Cultural anthropology

3312:", a movement that argued kinship studies could not examine the gender relations of developing countries in isolation and must pay respect to racial and economic nuance as well. This critique became relevant, for instance, in the anthropological study of Jamaica: race and class were seen as the primary obstacles to Jamaican liberation from economic imperialism, and gender as an identity was largely ignored. Third World feminism aimed to combat this in the early twenty-first century by promoting these categories as coexisting factors. In Jamaica, marriage as an institution is often substituted for a series of partners, as poor women cannot rely on regular financial contributions in a climate of economic instability. In addition, there is a common practice of Jamaican women artificially lightening their skin tones in order to secure economic survival. These anthropological findings, according to Third World feminism, cannot see gender, racial, or class differences as separate entities, and instead must acknowledge that they interact together to produce unique individual experiences. 3333:

biological and genetic relatedness, as gestational surrogates can provide a biological environment for the embryo while the genetic ties remain with a third party. If genetic, surrogate, and adoptive maternities are involved, anthropologists have acknowledged that there can be the possibility for three "biological" mothers to a single child. With ARTs, there are also anthropological questions concerning the intersections between wealth and fertility: ARTs are generally only available to those in the highest income bracket, meaning the infertile poor are inherently devalued in the system. There have also been issues of reproductive tourism and bodily commodification, as individuals seek economic security through hormonal stimulation and egg harvesting, which are potentially harmful procedures. With IVF, specifically, there have been many questions of embryotic value and the status of life, particularly as it relates to the manufacturing of stem cells, testing, and research.

3304:, and others. Instead of relying on narrow ideas of Western normalcy, kinship studies increasingly catered to "more ethnographic voices, human agency, intersecting power structures, and historical context". The study of kinship evolved to accommodate for the fact that it cannot be separated from its institutional roots and must pay respect to the society in which it lives, including that society's contradictions, hierarchies, and individual experiences of those within it. This shift was progressed further by the emergence of second-wave feminism in the early 1970s, which introduced ideas of marital oppression, sexual autonomy, and domestic subordination. Other themes that emerged during this time included the frequent comparisons between Eastern and Western kinship systems and the increasing amount of attention paid to anthropologists' own societies, a swift turn from the focus that had traditionally been paid to largely "foreign", non-Western communities. 1939:

methods. In some cases, ethnographers also turn to structured observation, in which an anthropologist's observations are directed by a specific set of questions they are trying to answer. In the case of structured observation, an observer might be required to record the order of a series of events, or describe a certain part of the surrounding environment. While the anthropologist still makes an effort to become integrated into the group they are studying, and still participates in the events as they observe, structured observation is more directed and specific than participant observation in general. This helps to standardize the method of study when ethnographic data is being compared across several groups or is needed to fulfill a specific purpose, such as research for a governmental policy decision.

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anthropologist to spend time researching background information on their topic. It can also be helpful to know what previous research has been conducted in one's chosen location or on similar topics, and if the participant observation takes place in a location where the spoken language is not one the anthropologist is familiar with, they will usually also learn that language. This allows the anthropologist to become better established in the community. The lack of need for a translator makes communication more direct, and allows the anthropologist to give a richer, more contextualized representation of what they witness. In addition, participant observation often requires permits from governments and research institutions in the area of study, and always needs some form of funding.

1915:. Historically, the group of people being studied was a small, non-Western society. However, today it may be a specific corporation, a church group, a sports team, or a small town. There are no restrictions as to what the subject of participant observation can be, as long as the group of people is studied intimately by the observing anthropologist over a long period of time. This allows the anthropologist to develop trusting relationships with the subjects of study and receive an inside perspective on the culture, which helps him or her to give a richer description when writing about the culture later. Observable details (like daily time allotment) and more hidden details (like 1167:. This method advocates living with people of another culture for an extended period of time to learn the local language and be enculturated, at least partially, into that culture. In this context, cultural relativism is of fundamental methodological importance, because it calls attention to the importance of the local context in understanding the meaning of particular human beliefs and activities. Thus, in 1948 Virginia Heyer wrote, "Cultural relativity, to phrase it in starkest abstraction, states the relativity of the part to the whole. The part gains its cultural significance by its place in the whole, and cannot retain its integrity in a different situation." 1943:

write about a culture, because each researcher is influenced by their own perspective. This is considered a problem especially when anthropologists write in the ethnographic present, a present tense which makes a culture seem stuck in time, and ignores the fact that it may have interacted with other cultures or gradually evolved since the anthropologist made observations. To avoid this, past ethnographers have advocated for strict training, or for anthropologists working in teams. However, these approaches have not generally been successful, and modern ethnographers often choose to include their personal experiences and possible biases in their writing instead.

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institutions, on the other hand, are constructs that regulate individuals' day-to-day lives, such as kinship, religion, and economics. Anthropology of institutions may analyze labor unions, businesses ranging from small enterprises to corporations, government, medical organizations, education, prisons, and financial institutions. Nongovernmental organizations have garnered particular interest in the field of institutional anthropology because they are capable of fulfilling roles previously ignored by governments, or previously realized by families or local groups, in an attempt to mitigate social problems.

