761:
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103:
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A certain degree of instability can be compensated by linking together fingerprints that, although partially different, might probably belong to the same device. This can be accomplished by a simple rule-based linking algorithm (which, for example, links together fingerprints that differ only for the
278:
In order to uniquely distinguish over time some devices through their fingerprints, the fingerprints must be both sufficiently diverse and sufficiently stable. In practice neither diversity nor stability is fully attainable, and improving one has a tendency to adversely impact the other. For example,
660:
A canvas fingerprinting script first draws text of specified font, size, and background color. The image of the text as rendered by the user's browser is then recovered by the ToDataURL Canvas API method. The hashed text-encoded data becomes the user's fingerprint. Canvas fingerprinting methods have
401:
Passive fingerprinting techniques merely require the fingerprinter to observe traffic originated from the target device, while active fingerprinting techniques require the fingerprinter to initiate connections to the target device. Techniques that require interaction with the target device over a
313:
Even if they are not designed to gather and share identifying information, local applications might unwillingly expose identifying information to the remote parties with which they interact. The most prominent example is that of web browsers, which have been proved to expose diverse and stable
429:
Browsers provide their name and version, together with some compatibility information, in the User-Agent request header. Being a statement freely given by the client, it should not be trusted when assessing its identity. Instead, the type and version of the browser can be inferred from the
414:
languages, which were introduced in the late 1990s. Today there are several open-source browser fingerprinting libraries, such as
FingerprintJS, ImprintJS, and ClientJS, where FingerprintJS is updated the most often and supersedes ImprintJS and ClientJS to a large extent.
661:
been shown to produce 5.7 bits of entropy. Because the technique obtains information about the user's GPU, the information entropy gained is "orthogonal" to the entropy of previous browser fingerprint techniques such as screen resolution and JavaScript capabilities.
715:
Different approaches exist to mitigate the effects of browser fingerprinting and improve users' privacy by preventing unwanted tracking, but there is no ultimate approach that can prevent fingerprinting while keeping the richness of a modern web browser.
279:
the assimilation of an additional browser setting into the browser fingerprint would usually increase diversity, but it would also reduce stability, because if a user changes that setting, then the browser fingerprint would change as well.
888:
Different browsers on the same machine would usually have different fingerprints, but if both browsers are not protected against fingerprinting, then the two fingerprints could be identified as originating from the same machine.
872:) can sometimes render websites unusable. The preferred approach is to block only third-party domains that seem to track people, either because they are found on a blacklist of tracking domains (the approach followed by most
855:
Spoofing the information differently at each site visit, for example by perturbating the sound and canvas rendering with a small amount of random noise, allows a reduction of stability. This technique has been adopted by the
852:) may create a reduction in diversity, but the contrary could be also achieved if the spoofed information differentiates the user from all the others who do not use such a strategy more than the real browser information.
258:
has been turned on by default for all users also during non-private browsing. The feature was first introduced to protect private browsing in 2015 and was then extended to standard browsing as an opt-in feature in 2018.
695:
can also be used, such as the
Battery API, which constructs a short-term fingerprint based on the actual battery state of the device, or OscillatorNode, which can be invoked to produce a waveform based on user entropy.
599:. Typically, a list of 50 popular websites were sufficient to generate a unique user history profile, as well as provide information about the user's interests. However, browsers have since then mitigated this risk.
832:
In order to reduce diversity, Tor browser doesn't allow the width and height of the window available to the webpage to be any number of pixels, but allows only some given values. The result is that the webpage is
297:
Applications that are locally installed on a device are allowed to gather a great amount of information about the software and the hardware of the device, often including unique identifiers such as the
38:
is information collected about the software and hardware of a remote computing device for the purpose of identification. The information is usually assimilated into a brief identifier using a
539:
unique to a browser can be added to a fingerprint directly. Extensions may also modify how any other browser attributes behave, adding additional complexity to the user's fingerprint.
211:
In 2014, 5.5% of Alexa top 10,000 sites were found to use canvas fingerprinting scripts served by a total of 20 domains. The overwhelming majority (95%) of the scripts were served by
1045:
1664:
595:
The fingerprinter could determine which sites the browser had previously visited within a list it provided, by querying the list using JavaScript with the CSS selector
228:
was introduced in
Firefox version 42 to protect against tracking during private browsing by blocking scripts from third party domains found in the lists published by
1075:
1729:
1128:. WWW '15: The 24th International Conference on World Wide Web. Florence Italy: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. pp. 820–830.
