509:
501:(the maximum distance the wind can travel across the water). When the wind no longer mixed oxygenated surface water with the bottom waters of Brown Lake, sedimentary iron became soluble and was mobilized into the anoxic bottom water at a concentration several hundred times greater than the surface water, increasing the relative density of the bottom water and beginning a positive feedback system in which other ions such as sodium and chloride could also accumulate, further minimizing the probability that wind energy would be sufficient to mix surface water into the increasingly dense bottom water. The onset of
355:
45:
29:
52:
477:
The land surrounding
Brownie Lake was purchased by William McNair shortly after the land west of the Mississippi River was opened for white settlement in 1857. McNair named the lake "Brownie", after a nickname of his daughter, Agnes McNair. It was formerly called "Hillside Harbor". Brownie Lake was
559:
In the winter, the Chain of Lakes Ski Trail extends for 1 km from the tunnel to Cedar Lake, across the lake and up the western side of the basin, connecting up with the
Theodore Wirth Park trails. Trails are maintained through a partnership of the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board and the
485:
In 1867 the St. Paul & Pacific
Railroad Company built a railroad track across the southern end of Brownie Lake. In 1883 James J. Hill took over the St. Paul & Pacific Railroad and expanded the track into a double track mainline that connected the wheat fields west of the Mississippi to the
551:
Within
Brownie Lake Park, a 1.4-mile single track mountain biking trail loops along the western slope of the Brownie Lake basin. This trail connects to the Glenwood Loop and the Southwest Wirth loop, and all trails are maintained by Minnesota Off-Road Cyclists. This was the first "Black Diamond"
437:
Phytoplankton predominate over zooplankton in
Brownie Lake. In recent monitoring (2012), Cryptomonads (Cryptophyta) were most abundant in winter. Chrysophyte populations peaked in April, while Dinoflagellates (Pyrrhophyta) and green algae (Chlorophyta) both peaked in June. The summer was then
362:
Open water plants in
Brownie Lake include yellow and white water lilies, coontail, pondweeds, and lesser duckweed. The aquatic invasive species Eurasian watermilfoil and curly-leaf pondweed are also present. The surrounding area is composed of altered forest/woodland, prairie, and dry-mesic
235:
A distinguishing feature of
Brownie Lake is the high concentrations of dissolved iron (Fe), which have historically been between 1–2 mmol/L in the bottom part of the lake, and still exceed 1 mmol/L today. From 1950 until the 1990s, an industrial cooling outlet from what was the
493:(1913), and Cedar Lake and Brownie Lake (1916). The hydraulic connections reduced the lake level of Brownie Lake by 2 to 3 meters, which drew Brownie Lake down into its steep-sided local catchment, significantly reducing its surface area, and increasing shelter from wind.
993:
Myrbo, Amy; Murphy, Marylee; Stanley, Valerie (2011). "The
Minneapolis Chain of Lakes by bicycle: Glacial history, human modifications, and paleolimnology of an urban natural environment". In Miller, James D.; Hudak, George J.; Wittkop, Chad; McLaughlin, Patrick I. (eds.).
264:
was pumped into
Bassett Creek, which then entered Brownie. Concerns about elevated phosphate from the rivers being transferred into the Minneapolis city lakes resulted in the dismantling of the program in the 1990s. Brownie receives stormwater inputs from Minneapolis and
240:
Office
Building with average total iron concentrations of 7 ÎĽmol/L was discharged into Brownie Lake at a rate of 50,000 gallons per day. Therefore, surface concentrations of dissolved iron were higher in the 1970s (~ 2 ÎĽmol/L) than they are today (< 1 ÎĽmol/L).
1061:
Lambrecht, Nicholas; Katsev, Sergei; Wittkop, Chad; Hall, Steven J.; Sheik, Cody S.; Picard, Aude; Fakhraee, Mojtaba; Swanner, Elizabeth D. (January 2020). "Biogeochemical and physical controls on methane fluxes from two ferruginous meromictic lakes".
331:
between 16,500 and 13,900 cal yr BP. These deposits include a mixture of sediments derived from both northwest- and northeast-sourced glacial ice, with northeast-sourced sediments containing a greater abundance of iron-rich rocks from the
343:, which were filled with sediments during the Last Glacial Maximum. These buried valleys have little surface expression, but are associated with clusters of lakes, and locally influenced the course of modern rivers and streams.