1684:. Geertz applied his method in a number of areas, creating programs of study that were very productive. His analysis of "religion as a cultural system" was particularly influential outside of anthropology. David Schnieder's cultural analysis of American kinship has proven equally influential. Schneider demonstrated that the American folk-cultural emphasis on "blood connections" had an undue influence on anthropological kinship theories, and that kinship is not a biological characteristic, but a cultural relationship established on very different terms in different societies. 1680:". The cultural symbols of rituals, political and economic action, and of kinship, are "read" by the anthropologist as if they are a document in a foreign language. The interpretation of those symbols must be re-framed for their anthropological audience, i.e. transformed from the "experience-near" but foreign concepts of the other culture, into the "experience-distant" theoretical concepts of the anthropologist. These interpretations must then be reflected back to its originators, and its adequacy as a translation fine-tuned in a repeated way, a process called the 3383:

workings of an institution, such as the relationships, hierarchies and cultures formed, and the ways that these elements are transmitted and maintained, transformed, or abandoned over time. Additionally, some anthropology of institutions examines the specific design of institutions and their corresponding strength. More specifically, anthropologists may analyze specific events within an institution, perform semiotic investigations, or analyze the mechanisms by which knowledge and culture are organized and dispersed.

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anthropologist must be open to becoming part of the group, and willing to develop meaningful relationships with its members. One way to do this is to find a small area of common experience between an anthropologist and their subjects, and then to expand from this common ground into the larger area of difference. Once a single connection has been established, it becomes easier to integrate into the community, and it is more likely that accurate and complete information is being shared with the anthropologist.

1038:). Morgan, in particular, acknowledged that certain forms of society and culture could not possibly have arisen before others. For example, industrial farming could not have been invented before simple farming, and metallurgy could not have developed without previous non-smelting processes involving metals (such as simple ground collection or mining). Morgan, like other 19th century social evolutionists, believed there was a more or less orderly progression from the primitive to the civilized. 1159:, argued that one's culture may mediate and thus limit one's perceptions in less obvious ways. This understanding of culture confronts anthropologists with two problems: first, how to escape the unconscious bonds of one's own culture, which inevitably bias our perceptions of and reactions to the world, and second, how to make sense of an unfamiliar culture. The principle of cultural relativism thus forced anthropologists to develop innovative methods and heuristic strategies. 3391:

have much idle time to discuss the details of their everyday endeavors. The ability of individuals to present the workings of an institution in a particular light or frame must additionally be taken into account when using interviews and document analysis to understand an institution, as the involvement of an anthropologist may be met with distrust when information being released to the public is not directly controlled by the institution and could potentially be damaging.

3283:, it is believed that a child can have partible maternity and partible paternity. In this case, a child would have multiple biological mothers in the case that it is born of one woman and then breastfed by another. A child would have multiple biological fathers in the case that the mother had sex with multiple men, following the commonplace belief in Nuyoo culture that pregnancy must be preceded by sex with multiple men in order have the necessary accumulation of semen. 1351: 6910: 6874: 6184: 1331:(1858–1942) established academic anthropology in the United States in opposition to Morgan's evolutionary perspective. His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and eschewed attempts to establish universal laws. For example, Boas studied immigrant children to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable, and that human conduct and behavior resulted from nurture, rather than nature. 6899: 4919: 6208: 1362: 3267:, where one woman is married to one man. Anthropologists also study different marital taboos across cultures, most commonly the incest taboo of marriage within sibling and parent-child relationships. It has been found that all cultures have an incest taboo to some degree, but the taboo shifts between cultures when the marriage extends beyond the nuclear family unit. 3337:

parent experiences "greater levels of scrutiny and routinely seen as the 'other' of the nuclear, patriarchal family". The power dynamics in reproduction, when explored through a comparative analysis of "conventional" and "unconventional" families, have been used to dissect the Western assumptions of child bearing and child rearing in contemporary kinship studies.

6886: 6196: 885: 1318: 61: 3176:, stories or rumours that appear in multiple locations and in multiple time periods, metaphors that appear in multiple ethnographic locations, or the biographies of individual people or groups as they move through space and time. It may also follow conflicts that transcend boundaries. An example of multi-sited ethnography is 1923:) and what actually does happen, or between different aspects of the formal system; in contrast, a one-time survey of people's answers to a set of questions might be quite consistent, but is less likely to show conflicts between different aspects of the social system or between conscious representations and behavior. 1347:

origins in Boasian Anthropology, dividing the discipline in the four crucial and interrelated fields of sociocultural, biological, linguistic, and archaic anthropology (e.g. archaeology). Anthropology in the United States continues to be deeply influenced by the Boasian tradition, especially its emphasis on culture.

3180:' work on the international black market for the trade of human organs. In this research, she follows organs as they are transferred through various legal and illegal networks of capitalism, as well as the rumours and urban legends that circulate in impoverished communities about child kidnapping and organ theft. 1947:

Additionally, anthropologists have struggled with the effect their presence has on a culture. Simply by being present, a researcher causes changes in a culture, and anthropologists continue to question whether or not it is appropriate to influence the cultures they study, or possible to avoid having influence.