2538:
179:
launched a website where visitors can test their browser fingerprint. After collecting a sample of 470161 fingerprints, they measured at least 18.1 bits of
2316:
Olejnik L, Acar G, Castelluccia C, Diaz C (2016). "The
Leaking Battery". In Garcia-Alfaro J, Navarro-Arribas G, Aldini A, Martinelli F, Suri N (eds.).
321:
Diverse and stable information can also be gathered below the application layer, by leveraging the protocols that are used to transmit data. Sorted by
868:
Blindly blocking client-side scripts served from third-party domains, and possibly also first-party domains (e.g. by disabling JavaScript or using
1485:. 2014 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer & Communications Security. Scottsdale AZ USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 674–689.
898:
2353:. 2014 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer & Communications Security. Vienna Austria: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 1388–1401.
1174:. 2013 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer & Communications Security. Berlin Germany: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 1129–1140.
1304:
1279:
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Abgrall E, Le Traon Y, Monperrus M, Gombault S, Heiderich M, Ribault A (2012-11-20). "XSS-FP: Browser
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1518:
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1187:
1151:
1025:
960:
2287:. 10th International Conference on Innovative Mobile and Internet Services in Ubiquitous Computing. Fukuoka Japan: IEEE. pp. 587–592.
1422:
250:"presents simplified system information when users browse the web, preventing them from being tracked based on their system configuration."
1926:. 10th International Conference on Broadband and Wireless Computing, Communication and Applications. Krakow Poland: IEEE. pp. 57–63.
1659:
Vastel, Antoine; Laperdrix, Pierre; Rudametkin, Walter; Rouvoy, Romain (May 2018). "FP-STALKER: Tracking
Browser Fingerprint Evolutions".
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1760:
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760:
356:
692:
385:
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176:
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comparison of parser behaviors has been shown to effectively fingerprint and differentiate a majority of browser versions.
1071:
1012:. 32nd Annual Conference on Computer Security. Los Angeles CA USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 289–301.
366:
165:
65:
is hidden, or one switches to another browser on the same device. This may allow a service provider to detect and prevent
1541:
434:
is unique to each browser family and, most importantly, each browser family and version differs in its implementation of
1736:
286:
180:
1854:. 2013 International Conference on Availability, Reliability and Security. Regensburg Germany: IEEE. pp. 255–261.
1100:
700:
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The collection of a large amount of diverse and stable information from web browsers is possible for most part due to
370:
78:
2217:
431:
157:
experts starting to complain about the ease of bulk parameter extraction offered by web browsers as early as 2003.
2663:
1792:
1591:
307:
2645:, by INRIA and INSA Rennes, implements fingerprinting techniques including collecting information through WebGL.
215:, which started using canvas fingerprinting in January that year, without the knowledge of some of its clients.
829:
disables fingerprintable features such as the canvas and WebGL API and notifies users of fingerprint attempts.
646:
544:
395:
346:
39:
2451:
2668:
2231:
Fifield D, Egelman S (2015). "Fingerprinting Web Users
Through Font Metrics". In Böhme R, Okamoto T (eds.).
918:
826:
2578:
2678:
2639:, gathers some elements of a browser's device fingerprint and estimates how identifiable it makes the user
1956:
834:
1625:
669:
624:
608:
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184:
2418:. The 19th Annual Network and Distributed System Security Symposium. San Diego CA USA: Internet Society
1816:
1275:
769:
1300:
808:
576:
330:
243:
74:
977:
2565:
2516:"Adblock Plus: We can stop canvas fingerprinting, the 'unstoppable' new browser tracking technique"
2235:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 8975. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 107–124.
1761:"Chatter on the Wire: A look at excessive network traffic and what it can mean to network security"
673:
2523:
2264:
Obaidat, Muath (2020). "Canvas
Deceiver - A New Defense Mechanism Against Canvas Fingerprinting".
876:) or because the intention of tracking is inferred by past observations (the approach followed by
2160:
1209:
572:
560:
536:
208:
top 10,000 sites were found to use fingerprinting scripts provided by a few known third parties.
