381:designed by 1371: 1348: 1342: 1330: 1286: 1282:All Red Line 1278: 1262:Port Augusta 1227: 1222: 1169: 1166: 1149: 1146: 1110: 1090: 1086: 1077: 1063: 1013: 999: 985: 980:Daniel Gooch 964:W. T. Henley 944: 924: 900: 880: 875:, a natural 873:gutta-percha 866: 853: 841: 838:News service 832:gross income 828: 816: 812: 803: 792: 754: 724:, ending in 691: 677: 668: 642: 640: 621: 601: 586: 579: 550: 542: 526: 518: 502: 467: 452:Samuel Morse 421: 402: 390:West Drayton 367: 323: 287: 283:zinc sulfate 267:electrolytes 262:voltaic pile 254:Daniell cell 247: 225: 191: 187:money orders 175:nationalised 172: 140:gutta-percha 126: 102: 96:invented by 39: 26: 6458:, London: 5721:Hachette UK 4393:Orji, p. 57 2654:Duffy, p. 5 2341:telemessage 2322:Royal Crest 2143:Baudot code 1998:break glass 1990:call points 1951:Lighthouses 1947:meteorology 1941:Meteorology 1900:Crimean War 1620:Isle of Man 1594:net profits 1573:Reform Bill 1533:and future 1515:Post Office 1478:John Tawell 1383:Lord Kelvin 1349:retardation 1250:Port Darwin 1006:East London 995:cable layer 972:John Pender 970:(Telcon). 907:Swansea Bay 761:teleprinter 706:Northampton 686:trunk lines 294:Edward Davy 256:in 1836 by 231:Hammersmith 150:formed the 148:John Pender 138:introduced 107:formed the 98:Edward Davy 6634:Categories 6614:Whitelaw, 6514:, vol. 1, 6468:1079820592 6343:, Boston: 6195:Peter Lang 6038:134913337X 5738:, vol. 1, 5638:(online), 2981:Ash, p. 22 2409:References 2166:Wood Green 2120:Automation 2098:Whitelaw's 2093:Whitelaw's 2037:Telegraph 1982:Agnes Jack 1955:lightships 1916:War Office 1879:Daily Mail 1519:Penny Post 1451:seamstress 1428:See also: 1402:inductance 1345:dispersion 1217:in 1872. 1198:Carcavelos 1190:Porthcurno 1178:Alexandria 1154:Queenstown 1116:after the 1103:, and the 1093:Royal Navy 1082:Folkestone 1032:See also: 1014:Silvertown 936:Silvertown 698:Manchester 694:Birmingham 545:cable ship 462:See also: 448:codepoints 444:Morse code 372:, and the 92:, and the 46:Telegraphy 6624:820084531 6405:MIT Press 6394:904216191 6244:752259860 6089:Routledge 6078:655205099 6057:855457547 6049:Macmillan 5954:Routledge 5862:497380538 5759:Routledge 5569:776529627 5478:556787913 5418:Routledge 2287:Telegrams 2223:facsimile 2102:Bentley's 2081:Bentley's 2075:Bentley's 2043:codewords 2039:codebooks 1967:Lands End 1963:The Brick 1922:from the 1912:Balaklava 1904:Black Sea 1854:Prior to 1754:telephone 1639:Aftermath 1482:Salt Hill 1465:The Times 1396:gave the 1313:repeaters 1246:Hong Kong 1234:Singapore 1194:Gibraltar 1126:Fao, Iraq 891:Singapore 882:Palaquium 845:Newmarket 774:synchrony 746:Newbiggin 734:Edinburgh 722:Wakefield 714:Sheffield 710:Leicester 702:Liverpool 681:flat rate 656:fourpence 522:wayleaves 275:oxidizing 239:Admiralty 183:wayleaves 6375:archived 6368:archived 6353:17-10907 6108:ABC-CLIO 6030:Springer 5994:\, 1997 5956:\, 2013 5818:, 2003, 5740:ABC-Clio 5623:, 2004a 5499:38695869 5298:archived 2394:internet 2392:and the 2363:Cold War 2327:In 1969 2071:ABC Code 1894:Military 1778:messages 1711:In 1868 1626:and the 1618:and the 1599:Nordeney 1202:Falmouth 1022:Woolwich 742:Plymouth 718:Barnsley 660:sixpence 643:District 609:magnetic 558:(1859). 