3366:, social psychologists Elizabeth Peel and Damien Riggs argue for a move beyond this human-centered framework, opting instead to explore kinship through a "posthumanist" vantage point where anthropologists focus on the intersecting relationships of human animals, non-human animals, technologies and practices. 3133:, but they often argue that one cannot understand these particular ways of life solely from a local perspective; they instead combine a focus on the local with an effort to grasp larger political, economic, and cultural frameworks that impact local lived realities. Notable proponents of this approach include 1973:

ethnography will also include information about physical geography, climate and habitat. It is meant to be a holistic piece of writing about the people in question, and today often includes the longest possible timeline of past events that the ethnographer can obtain through primary and secondary research.

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Common considerations taken by anthropologists in studying institutions include the physical location at which a researcher places themselves, as important interactions often take place in private, and the fact that the members of an institution are often being examined in their workplace and may not

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anthropology is a term applied to ethnographic works that attempt to isolate a particular system of social relations such as those that comprise domestic life, economy, law, politics, or religion, give analytical priority to the organizational bases of social life, and attend to cultural phenomena as

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Modern anthropology emerged in the 19th century alongside developments in the Western world. With these developments came a renewed interest in humankind, such as its origins, unity, and plurality. It is, however, in the 20th century that cultural anthropology shifts to having a more pluralistic view

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pondered ethnographic authority, in particular how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. They were reflecting trends in research and discourse initiated by feminists in the academy, although they excused themselves from commenting specifically on those pioneering critics.

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and its processes increasingly brought European thinkers into direct or indirect contact with "primitive others". The first generation of cultural anthropologists were interested in the relative status of various humans, some of whom had modern advanced technologies, while others lacked anything but

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Anthropologists have pointed out that through culture, people can adapt to their environment in non-genetic ways, so people living in different environments will often have different cultures. Much of anthropological theory has originated in an appreciation of and interest in the tension between the

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The types and methods of scholarship performed in the anthropology of institutions can take a number of forms. Institutional anthropologists may study the relationship between organizations or between an organization and other parts of society. Institutional anthropology may also focus on the inner

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Current issues in kinship studies, such as adoption, have revealed and challenged the Western cultural disposition towards the genetic, "blood" tie. Western biases against single parent homes have also been explored through similar anthropological research, uncovering that a household with a single

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There are similar foundational differences where the act of procreation is concerned. Although anthropologists have found that biology is acknowledged in every cultural relationship to procreation, there are differences in the ways in which cultures assess the constructs of parenthood. For example,

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Kinship is the bedrock of all human societies that we know. All humans recognize fathers and mothers, sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, husbands and wives, grandparents, cousins, and often many more complex types of relationships in the terminologies that they use. That is

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One means by which anthropologists combat ethnocentrism is to engage in the process of cross-cultural comparison. It is important to test so-called "human universals" against the ethnographic record. Monogamy, for example, is frequently touted as a universal human trait, yet comparative study shows

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One common criticism of participant observation is its lack of objectivity. Because each anthropologist has their own background and set of experiences, each individual is likely to interpret the same culture in a different way. Who the ethnographer is has a lot to do with what they will eventually

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In the twenty-first century, Western ideas of kinship have evolved beyond the traditional assumptions of the nuclear family, raising anthropological questions of consanguinity, lineage, and normative marital expectation. The shift can be traced back to the 1960s, with the reassessment of kinship's

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Kinship, as an anthropological field of inquiry, has been heavily criticized across the discipline. One critique is that, as its inception, the framework of kinship studies was far too structured and formulaic, relying on dense language and stringent rules. Another critique, explored at length by

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and Daphna Birenbaum-Carmeli, "ARTs have pluralized notions of relatedness and led to a more dynamic notion of "kinning" namely, kinship as a process, as something under construction, rather than a natural given". With this technology, questions of kinship have emerged over the difference between

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In doing so, he fought discrimination against immigrants, blacks, and indigenous peoples of the Americas. Many American anthropologists adopted his agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular subjects for anthropologists today. The so-called "Four Field Approach" has its

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Accordingly, most of these anthropologists showed less interest in comparing cultures, generalizing about human nature, or discovering universal laws of cultural development, than in understanding particular cultures in those cultures' own terms. Such ethnographers and their students promoted the

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According to Kay Milton, former director of anthropology research at Queens University Belfast, culture can be general or specific. This means culture can be something applied to all human beings or it can be specific to a certain group of people such as African American culture or Irish American

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In all manifestations of institutional anthropology, participant observation is critical to understanding the intricacies of the way an institution works and the consequences of actions taken by individuals within it. Simultaneously, anthropology of institutions extends beyond examination of the

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Throughout history, kinship studies have primarily focused on the topics of marriage, descent, and procreation. Anthropologists have written extensively on the variations within marriage across cultures and its legitimacy as a human institution. There are stark differences between communities in

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The two types of institutions defined in the field of anthropology are total institutions and social institutions. Total institutions are places that comprehensively coordinate the actions of people within them, and examples of total institutions include prisons, convents, and hospitals. Social

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Also emerging in multi-sited ethnography are greater interdisciplinary approaches to fieldwork, bringing in methods from cultural studies, media studies, science and technology studies, and others. In multi-sited ethnography, research tracks a subject across spatial and temporal boundaries. For

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Ethnography dominates socio-cultural anthropology. Nevertheless, many contemporary socio-cultural anthropologists have rejected earlier models of ethnography as treating local cultures as bounded and isolated. These anthropologists continue to concern themselves with the distinct ways people in

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Participant observation has also raised ethical questions, since an anthropologist is in control of what they report about a culture. In terms of representation, an anthropologist has greater power than their subjects of study, and this has drawn criticism of participant observation in general.