2450:
Merzdovnik G, Huber M, Buhov D, Nikiforakis N, Neuner S, Schmiedecker M, Weippl E (April 2017).
1982:
2013:. 7th International Conference on New Technologies, Mobility and Security. Paris France: IEEE.
1301:"MSIE clientCaps "isComponentInstalled" and "getComponentVersion" registry information leakage"
1010:
Device
Fingerprinting for Augmenting Web Authentication: Classification and Analysis of Methods
776:
which minimizes the availability of identifying information, such as browser fonts, device ID,
637:
to render 2D and 3D graphics in a browser, to gain identifying information about the installed
153:
has gradually enabled the collection of an increasing amount of diverse information, with some
2586:
2468:
2459:. 2017 IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy. Paris France: IEEE. pp. 319–333.
2362:
2329:
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1021:
956:
804:
677:
556:
532:
229:
154:
70:
54:
2081:. 26th USENIX Security Symposium. Vancouver BC Canada: USENIX Association. pp. 679–694.
1379:
2460:
2354:
2321:
2288:
2236:
2116:
2115:. 11th International Conference on Intelligent Systems and Control. Coimbatore India: IEEE.
2047:
2014:
1927:
1891:
1888:
Countering Browser Fingerprinting Techniques: Constructing a Fake Profile with Google Chrome
1855:
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923:
908:
903:
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564:
447:
424:
268:
86:
53:
Device fingerprints can be used to fully or partially identify individual devices even when
1890:. 17th International Conference on Network-Based Information Systems. Salerno Italy: IEEE.
1645:
1611:
2320:. DPM 2015, QASA 2015. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 9481. Springer, Cham.
2159:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer International Publishing. pp. 105–120.
1565:
1170:
Acar G, Juarez M, Nikiforakis N, Diaz C, Gürses S, Piessens F, Preneel B (November 2013).
222:
version 41, but it has been since left in an experimental stage, not initiated by default.
1046:"You Are Being Tracked Online By A Sneaky New Technology -- Here's What You Need To Know"
2410:
2046:. 2017 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. San Jose CA USA: IEEE. pp. 941–956.
1698:
1276:"EFF's Top 12 Ways to Protect Your Online Privacy | Electronic Frontier Foundation"
951:
Eckersley P (2017). "How Unique Is Your Web Browser?". In Atallah MJ, Hopper NJ (eds.).
743:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
116:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
73:, but also to compile long-term records of individuals' browsing histories (and deliver
2283:
Saito T, Yasuda K, Ishikawa T, Hosoi R, Takahashi K, Chen Y, Zalasiński M (July 2016).
2078:
Extension Breakdown: Security Analysis of Browsers Extension Resources Control Policies
1850:
Unger T, Mulazzani M, Frühwirt D, Huber M, Schrittwieser S, Weippl E (September 2013).
1329:
877:
812:
792:
777:
630:
205:
198:
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of a device, and consequently to remotely obtain a hardware fingerprint of the device.
66:
27:
Information collected about a remote computing device for the purpose of identification
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857:
800:
650:
638:
303:
138:
58:
2196:
Why Johnny Can't Browse in Peace: On the Uniqueness of Web Browsing History Patterns
1831:
1418:
928:
612:
247:
17:
1240:
Nikiforakis N, Kapravelos A, Wouter J, Kruegel C, Piessens F, Vigna G (May 2013).
2566:"The Elephant In The Background: Empowering Users Against Browser Fingerprinting"
2325:
2199:. 5th Workshop on Hot Topics in Privacy Enhancing Technologies. Vigo Spain: INRIA
2437:"What's Brave Done For My Privacy Lately? Episode #3: Fingerprint Randomization"
2240:
955:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 1–18.
773:
568:
540:
389:
299:
272:
146:
142:
134:
47:
2384:"Firefox to add Tor Browser anti-fingerprinting technique called letter-boxing"
1481:
Acar G, Eubank C, Englehardt S, Juarez M, Narayanan A, Diaz C (November 2014).