538:Moorgate 413:shilling 302:armature 208:internet 158:for the 58:telegram 6603:, 2007 6584:, 2012 6565:, 2013 6546:, 1998 6518:, 2004 6481:, 2012 6462:, 1891 6426:, 2015 6407:, 2008 6347:, 1866 6314:, 2008 6295:, 2019 6276:, 2003 6257:, 2002 6197:, 2010 6178:, 2006 6159:, 1991 6140:, 1982 6110:, 2008 6091:, 2005 6072:, 1973 6051:, 1967 6032:, 2016 6013:, 2010 5975:, 2003 5937:, 2002 5903:, 2004 5884:, 1991 5856:, 1968 5837:, 2018 5799:, 1960 5780:, 1998 5761:, 2006 5742:, 2019 5723:, 2015 5704:, 2015 5685:, 2017 5666:, 1992 5604:, 2017 5582:, 2012 5546:, 2010 5527:, 2001 5457:, 2011 5438:, 2001 5420:, 2001 5401:, 2014 4945:Godfrey 4283:Hansard 1988:Street 1630:. The 1529:, then 1242:Malacca 1122:Karachi 1105:Red Sea 1018:Siemens 946:tarred 856:Reuters 750:Jutland 738:Swansea 730:Glasgow 589:duopoly 551:Monarch 478:Prussia 474:Siemens 6622: 6607: 6588: 6569: 6550: 6522: 6500: 6485: 6466: 6430: 6411: 6392: 6351: 6332: 6318: 6299: 6280: 6261: 6242: 6234:(ed), 6230:, in, 6216: 6201: 6182: 6163: 6144: 6114: 6095: 6076: 6055: 6036: 6017: 5998: 5979: 5960: 5941: 5922: 5907: 5888: 5860: 5841: 5822: 5803: 5784: 5765: 5746: 5727: 5708: 5689: 5670: 5627: 5608: 5586: 5567: 5550: 5531: 5512: 5497: 5476: 5461: 5442: 5424: 5405: 2113:cipher 1486:Slough 1484:(near 1238:Penang 1230:Madras 1211:Bombay 1002:Thames 962:, and 869:Rubber 820:weaver 720:, and 700:, and 647:Strand 405:Slough 338:detent 122:cartel 84:. The 5973:Wiley 5835:BRILL 2817:7 May 2390:Email 2370:ASCII 2355:telex 2264:Egypt 1934:Alert 1908:Varna 1906:from 1444:8 wpm 1311:with 1182:Cairo 1174:Malta 877:latex 766:types 290:relay 204:telex 94:relay 6620:OCLC 6605:ISBN 6586:ISBN 6567:ISBN 6548:ISBN 6520:ISBN 6498:ISBN 6483:ISBN 6464:OCLC 6428:ISBN 6409:ISBN 6390:OCLC 6349:LCCN 6330:ISBN 6316:ISBN 6297:ISBN 6278:ISBN 6259:ISBN 6240:OCLC 6214:ISBN 6199:ISBN 6180:ISBN 6161:ISBN 6142:ISBN 6112:ISBN 6093:ISBN 6074:OCLC 6053:OCLC 6034:ISBN 6015:ISBN 5996:ISBN 5977:ISBN 5958:ISBN 5939:ISBN 5920:ISBN 5905:ISBN 5886:ISBN 5858:OCLC 5839:ISBN 5820:ISBN 5801:ISBN 5782:ISBN 5763:ISBN 5744:ISBN 5725:ISBN 5706:ISBN 5687:ISBN 5668:ISBN 5625:ISBN 5606:ISBN 5584:ISBN 5565:OCLC 5548:ISBN 5529:ISBN 5510:ISBN 5495:OCLC 5474:OCLC 5459:ISBN 5440:ISBN 5422:ISBN 5403:ISBN 2819:2024 2296:and 2255:Axis 2151:bits 1732:The 1549:the 1254:Java 1240:and 1236:via 1207:Aden 1196:and 1186:Suez 978:and 948:hemp 925:The 793:The 740:and 732:and 726:Hull 394:code 348:and 5816:IEE 5621:IEE 5525:IEE 2798:UK 2400:in 2388:. 2270:'s 1980:SS 1932:CS 1910:to 1472:to 1439:wpm 1437:10 1293:RCA 1264:in 1209:to 1176:to 1124:to 1068:. 1004:in 984:SS 954:in 934:in 799:wpm 748:to 549:CS 424:fax 388:to 6636:: 6599:, 6580:, 6561:, 6542:, 6510:, 6477:, 6452:, 6440:, 6422:, 6403:, 6310:, 6291:, 6272:, 6253:, 6226:, 6193:, 6174:, 6155:, 6136:, 6125:, 6106:, 6087:, 6068:, 6028:, 6009:, 5990:, 5971:, 5952:, 5933:, 5899:, 5880:, 5852:, 5833:, 5814:, 5795:, 5776:, 5757:, 5719:, 5700:, 5681:, 5658:, 5619:, 5578:, 5542:, 5523:, 5484:). 5453:, 5434:, 5416:, 5397:, 5290:, 2808:. 2249:. 2188:. 1953:, 1442:, 958:, 716:, 712:, 708:, 696:, 415:(5 304:. 285:. 52:. 6626:. 6611:. 6592:. 6573:. 6554:. 6489:. 6470:. 6434:. 6415:. 6396:. 6336:. 6303:. 6284:. 6265:. 6246:. 6220:. 6205:. 6186:. 6167:. 6148:. 6118:. 6099:. 6080:. 6059:. 6040:. 6021:. 6002:. 5983:. 5964:. 5945:. 5926:. 5911:. 5892:. 5864:. 5845:. 5826:. 5807:. 5788:. 5769:. 5750:. 5731:. 5712:. 5693:. 5674:. 5631:. 5612:. 5571:. 5554:. 5535:. 5516:. 5501:. 5480:( 5465:. 5446:. 5409:. 2821:. 20:)

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