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The majority of participant observation is based on conversation. This can take the form of casual, friendly dialogue, or can also be a series of more structured interviews. A combination of the two is often used, sometimes along with photography, mapping, artifact collection, and various other

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and a cultural informant must go both ways. Just as an ethnographer may be naive or curious about a culture, the members of that culture may be curious about the ethnographer. To establish connections that will eventually lead to a better understanding of the cultural context of a situation, an

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quickly reached a consensus that both processes occur, and that both can plausibly account for cross-cultural similarities. But these ethnographers also pointed out the superficiality of many such similarities. They noted that even traits that spread through diffusion often were given different

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Within anthropology's "two cultures"—the positivist/objectivist style of comparative anthropology versus a reflexive/interpretative anthropology—Mead has been characterized as a "humanist" heir to Franz Boas's historical particularism—hence, associated with the practices of interpretation and

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that "inship has been defined by European social scientists, and European social scientists use their own folk culture as the source of many, if not all of their ways of formulating and understanding the world about them". However, this critique has been challenged by the argument that it is

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A growing trend in anthropological research and analysis is the use of multi-sited ethnography, discussed in George Marcus' article, "Ethnography In/Of the World System: the Emergence of Multi-Sited Ethnography". Looking at culture as embedded in macro-constructions of a global social order,

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Numerous other ethnographic techniques have resulted in ethnographic writing or details being preserved, as cultural anthropologists also curate materials, spend long hours in libraries, churches and schools poring over records, investigate graveyards, and decipher ancient scripts. A typical

975:: "Culture, or civilization, taken in its broad, ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." The term "civilization" later gave way to definitions given by 1712:

as part of the 'post-modern moment' in anthropology: Ethnographies became more interpretative and reflexive, explicitly addressing the author's methodology; cultural, gendered, and racial positioning; and their influence on the ethnographic analysis. This was part of a more general trend of

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The role of anthropology in institutions has expanded significantly since the end of the 20th century. Much of this development can be attributed to the rise in anthropologists working outside of academia and the increasing importance of globalization in both institutions and the field of

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Before participant observation can begin, an anthropologist must choose both a location and a focus of study. This focus may change once the anthropologist is actively observing the chosen group of people, but having an idea of what one wants to study before beginning fieldwork allows an

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and later popularized by his students. Boas first articulated the idea in 1887: "...civilization is not something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes." Although Boas did not coin the term, it became common among

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anthropologists after Boas' death in 1942, to express their synthesis of a number of ideas Boas had developed. Boas believed that the sweep of cultures, to be found in connection with any sub-species, is so vast and pervasive that there cannot be a relationship between culture and

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Kinship studies began to gain mainstream recognition in the late 1990s with the surging popularity of feminist anthropology, particularly with its work related to biological anthropology and the intersectional critique of gender relations. At this time, there was the arrival of

1451:(1946) remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined in favor of 837: 1902:

Participant observation is one of the principal research methods of cultural anthropology. It relies on the assumption that the best way to understand a group of people is to interact with them closely over a long period of time. The method originated in the

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Believing, with Max Weber, that man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself has spun, I take culture to be those webs, and the analysis of it to be therefore not an experimental science in search of law but an interpretive one in search of

3647:"In his earlier work, like many anthropologists of this generation, Levi-Strauss draws attention to the necessary and urgent task of maintaining and extending the empirical foundations of anthropology in the practice of fieldwork.": In Christopher Johnson, 1011: 1401:, who each produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures. They provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages helped establish 2088:

of human culture, society, and behavior in the past and present. The name came from the Institute of Human Relations, an interdisciplinary program/building at Yale at the time. The Institute of Human Relations had sponsored HRAF's precursor, the

1420:(1923) marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material, Boasians felt a growing urge to generalize. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as 4072: 1338:

rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by the extent of "civilization" they had. He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the

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20th-century anthropologists largely reject the notion that all human societies must pass through the same stages in the same order, on the grounds that such a notion does not fit the empirical facts. Some 20th-century ethnologists, like

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multi-sited ethnography uses traditional methodology in various locations both spatially and temporally. Through this methodology, greater insight can be gained when examining the impact of world-systems on local and global communities.

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anthropology. Anthropologists can be employed by institutions such as for-profit business, nonprofit organizations, and governments. For instance, cultural anthropologists are commonly employed by the United States federal government.