325:
layer, some examples of protocols that can be utilized for fingerprinting are:
218:
In 2015, a feature to protect against browser fingerprinting was introduced in
2412:
Host Fingerprinting and Tracking on the Web: Privacy and Security Implications
2120:
2018:
1958:
Fast and Reliable Browser Identification with JavaScript Engine Fingerprinting
1955:
Mulazzani M, Reschl P, Huber M, Leithner M, Schrittwieser S, Weippl E (2013),
1683:
1426:
1242:
Cookieless Monster: Exploring the Ecosystem of Web-Based Device Fingerprinting
913:
873:
849:
816:
685:
642:
580:
547:
plugins were widely used to access user information before their deprecation.
443:
310:
use this information for the very purpose of uniquely identifying the device.
283:
browser version, if that increases with time) or machine learning algorithms.
239:
183:
possible from browser fingerprinting, but that was before the advancements of
169:
150:
62:
2590:
2358:
2218:"Privacy and the :visited selector - CSS: Cascading Style Sheets | MDN"
1490:
1179:
1133:
1096:
1017:
430:
observation of quirks in its behavior: for example, the order and number of
402:
connection initiated by the latter are sometimes addressed as semi-passive.
322:
236:
2464:
1931:
1519:"EFF Says Its Anti-Tracking Tool Blocks New Form Of Digital Fingerprinting"
1142:
2292:
1895:
1673:
2493:
1859:
1452:
869:
681:
82:
2436:
2051:
1545:
1423:"Meet the Online Tracking Device That is Virtually Impossible to Block"
1250:
820:
796:
764:
Typical Tor Browser notification of a website attempting a canvas read.
360:
219:
212:
1244:. 2013 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. Berkeley CA USA: IEEE.
649:(GPU). Canvas-based techniques may also be used to identify installed
1570:
1354:
1050:
837:: it fills a space that is slightly smaller than the browser window.
704:
342:
2490:"'Canvas fingerprinting' online tracking is sneaky but easy to halt"
2194:
1852:
SHPF: Enhancing HTTP(S) Session Security with Browser Fingerprinting
1542:"What You Need to Know About the Sneakiest New Online Tracking Tool"
2165:
2111:
Kaur N, Azam S, KannoorpattiK, Yeo KC, Shanmugam B (January 2017).
978:"(Cross-)Browser Fingerprinting via OS and Hardware Level Features"
2453:
Block Me If You Can: A Large-Scale Study of Tracker-Blocking Tools
2388:
1886:
Fiore U, Castiglione A, De Santis A, Palmieri F (September 2014).
1214:
795:
is considered to be the most fingerprintable browser, followed by
781:
634:
454:
JavaScript object manipulation is specific to each browser family
435:
314:
information in such an amount to allow remote identification, see
195:
1483:
The Web Never Forgets: Persistent Tracking Mechanisms in the Wild
446:. Such differences can be remotely tested by using JavaScript. A
2632:
2044:
XHOUND: Quantifying the Fingerprintability of Browser Extensions
381:
377:
350:
338:
848:
some of the information exposed to the fingerprinter (e.g. the
306:
assigned to the machine hardware. Indeed, programs that employ
723:
654:
584:
439:
334:
201:
could be used to create digital fingerprints of web browsers.
96:
46:
is information collected specifically by interaction with the
1793:"EssentialFP: Exposing the Essence of Browser Fingerprinting"
1126:
PriVaricator: Deceiving Fingerprinters with Little White Lies
267:
Motivation for the device fingerprint concept stems from the
1924:
Web Browser Fingerprinting Using Only Cascading Style Sheets
607:
The letter bounding boxes differ between browsers based on
2351:
Online Tracking: A 1-million-site Measurement and Analysis
657:
information can be provided to the fingerprinter instead.
2642:
2604:
Segal, Ory; Fridman, Aharon; Shuster, Elad (2017-06-05).
2577:
Angwin, Julia; Valentino-DeVries, Jennifer (2010-11-30).
2011:
A classification of web browser fingerprinting techniques
190:
In 2012, Keaton Mowery and Hovav Shacham, researchers at
1984:
Fingerprinting Information in JavaScript Implementations
672:
can be used to determine whether a user's CPU utilizes
2075:
Sanchez-Rola I, Santos I, Balzarotti D (August 2017).
1791:
Alexander, Sjosten; Daniel, Hedin; Andrei, Sabelfeld.