220:. There are no natural inflows to Brownie Lake, but it receives storm sewer runoff from six locations around the lake. Water flows out through a canal connecting Brownie to Cedar Lake, which is hydrologically connected to
555:
Motor boats are not permitted on Brownie Lake. A canoe/kayak rack is stationed near the dirt boat ramp at the northwest end of the lake, and rack spaces can be rented from the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board.
468:
Chlorobium masyuteum". This organism is photosynthetic, and uses sunlight energy to convert dissolved iron into rust. The epithet "masyuteum" was derived from the Dakota phrase mas’yúte, meaning “eats iron”.
496:
It is most likely that Brownie Lake became meromictic as a result of the significant decrease in the ability of wind to impart energy to the surface of the lake, both due to sheltering and reduced maximum
339:
Brownie Lake lies on the edge of a buried bedrock valley filled with as much as 300 feet of glacial debris. The buried valleys in the Twin Cities region likely represent river incision from previous
1219:
208:, which means there are two layers of water in the lake with differing physical and chemical conditions, and which do not intermix in spring and fall as occurs in most lakes in the northern
486:
flour mills of Minneapolis. The expansion of the railroad embankment in 1883 filled in the southwestern arm of Brownie Lake, and reduced the surface area of Brownie Lake by 34%.
508:
1164:
Tracey, B.; Lee, N.; Card, V. (1996). "Sediment indicators of meromixis: comparison of laminations, diatoms, and sediment chemistry in Brownie Lake, Minneapolis, USA".
256:, which then sink and dissolve, releasing phosphate. Some of the phosphate inputs are likely anthropogenic. A pumping station was created in 1957 to pump water from
1283:
300:
lakes, including Brownie Lake. While lake lowering initiated the onset of meromixis (see History), road salt pollution stabilizes the lake against intermixing.
1313:
605:
1227:
1035:
464:
diffusing out of the anoxic portion of the lake by reaction with oxygen. A new species of bacteria was discovered from Brownie Lake in 2021 and named
367:
44:
765:
1249:
1011:
244:
Total phosphate concentrations in Brownie Lake can reach 46 ÎĽmol/L. In 2014, Brownie had total phosphorus levels considered eutrophic by the
193:
92:
1027:
545:
280:
ions in the surface and bottom waters from the 1970s to 2010s was caused by the use of road salt in de-icing. Sodium and chloride are
257:
245:
229:
489:
The lake's surface area was further decreased by 56% between 1913 and 1917 after channels were constructed to connect Cedar Lake and
323:
The uplands immediately surrounding Brownie Lake are composed of a mixture of sands, gravels, and glacial tills deposited during the
1107:""Candidatus Chlorobium masyuteum," a Novel Photoferrotrophic Green Sulfur Bacterium Enriched From a Ferruginous Meromictic Lake"
1105:
Lambrecht, Nicholas; Stevenson, Zackry; Sheik, Cody S.; Pronschinske, Matthew A.; Tong, Hui; Swanner, Elizabeth D. (2021).
1358:
1353:
790:
Novotny, Eric V.; Murphy, Dan; Stefan, Heinz G. (November 2008). "Increase of urban lake salinity by road deicing salt".
544:, runs north-south along Cedar Lake Parkway, just to the east and elevated above Brownie Lake. This path is part of the
521:
173:
1291:
297:
1322:
165:
1363:
612:
266:
248:. Because it is meromictic with abundant dissolved iron, phosphate can be shuttled out of surface waters through
260:
into Brownie Lake in order to maintain the desired water levels in the Chain of Lakes. In 1966, water from the
189:
177:
660:
Lambrecht, Nicholas; Wittkop, Chad; Katsev, Sergei; Fakhraee, Mojtaba; Swanner, Elizabeth D. (October 2018).
438:
dominated by cyanobacteria (Cyanophyta), with an increase in Cryptomonad (Cryptophyta) abundance by October.
936:
908:
880:
849:
216:
separates the top layer of the lake, which contains dissolved oxygen, from the bottom layer, which is
1173:
799:
673:
520:
The land west of Brownie Lake, which had been a part of Theodore Wirth Park, was sold in 1952 to the
328:
324:
237:
998:. GSA Field Guides. Vol. 24. Boulder, CO: The Geological Society of America. pp. 425–437.