1046:, have instead argued that such similarities reflected similar adaptations to similar environments. Although 19th-century ethnologists saw "diffusion" and "independent invention" as mutually exclusive and competing theories, most 1162:

Boas and his students realized that if they were to conduct scientific research in other cultures, they would need to employ methods that would help them escape the limits of their own ethnocentrism. One such method is that of

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function both as symbolic systems and as social institutions. Today almost all socio-cultural anthropologists refer to the work of both sets of predecessors and have an equal interest in what people do and in what people say.

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in the United Kingdom. Whereas cultural anthropology focused on symbols and values, social anthropology focused on social groups and institutions. Today socio-cultural anthropologists attend to all these elements.

4677: 3328:(IVF). These advancements have led to new dimensions of anthropological research, as they challenge the Western standard of biogenetically based kinship, relatedness, and parenthood. According to anthropologists 1287:. His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology. Like other scholars of his day (such as 1139:. Ethnocentrism may take obvious forms, in which one consciously believes that one's people's arts are the most beautiful, values the most virtuous, and beliefs the most truthful. Boas, originally trained in 944:

The rise of cultural anthropology took place within the context of the late 19th century, when questions regarding which cultures were "primitive" and which were "civilized" occupied the mind of not only

3350:. Schneider proposes that kinship is not a field that can be applied cross-culturally, as the theory itself relies on European assumptions of normalcy. He states in the widely circulated 1984 book 4069: 3226:

Kinship refers to the anthropological study of the ways in which humans form and maintain relationships with one another and how those relationships operate within and define social organization.

1965:. An ethnography is a piece of writing about a people, at a particular place and time. Typically, the anthropologist lives among people in another society for a period of time, simultaneously 1919:

behavior) are more easily observed and interpreted over a longer period of time, and researchers can discover discrepancies between what participants say—and often believe—should happen (the

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linguistics, not cultural divergence, that has allowed for a European bias, and that the bias can be lifted by centering the methodology on fundamental human concepts. Polish anthropologist

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Many anthropologists reacted against the renewed emphasis on materialism and scientific modelling derived from Marx by emphasizing the importance of the concept of culture. Authors such as

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Other ethnologists argued that different groups had the capability of creating similar beliefs and practices independently. Some of those who advocated "independent invention", like

1003:, argued that different groups must have learned from one another somehow, however indirectly; in other words, they argued that cultural traits spread from one place to another, or " 3359:

argues that "mother" and "father" are examples of such fundamental human concepts and can only be Westernized when conflated with English concepts such as "parent" and "sibling".

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to take account of cultural and social factors and employed Marxian analysis into anthropological study. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as

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A more recent critique of kinship studies is its solipsistic focus on privileged, Western human relations and its promotion of normative ideals of human exceptionalism. In

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worked mostly with materials collected by others—usually missionaries, traders, explorers, or colonial officials—earning them the moniker of "arm-chair anthropologists".

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culture. Specific cultures are structured systems which means they are organized very specifically and adding or taking away any element from that system may disrupt it.

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developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. Geertz was to state:

3933: 3511: 3199:, a study of the entrepreneurs in a Harlem crack-den. Also growing more popular are ethnographies of professional communities, such as laboratory researchers, 2097:), as part of an effort to develop an integrated science of human behavior and culture. The two eHRAF databases on the Web are expanded and updated annually. 6219: 3169:

example, a multi-sited ethnography may follow a "thing", such as a particular commodity, as it is transported through the networks of global capitalism.

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that was popular contemporaneously. Currently anthropologists pay attention to a wide variety of issues pertaining to the contemporary world, including

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Parallel with the rise of cultural anthropology in the United States, social anthropology developed as an academic discipline in Britain and in France.

6253: 3631: 1436:, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. 1603:

to examine the relationship between symbolic meaning, sociocultural structure, and individual agency in the processes of historical transformation.

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incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work. Structuralism also influenced a number of developments in the 1960s and 1970s, including

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commonplace involvement of individuals in institutions to discover how and why the organizational principles evolved in the manner that they did.

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local (particular cultures) and the global (a universal human nature, or the web of connections between people in distinct places/circumstances).

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produced a whole generation of anthropologists at the University of Chicago that focused on these themes. Also influential in these issues were

4363: 909: 801: 4487: 4270: 4040: 4008: 1571: 4747: 5795: 3670: 1291:), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from 1067:", the view that one can only understand another person's beliefs and behaviors in the context of the culture in which they live or lived. 4208: 4152:"Balinese Cockfights and the Seduction of Anthropology" in Anthropologies and Histories: essays in culture, history and political economy 1051:

meanings and function from one society to another. Analyses of large human concentrations in big cities, in multidisciplinary studies by

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and in the United States. European "social anthropologists" focused on observed social behaviors and on "social structure", that is, on

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into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became popular topics, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by

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this currently is not a history of cultural anthropology, but of specific terms. It also does not explain the outdated terminology used.

773: 665: 3652: 1081:), have argued that apparently similar patterns of development reflect fundamental similarities in the structure of human thought (see 1382: 1089:

to post-industrial service occupations in one generation, were so numerous that 19th-century evolutionism was effectively disproved.