61:) cannot be read or stored in the browser, the client
137:
configuration information has long been collected by
2409:
Yen TF, Xie Y, Yu F, Yu R, Abadi M (February 2012).
1097:"7 Leading Fraud Indicators: Cookies to Null Values"
596:
2113:Browser Fingerprinting as user tracking technology
1981:Mowery K, Bogenreif D, Yilek S, Shacham H (2011),
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
707:, can also be queried to construct a fingerprint.
563:, in the HTTP header. Properties about the user's
2285:Estimating CPU Features by Browser Fingerprinting
2266:Journal of Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics
2004:
2002:
1922:Takei N, Saito T, Takasu K, Yamada T (Nov 2015).
1665:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
1119:
1117:
615:configuration and can be measured by JavaScript.
2539:"The Limitations of Fingerprint Identifications"
2150:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2140:
1566:"meta: tor uplift: privacy.resistFingerprinting"
1124:Nikiforakis N, Joosen W, Livshits B (May 2015).
653:. Furthermore, if the user does not have a GPU,
2318:Data Privacy Management, and Security Assurance
2193:Olejnik L, Castelluccia C, Janc A (July 2012).
1172:FPDetective: Dusting the Web for Fingerprinters
1039:
1037:
946:
944:
2188:
2186:
2157:Advances in Information and Computer Security
1699:"Chatter on the Wire: A look at DHCP traffic"
1592:"Firefox's protection against fingerprinting"
1454:Pixel Perfect: Fingerprinting Canvas in HTML5
1446:
1444:
1442:
1203:
1201:
1199:
711:Mitigation methods for browser fingerprinting
289:is one of several ways to measure diversity.
8:
1917:
1915:
1881:
1879:
1845:
1843:
1841:
149:. Since its introduction in the late 1990s,
141:services in an effort to measure real human
2106:
2104:
2009:Upathilake R, Li Y, Matrawy A (July 2015).
1661:2018 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy
1476:
1474:
1472:
254:In 2019, starting from Firefox version 69,
2606:"Passive Fingerprinting of HTTP/2 Clients"
1832:"History of the browser user-agent string"
1165:
1163:
1008:Alaca F, van Oorschot PC (December 2016).
465:Reassignment (of navigator/screen object)
2579:"Race Is On to 'Fingerprint' Phones, PCs"
2164:
1682:
1672:
1413:
1411:
1249:
1213:
1141:
168:timestamps could be used to estimate the
2233:Financial Cryptography and Data Security
1512:
1510:
1323:
1321:
759:
462:Property deletion (of navigator object)
452:
315:
187:, which claims to add another 5.7 bits.
2349:Englehardt S, Arvind N (October 2016).
1730:"Wireless Device Driver Fingerprinting"
940:
819:are most fingerprintable, followed by
629:Canvas fingerprinting uses the HTML5
7:
2042:Starov O, Nikiforakis N (May 2017).
699:A device's hardware ID, which is a
192:University of California, San Diego
162:University of California, San Diego
81:) even when they are attempting to
1389:. Electronic Frontier Foundation.
1330:"Remote Physical Device Detection"
1072:"User confidence takes a Net loss"
823:, mobile Edge, and mobile Safari.
768:Users may attempt to reduce their
684:used to execute various simple or
293:Sources of identifying information
25:
2570:Chaos Communication Congress 2020
1396:from the original on 9 March 2016
1380:"How Unique Is Your Web Browser?"
1303:. Archive.cert.uni-stuttgart.de.
720:Offering a simplified fingerprint
1378:Eckersley, Peter (17 May 2010).
728:
101:
2382:Cimpanu, Catalin (2019-03-06).
1711:from the original on 2014-08-11
1626:"Apple introduces macOS Mojave"
1336:from the original on 2010-01-10
1307:from the original on 2011-06-12
1282:from the original on 2010-02-04
1103:from the original on 2016-10-03
1078:from the original on 2015-10-04
990:from the original on 2017-03-07
579:can be also retrieved by using
2637:Electronic Frontier Foundation
2564:Fietkau, Julian (2020-12-28).
953:Privacy Enhancing Technologies
841:Offering a spoofed fingerprint
224:The same year a feature named
177:Electronic Frontier Foundation
145:and discount various forms of
85:– raising a major concern for
1:
1074:. Infoworld.com. 2005-07-01.