754:
732:
The paucity of blue-green algae in meromictic Brownie Lake: iron limitation or heavy-metal toxicity
479:
293:
1258:
1197:
540:
Brownie Lake is encircled by a packed dirt walking path. An additional paved multi-use path, the
529:
525:
288:(NaCl). Minnesota began using salt to de-ice roads in 1950. Past stormwater inputs from nearby
1189:
1146:
1128:
1087:
1079:
1007:
975:
823:
815:
691:
498:
490:
399:
261:
221:
181:
1039:
212:. It is one of two meromictic bodies of water in Minneapolis, the other being Spring Lake. A
1181:
1136:
1118:
1071:
999:
807:
681:
662:"Geochemical Characterization of Two Ferruginous Meromictic Lakes in the Upper Midwest, USA"
541:
33:
The view looking south over Brownie Lake, with Cedar Lake in the background in October 2019
996:
Archean to Anthropocene: Field Guides to the Geology of the Mid-Continent of North America
502:
407:
387:
205:
1177:
803:
677:
354:
1141:
1106:
442:
427:
371:
308:
The geology of Minneapolis in the vicinity of Brownie Lake generally consists of lower
289:
209:
944:(Map). County Atlas. Hennepin County: Minnesota Geological Survey. § C-45, Part A
916:(Map). County Atlas. Hennepin County: Minnesota Geological Survey. § C-45, Part A
888:(Map). County Atlas. Hennepin County: Minnesota Geological Survey. § C-45, Part A
857:(Map). County Atlas. Hennepin County: Minnesota Geological Survey. § C-45, Part A
346:
A bicycle guide to the Geology of the Chain of Lakes includes a stop at Brownie Lake.
1347:
1201:
431:
391:
383:
375:
333:
217:
811:
292:
were likely a direct source of salt. Road salt has been linked to enhanced chemical
604:
Minneapolis Park & Recreation Board Environmental Stewardship (February 2017).
453:
423:
411:
340:
225:
185:
967:
1220:"Target to sell its west campus building, move 1,300 employees to Brooklyn Park"
532:
relocated employees from this site in 2015, and put the property on the market.
419:
395:
313:
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73:
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457:
281:
253:
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213:
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1083:
819:
695:
107:
94:
309:
77:
28:
1150:
1091:
827:
979:
560:
Loppet Foundation. Trail passes are available from the Loppet Foundation.
686:
661:
379:
317:
277:
611:. Minneapolis, MN: Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board. Archived from
1185:
461:
445:
403:
1075:
415:
285:
273:
639:
City of Minneapolis GIS Water Quality Model, 2019. Barr Engineering.
320:
alluvium and wetland sediments are also found adjacent to the lake.
1257:(Map). Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board. 2006. Archived from
507:
353:
974:. Saint Paul, MN: Minnesota Geological Survey. pp. 515–547.
192:). It is within Brownie Lake Park, and administered by the
478:
then acquired by the expansion of the Glenwood Park, now
370:
reports a number of fish taxa in Brownie Lake including
312:
carbonates and clastic rocks overlain by unconsolidated
1315:
Theodore Wirth Park & Chain of Lakes Ski Trail Map
448:
in the anoxic bottom waters, which produce methane (CH
151:
143:
135:
131:
123:
84:
69:
21:
284:throughout the lake, signifying a source from the
172:. It is the northernmost lake in the Minneapolis
85:
938:Plate 6–Bedrock Topography and Depth to Bedrock
666:Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences
8:
1321:(Map). The Loppet Foundation. Archived from
512:The Prudential office west of Brownie Lake,
252:onto iron oxide minerals that form at the
18:
1140:
1122:
1036:Minnesota Department of Natural Resources
972:Geology of Minnesota: A Centennial Volume
685:
368:Minnesota Department of Natural Resources
246:Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA)
569:
755:"Theodore Wirth Regional Park History"
1288:Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board
1213:
1211:
970:. In Sims, P.K.; Morey, G.B. (eds.).
961:
959:
762:Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board
725:
599:
597:
595:
593:
552:trail in Minneapolis, built in 2016.
194:Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board
127:Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board
7:
874:
872:
843:
841:
839:
837:
749:
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633:
591:
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583:
581:
579:
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573:
51:
1251:Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway
546:Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway
230:Minnehaha Creek Watershed District
14:
1218:Kumar, Kavita (August 13, 2015).
968:"Quaternary History of Minnesota"
792:Science of the Total Environment
452:; natural gas). A population of
168:, and within the city limits of
50:
43:
27:
882:Plate 4–Quaternary Stratigraphy
812:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.07.037
771:from the original on 2015-04-26
734:(PhD). University of Minnesota.
150:
142:
134:
228:. Brownie Lake is part of the
1:
606:"Water resources report 2015"
513:
441:Brownie Lake is inhabited by
68:
879:Berthold, Angela J. (2018).
848:Berthold, Angela J. (2018).
522:Prudential Insurance Company
935:Reltzer, Andrew J. (2018).
907:Reltzer, Andrew J. (2018).
358:Brownie Lake at shore level
1380:
166:Hennepin County, Minnesota
1166:Journal of Paleolimnology
1124:10.3389/fmicb.2021.695260
1111:Frontiers in Microbiology
966:Wright, H.E. Jr. (1972).
851:Plate 3–Surficial Geology
505:likely occurred by 1925.
38:
26:
139:18 acres (0.073 km)
910:Plate 2–Bedrock Geology
536:Recreational facilities
155:49.9 feet (15.2 m)
517:
359:
147:20.3 feet (6.2 m)
1004:10.1130/2011.0024(20)
511:
357:
108:44.96750°N 93.32444°W
1359:Parks in Minneapolis
1354:Lakes of Minneapolis
1328:on November 10, 2019
1042:on December 10, 2019
730:Swain, E.B. (1984).
687:10.1029/2018JG004587
334:Lake Superior region
329:Laurentide Ice Sheet
325:Last Glacial Maximum
1284:"Brownie Lake Park"
1230:on October 23, 2019
1178:1996JPall..15..129T
804:2008ScTEn.406..131N
678:2018JGRG..123.3403L
618:on October 23, 2019
480:Theodore Wirth Park
316:glacial sediments.
113:44.96750; -93.32444
104: /
1294:on October 6, 2019
1186:10.1007/BF00196776
530:Target Corporation
526:Target Corporation
518:
360:
204:Brownie Lake is a
1076:10.1111/gbi.12365
1013:978-0-8137-0024-3
672:(10): 3403–3422.
524:. It was sold to
491:Lake of the Isles
400:tiger muskellunge
363:forest/woodland.
262:Mississippi River
222:Lake of the Isles
182:Lake of the Isles
159:
158:
16:Lake in Minnesota
1371:
1364:Meromictic lakes
1338:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1327:
1320:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1290:. Archived from
1280:
1274:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1263:
1256:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1226:. Archived from
1215:
1206:
1205:
1161:
1155:
1154:
1144:
1126:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1058:
1052:
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1047:
1038:. Archived from
1024:
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990:
984:
983:
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953:
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943:
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727:
700:
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689:
657:
640:
637:
628:
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610:
601:
542:Cedar Lake Trail
515:
456:bacteria at the
119:
118:
116:
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114:
109:
105:
102:
101:
100:
97:
87:
54:
53:
47:
31:
19:
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1344:
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1325:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1295:
1282:
1281:
1277:
1267:
1265:
1264:on July 6, 2017
1261:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1243:
1233:
1231:
1217:
1216:
1209:
1163:
1162:
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835:
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703:
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643:
638:
631:
621:
619:
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603:
602:
571:
566:
538:
475:
451:
408:yellow bullhead
388:largemouth bass
352:
350:Natural history
306:
206:meromictic lake
202:
176:(Brownie Lake,
124:Managing agency
112:
110:
106:
103:
98:
95:
93:
91:
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65:
64:
63:
62:
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55:
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1366:
1361:
1356:
1346:
1345:
1340:
1339:
1305:
1275:
1241:
1207:
1172:(2): 129–132.
1156:
1097:
1053:
1028:"Brownie Lake"
1019:
1012:
985:
955:
927:
899:
868:
833:
798:(1): 131–144.