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American "cultural anthropologists" focused on the ways people expressed their view of themselves and their world, especially in

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Anthropology is concerned with the lives of people in different parts of the world, particularly in relation to the discourse of

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the matrix into which human children are born in the great majority of cases, and their first words are often kinship terms.

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affects individual experience or aim to provide a rounded view of the knowledge, customs, and institutions of a people.

758: 351: 6283: 6094: 1761: 613: 528: 441: 304: 3259:, where one man has several marriages to two or more women. The Nyar of India and Nyimba of Tibet and Nepal practice 2108:

Comparison across cultures includes the industrialized (or de-industrialized) West. Cultures in the more traditional

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became an increasingly popular theoretical approach in the discipline. By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as

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Kinship studies have also experienced a rise in the interest of reproductive anthropology with the advancement of

6545: 6273: 6149: 5582: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4094: 3436: 3241:. This is likely due to its fundamental concepts, as articulated by linguistic anthropologist Patrick McConvell: 900: 223: 158: 6914: 4637:"Back to 'Mother' and 'Father': Overcoming the Eurocentrism of Kinship Studies through Eight Lexical Universals" 3263:, where one woman is often married to two or more men. The marital practice found in most cultures, however, is 1177: 650: 6909: 6878: 6726: 6716: 6513: 6239: 6109: 6099: 6002: 5800: 5501: 3407: 2032: 1842: 1197: 1004: 695: 685: 675: 571: 401: 243: 218: 168: 4314:

Swick Perry, Helen (1988). "Using Participant Observation to Construct a Life History". In Berg, David (ed.).

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DeWalt, K. M., DeWalt, B. R., & Wayland, C. B. (1998). "Participant observation." In H. R. Bernard (Ed.),

3021: 2921: 1303:. Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale. 4528:

Birenbaum-Carmeli, Daphna; Inhorn, Maria C. (2008). "Assisted Reproductive Technologies and Culture Change".

6688: 6576: 6471: 5920: 5180: 5150: 5084: 5069: 4103: 3598: 1976: 1966: 1897: 1807: 1791: 1771: 1766: 1406: 1217: 1152: 1030:, additionally supposed that similarities meant that different groups had passed through the same stages of 856: 720: 586: 518: 434: 314: 206: 143: 108: 98: 76: 71: 1324:(1858–1942), one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology" 6798: 6518: 6346: 5855: 5602: 5471: 5319: 5312: 5277: 5064: 4992: 4058:

Fanon, Frantz. (1963) The Wretched of the Earth, transl. Constance Farrington. New York, Grove Weidenfeld.

3325: 3204: 2144: 2085: 2040: 2004: 1822: 1756: 1596: 1520: 1441: 1156: 1071: 660: 461: 446: 386: 294: 233: 1493:, focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as 6721: 6711: 6673: 6646: 6608: 6581: 6491: 6400: 6319: 6124: 5915: 5739: 5617: 5562: 5552: 5542: 5416: 5272: 5224: 5114: 5079: 4956: 4892: 4364:"Information systems and anthropology: and anthropological perspective on IT and organizational culture" 3309: 3251:

terms of marital practice and value, leaving much room for anthropological fieldwork. For instance, the

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includes materials on cultures, past and present, and covers nearly 400 cultures. The second database,

2036: 1781: 1776: 1508: 1385:(AMNH) to train and develop multiple generations of students. His first generation of students included 1202: 1192: 1019: 787: 700: 680: 466: 406: 366: 336: 324: 228: 178: 44: 6042: 1579:

pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as

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American anthropologist David Schneider, argues that kinship has been limited by its inherent Western

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because it requires the anthropologist spending an extended period of time at the research location),

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Academic blog post explaining the similarities/differences between social and cultural anthropology.

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Environmentalism and Cultural Theory: Exploring the role of anthropology in environmental discourse

3671:"Cultural anthropology - Historical Development, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Fieldwork | Britannica" 3454: 3442: 3401: 3238: 3192: 3046: 3041: 2695: 2008: 2000: 1860: 1847: 1837: 1751: 1734: 1378: 1276: 1098: 1064: 1015: 826: 705: 538: 421: 396: 299: 289: 269: 113: 4798:

Verlot, Marc (2001). "Are politics human? Problems and challenges of institutional anthropology".

3457: – Anthropological concept that requires one's behaviors to be understood in cultural context 3229:

Research in kinship studies often crosses over into different anthropological subfields including

2105:, covers major archaeological traditions and many more sub-traditions and sites around the world. 6793: 6358: 6129: 6062: 5910: 5870: 5790: 5652: 5632: 5587: 5577: 5567: 5527: 5456: 5431: 5401: 5381: 5376: 5344: 5246: 5044: 5029: 5024: 5019: 4951: 4941: 4922: 4669: 4545: 4230:

Gellner, Ernest (1992) Postmodernism, Reason, and Religion. London/New York: Routledge. pp. 26–50

3911: 3851: 3714: 3576: 3448: 3301: 2740: 2058:. These two approaches frequently converged and generally complemented one another. For example, 1855: 1812: 1802: 1738: 1644: 1272: 1222: 1085:). By the mid-20th century, the number of examples of people skipping stages, such as going from 1031: 1027: 868: 829:, which perceives cultural variation as a subset of a posited anthropological constant. The term 822: 725: 416: 361: 133: 979:, with culture forming an umbrella term and civilization becoming a particular kind of culture. 4332:

Price, Laurie J. (2007). "Carrying Out a Structured Observation". In Angrosino, Michael (ed.).