2326:10.1007/978-3-319-29883-2_18
1646:"Firefox 69.0 release notes"
1612:"Firefox 42.0 release notes"
1451:Mowery K, Shacham H (2012),
1044:Steinberg J (23 July 2014).
256:Enhanced Tracking Protection
226:Enhanced Tracking Protection
160:In 2005, researchers at the
2241:10.1007/978-3-662-47854-7_7
701:cryptographic hash function
559:information, such as phone
371:TCP/IP stack fingerprinting
2695:
1540:Knibbs K (July 21, 2014).
976:Cao, Yinzhi (2017-02-26).
703:specified by the device's
622:
422:
316:§ Browser fingerprint
204:In 2013, at least 0.4% of
2674:Fingerprinting algorithms
2659:Computer network security
2121:10.1109/ISCO.2017.7855963
2019:10.1109/NTMS.2015.7266460
1517:Davis W (July 21, 2014).
737:This section needs to be
583:to observe the result of
308:digital rights management
110:This section needs to be
2488:Kirk J (July 25, 2014).
686:cryptographic algorithms
647:graphics processing unit
555:User agents may provide
40:fingerprinting algorithm
2359:10.1145/2976749.2978313
1491:10.1145/2660267.2660347
1328:Kohno; Broido; Claffy.
1278:. Eff.org. 2002-04-10.
1180:10.1145/2508859.2516674
1134:10.1145/2736277.2741090
1018:10.1145/2991079.2991091
919:Fingerprint (computing)
884:Using multiple browsers
263:Diversity and stability
2465:10.1109/EuroSP.2017.26
1932:10.1109/BWCCA.2015.105
899:Anonymous web browsing
765:
2537:Newman, Drew (2007).
2522:. PMC. Archived from
2293:10.1109/IMIS.2016.108
1896:10.1109/NBiS.2014.102
1674:10.1109/SP.2018.00008
1332:. Cs.washington.edu.
763:
665:Hardware benchmarking
625:Canvas fingerprinting
412:client-side scripting
185:canvas fingerprinting
151:client-side scripting
1860:10.1109/ARES.2013.33
1355:"About Panopticlick"
815:, Google Chrome and
577:display aspect ratio
75:targeted advertising
2583:Wall Street Journal
2220:. 21 February 2023.
633:, which is used by
551:Hardware properties
455:
406:Browser fingerprint
44:browser fingerprint
36:machine fingerprint
18:Browser fingerprint
2052:10.1109/SP.2017.18
1684:20.500.12210/23865
1251:10.1109/SP.2013.43
770:fingerprintability
766:
573:screen orientation
527:Browser extensions
514:Internet Explorer
453:
432:HTTP header fields
273:human fingerprints
55:persistent cookies
32:device fingerprint
2526:on July 28, 2014.
2474:978-1-5090-5762-7
2368:978-1-4503-4139-4
2335:978-3-319-29883-2
2302:978-1-5090-0984-8
2250:978-3-662-47854-7
2176:978-3-319-64200-0
2130:978-1-5090-2717-0
2088:978-1-931971-40-9
2061:978-1-5090-5533-3
2028:978-1-4799-8784-9
1941:978-1-4673-8315-8
1905:978-1-4799-4224-4
1869:978-0-7695-5008-4
1500:978-1-4503-2957-6
1421:(July 21, 2014).
1261:978-0-7695-4977-4
1189:978-1-4503-2477-9
1153:978-1-4503-3469-3
1027:978-1-4503-4771-6
962:978-3-642-14527-8
805:Internet Explorer
784:information, and
758:
757:
680:by comparing the
678:Intel Turbo Boost
531:A combination of
524:
523:
230:Disconnect Mobile
194:, showed how the
155:computer security
131:
130:
71:credit card fraud
16:(Redirected from
2686:
2664:Internet privacy
2622:
2620:
2619:
2610:
2600:
2598:
2597:
2573:
2551:
2550:
2543:Criminal Justice
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1830:Aaron Andersen.
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1820:
1819:. 10 April 2023.