782:
737:
701:
641:
629:
568:
567:
565:
562:
537:
534:
474:
471:
454:methanotrophic
449:
428:fathead minnow
372:black bullhead
351:
348:
305:
302:
294:stratification
290:Interstate 394
267:St. Louis Park
210:temperate zone
201:
198:
174:Chain of Lakes
157:
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49:
48:
42:
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24:
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15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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487:
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472:
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432:golden shiner
429:
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421:
417:
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401:
397:
393:
392:northern pike
389:
385:
381:
377:
376:black crappie
373:
369:
364:
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349:
347:
344:
342:
341:interglacials
337:
335:
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258:Bassett Creek
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164:is a lake in
163:
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144:Average depth
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130:
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122:
117:
89:
83:
79:
75:
72:
46:
37:
30:
25:
20:
1332:November 10,
1330:. Retrieved
1323:the original
1314:
1308:
1298:November 10,
1296:. Retrieved
1292:the original
1287:
1278:
1266:. Retrieved
1259:the original
1250:
1244:
1232:. Retrieved
1228:the original
1224:Star Tribune
1223:
1169:
1165:
1159:
1114:
1110:
1100:
1070:(1): 54–69.
1067:
1063:
1056:
1046:December 10,
1044:. Retrieved
1040:the original
1031:
1022:
995:
988:
971:
948:December 13,
946:. Retrieved
937:
930:
920:December 13,
918:. Retrieved
909:
902:
892:December 13,
890:. Retrieved
881:
861:December 11,
859:. Retrieved
850:
795:
791:
785:
773:. Retrieved
761:
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620:. Retrieved
613:the original
558:
554:
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484:
476:
465:
443:methanogenic
440:
436:
424:white sucker
412:yellow perch
365:
361:
345:
338:
322:
307:
272:Doubling of
271:
243:
234:
226:Bde Maka Ska
203:
190:Lake Harriet
186:Bde Maka Ska
162:Brownie Lake
161:
160:
136:Surface area
58:Brownie Lake
22:Brownie Lake
1268:November 9,
1234:October 23,
775:October 23,
622:November 4,
482:, in 1907.
466:"Candidatus
420:common carp
418:(dogfish),
396:pumpkinseed
314:Pleistocene
298:Twin Cities
170:Minneapolis
111: /
86:Coordinates
74:Minneapolis
1348:Categories
1064:Geobiology
1032:LakeFinder
564:References
458:chemocline
254:chemocline
250:adsorption
238:Prudential
214:chemocline
178:Cedar Lake
152:Max. depth
99:93°19′28″W
96:44°58′03″N
1202:129509299
1194:1573-0417
1133:1664-302X
1084:1472-4669
820:0048-9697
696:2169-8961
528:in 1994.
503:meromixis
382:, hybrid
310:Paleozoic
282:equimolar
200:Hydrology
78:Minnesota
1151:34305861
1117:: 1768.
1092:31592570
828:18762321
766:Archived
460:consume
380:bluegill
318:Holocene
278:chloride
196:(MPRB).
70:Location
1174:Bibcode
1142:8302410
800:Bibcode
674:Bibcode
473:History
462:methane
446:archaea
404:walleye
384:sunfish
327:by the
304:Geology
1200:
1192:
1149:
1139:
1131:
1090:
1082:
1010:
980:800396
978:
826:
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694:
430:, and
416:bowfin
286:halite
274:sodium
218:anoxic
188:, and
1326:(PDF)
1319:(PDF)
1262:(PDF)
1255:(PDF)
1198:S2CID
942:(PDF)
914:(PDF)
886:(PDF)
855:(PDF)
769:(PDF)
758:(PDF)
616:(PDF)
609:(PDF)
516:1960s
499:fetch
1334:2019
1300:2019
1270:2019
1236:2019
1190:ISSN
1147:PMID
1129:ISSN
1088:PMID
1080:ISSN
1048:2019
1008:ISBN
976:OCLC
950:2019
922:2019
894:2019
863:2018
824:PMID
816:ISSN
777:2019
692:ISSN
624:2019
366:The
276:and
224:and
80:, US
1182:doi
1137:PMC
1119:doi
1072:doi
1000:doi
808:doi
796:406
682:doi
670:123
296:in
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