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The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Volume 13, Number 2, June 2007, pp. 419–31

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Magolda, Peter M. (March 2000). "The Campus Tour: Ritual and Community in Higher Education".

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Modern cultural anthropology has its origins in, and developed in reaction to, 19th century

1658: 1620: 1592: 1516: 1501:, focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche—an approach popularized by 1472: 1280: 1129: 1086: 976: 471: 451: 188: 163: 4423:

McConvell, Patrick (2013). "Introduction: kinship change in anthropology and linguistics".

1350: 6788: 6555: 6550: 6363: 6164: 6159: 6084: 5945: 5900: 5890: 5817: 5812: 5749: 5722: 5697: 5667: 5662: 5642: 5637: 5421: 5396: 5329: 5187: 4854: 4212: 4098: 4076: 3743: 3656: 3490: 3418: 3356: 3184: 3150: 3134: 3130: 3081: 3015: 2851: 2745: 2735: 2662: 2657: 2642: 2622: 2617: 2581: 2556: 2551: 2159: 2134: 2081: 1654: 1640: 1600: 1584: 1580: 1490: 1482: 1340: 1212: 715: 655: 632: 381: 3617: 2994: 2720: 1961:

In the 20th century, most cultural and social anthropologists turned to the crafting of

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Tierney, Gerry (2007). "Becoming a Participant Observer". In Angrosino, Michael (ed.).

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In the early 20th century, socio-cultural anthropology developed in different forms in

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of social anthropologists, especially Bronislaw Malinowski in Britain, the students of

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to develop cultural anthropology in the United States. Simultaneously, Malinowski and

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In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the

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Peletz, Michael G. (1995). "Kinship Studies in Late Twentieth-Century Anthropology".

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Sociocultural anthropologists have increasingly turned their investigative eye on to

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Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct

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In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the

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face-to-face communication techniques and still lived a Paleolithic lifestyle.

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One of the earliest articulations of the anthropological meaning of the term "

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Branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans

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and methodological claims. Whether or not these claims require a specific

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stance is a matter of debate. This principle should not be confused with

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works that are holistic in approach, are oriented to the ways in which

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Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation

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Doing Cultural Anthropology: Projects for Ethnographic Data Collection

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Doing Cultural Anthropology: Projects for Ethnographic Data Collection

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model at left, all cultures progress through set stages, while in the

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Reading Benedict / Reading Mead: Feminism, Race, and Imperial Visions

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as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on

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somewhat secondary to the main issues of social scientific inquiry.

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in the 19th century divided into two schools of thought. Some, like

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Conceiving the New World Order: The Global Politics of Reproduction

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Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology

6231: 4512:. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 1–368. 3528: 3410: – Study of religion in relation to other social institutions 2973: 2931: 2811: 2786: 2501: 2370: 2184: 1916: 1360: 1349: 1316: 1104: 1009: 835: 2791: 2027:(for example, husband and wife, or parent and child) and social 2024: 1708:

Nevertheless, key aspects of feminist theory and methods became

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Ho, Karen (2009). "Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street".

1575:, have been central to the discipline. In the 1980s books like 6422: 4567:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 129. 4154:. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 17–28. 3930:"Anthropology for beginners: Social and cultural anthropology" 3697:

Rhodes, Lorna A. (2001). "Toward an Anthropology of Prisons".

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in the United States, and in the later urban research of the

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model at right, distinctive culture histories are emphasized.

4609:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 4474:

Social and Cultural Anthropology: A Very Short Introduction

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Social and Cultural Anthropology: A Very Short Introduction

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Since the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in

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Cultural relativism is a principle that was established as

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includes both cultural and social anthropology traditions.

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The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and its Consequences

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Multi-sited ethnography may also follow ethnic groups in

1283:, became an advocate for and ethnological scholar of the 4578:

Logan, Janette (2013). "Contemporary Adoptive Kinship".

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Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography

3823: 3821: 4846: 4784:. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 4412:. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 349–91. 3507:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

3445: – How cultures reflect and shape their psychology 1428:. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists including 4698:. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 10–20. 4070:

Some reflections on anthropological structural Marxism

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Heyer, Virginia (1948). "In Reply to Elgin Williams".