1813:
1807:
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1797:
1788:
1782:
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1779:
1778:
1772:
1766:. Archived from
1765:
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1735:. Archived from
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1005:
999:
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989:
982:
973:
967:
966:
948:
924:Internet privacy
909:Browser sniffing
904:Browser security
864:Blocking scripts
786:local IP address
753:
750:
744:
732:
731:
724:
619:Canvas and WebGL
598:
591:Browsing history
565:operating system
492:Mozilla Firefox
456:
448:Hamming distance
425:Browser sniffing
126:
123:
117:
105:
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87:internet privacy
21:
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2558:Further reading
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2439:. 6 March 2020.
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813:mobile browsers
772:by selecting a
754:
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745:
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733:
729:
722:
713:
670:Benchmark tests
667:
639:graphics driver
627:
621:
605:
593:
587:media queries.
557:system hardware
553:
529:
481:Microsoft Edge
459:Browser family
427:
421:
419:Browser version
408:
295:
265:
251:
242:announced that
223:
127:
121:
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50:of the device.
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2669:Internet fraud
2666:
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2650:
2647:
2646:
2640:
2628:
2627:External links
2625:
2624:
2623:
2601:
2574:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2529:
2514:Smith, Chris.
2506:
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1964:, SBA Research
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1099:. 2016-03-10.
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894:
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878:Privacy Badger
865:
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839:
821:mobile Firefox
793:Microsoft Edge
778:canvas element
756:
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727:
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623:Main article:
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467:
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423:Main article:
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304:serial numbers
294:
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199:canvas element
129:
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94:
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83:avoid tracking
67:identity theft
59:zombie cookies
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2679:Web analytics
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1773:on 2014-08-28
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19:
2633:Panopticlick
2616:. Retrieved
2612:
2594:. Retrieved
2582:
2569:
2549:(36): 36–41.
2546:
2542:
2532:
2524:the original
2519:
2509:
2497:. Retrieved
2483:
2452:
2445:
2431:
2420:. Retrieved
2411:
2404:
2393:. Retrieved
2387:
2377:
2350:
2344:
2317:
2311:
2284:
2278:
2269:
2265:
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2226:
2212:
2201:. Retrieved
2195:
2156:
2112:
2092:. Retrieved
2077:
2070:
2043:
2037:
2010:
1991:, retrieved
1983:
1976:
1966:, retrieved
1957:
1950:
1923:
1887:
1851:
1825:
1817:"User-Agent"
1811:
1799:. Retrieved
1786:
1775:. Retrieved
1768:the original
1755:
1744:. Retrieved
1737:the original
1724:
1713:. Retrieved
1693:
1660:
1654:
1640:
1629:. Retrieved
1620:
1606:
1595:. Retrieved
1586:
1575:. Retrieved
1569:
1560:
1549:. Retrieved
1535:
1523:. Retrieved
1482:
1461:, retrieved
1453:
1430:. Retrieved
1398:. Retrieved
1386:
1373:
1362:. Retrieved
1358:
1349:
1338:. Retrieved
1309:. Retrieved
1295:
1284:. Retrieved
1270:
1241:
1171:
1125:
1105:. Retrieved
1091:
1080:. Retrieved
1066:
1055:. Retrieved
1049:
1009:
1003:
992:. Retrieved
971:
952:
929:Web tracking
887:
867:
854:
844:
831:
825:
790:
767:
746:
738:
714:
698:
691:Specialized
690:
668:
659:
628:
613:font hinting
606:
603:Font metrics
594:
554:
530:
428:
409:
400:
320:
312:
296:
285:
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266:
255:
253:
248:macOS Mojave
234:
225:
217:
210:
203:
189:
174:
159:
132:
119:
111:
77:or targeted
52:
43:
35:
31:
29:
2643:Am I Unique
2272:(6): 66–74.
1521:. MediaPost
874:ad blockers
835:windowboxed
827:Tor Browser
791:As of 2017
780:rendering,
774:web browser
569:screen size
541:Adobe Flash
390:IEEE 802.11
300:MAC address
164:showed how
147:click fraud
143:web traffic
135:web browser
89:advocates.
48:web browser
2653:Categories
2618:2022-02-09
2596:2018-07-10
2422:2020-01-21
2395:2022-06-10
2203:2020-01-21
2166:1703.05066
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