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Geertz's interpretive method involved what he called "

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Cultural relativism was in part a response to Western

4318:. Kenwyn Smith. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. 3592: 3590: 3524:

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's values orientation theory

3520: – Class of UNESCO designated cultural heritage 6835: 6819: 6566: 6292: 5843: 5763: 5520: 5260: 5123: 4980: 4929: 4362:Avison, David E; Myers, Michael D (March 1, 1995). 1687:Prominent British symbolic anthropologists include 1455:, and Mead was limited to her offices at the AMNH. 4173:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 4118: 4028: 3992: 3954: 3952: 3599:"The Ethnography of Prisons and Penal Confinement" 3129:different locales experience and understand their 4427:. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press: 1–18. 4410:Cultural Anthropology: A Toolkit for a Global Age 3433: – Latin noun for an unstructured community 3427: – Academic field in the study of community 1635:Geertz, Schneider, and interpretive anthropology 4216: 3755: 3753: 3243: 1663: 3493: – Study of the cultural aspects of music 1531:experimented with Marxism and authors such as 6247: 4893: 4289:pp. 259–99. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. 4287:Handbook of methods in cultural anthropology. 4031:Margaret Mead: The Making of an American Icon 3692: 3690: 3537: – Branch of the discipline of sociology 3499: – Study of human and animal interaction 3421: – Stake or post used in ritual practice 795: 8: 4478:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 4187:Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) 3961:Contemporary Sociology: A Journal of Reviews 3791:. New York: Routledge Press. pp. 8–37. 3514: – Main emotion used for social control 3451: – Evolutionary theory of social change 3255:of Sudan and the Brahmans of Nepal practice 2080:, Inc. (HRAF) is a research agency based at 1703:In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as 1307:Franz Boas, founder of the modern discipline 995:and practices. In addressing this question, 4191:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 3439: – Scientific study of human behaviour 1969:the social and cultural life of the group. 1459:Wolf, Sahlins, Mintz, and political economy 1147:, and heavily influenced by the thought of 6254: 6240: 6232: 4900: 4886: 4878: 4746:Hejtmanek, Katie Rose (28 November 2016). 4728:A Companion to Organizational Anthropology 4694:Peel, Elizabeth; Riggs, Damien W. (2016). 4624:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 4425:Kinship Systems: Change and Reconstruction 802: 788: 39: 4663: 4510:New Directions in Anthropological Kinship 4200:Dolores Janiewski, Lois W. Banner (2005) 3995:Ruth Benedict: A Humanist in Anthropology 3845: 3828:Levitsky, Steven; Murillo, Maria (2009). 3660:, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 31 3625: 3287:Late twentieth-century shifts in interest 928:Learn how and when to remove this message 4860:A Basic Guide to Cross-Cultural Research 4563:Franklin, Sarah; Ragoné, Helena (1998). 3847:10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.091106.121756 3650:Claude Levi-Strauss: the formative years 3404: – Concept in cultural anthropology 2114: 1784:and anthropology of gender and sexuality 1562:worried about anthropology's relevance. 1120:. Cultural relativism involves specific 4605:Ginsburg, Faye G.; Rapp, Rayna (1995). 4542:10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085230 4336:. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. 4303:. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. 3548: 1979:developed the ethnographic method, and 1577:Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter 51: 4823: 4821: 4793: 4791: 4775: 4773: 4741: 4739: 4737: 4721: 4719: 4717: 4715: 4713: 4711: 4709: 4707: 4705: 4256: 3762:Anthropology & Education Quarterly 3747:. Vol 1. New York: J.P. Putnam's Sons. 3554: 3552: 3487: – Study of traditional plant use 1999:drew on his conception of culture and 1519:and George Dalton challenged standard 1203:Symbolic and interpretive anthropology 4782:Institutional Ethnography as Practice 4523: 4521: 4519: 4503: 4501: 4499: 4438: 4436: 4434: 4403: 4401: 4327: 4325: 4265:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4254: 4252: 4250: 4248: 4246: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4238: 4236: 3999:. Columbia University Press. p. 3830:"Variation in Institutional Strength" 3512:Guilt–shame–fear spectrum of cultures 3481: – Comprehensive critical theory 3475: – Subdiscipline of anthropology 1745:Socio-cultural anthropology subfields 1572:Europe and the People Without History 1243:anthropology is generally applied to 7: 6885: 6195: 5796:Role of Christianity in civilization 4470:Just, Peter; Monaghan, John (2000). 4386:from the original on August 28, 2022 4261:Monaghan, John; Just, Peter (2000). 3618:10.1146/annurev-anthro-102313-030349 3531: – Person without fixed habitat 6207: 4832:. The University of Michigan Press. 4368:Information Technology & People 3559:Fisher, William F. (1997). "1997". 1235:Comparison with social anthropology 825:among humans. It is in contrast to 4812:10.1111/j.1469-8676.2001.tb00162.x 4758:from the original on 20 April 2017 4622:A critique of the study of kinship 3834:Annual Review of Political Science 3352:A critique of the study of kinship 3322:assisted reproductive technologies 1383:American Museum of Natural History 843:, founder of cultural anthropology 25: 3469: – Branch of social sciences 3316:Rise of reproductive anthropology 1828:Political economy in anthropology 1465:Political economy in anthropology 1208:Political economy in anthropology 851:Cultural anthropology has a rich 6908: 6897: 6884: 6873: 6872: 6206: 6194: 6183: 6182: 4917: 4683:from the original on 2022-10-09. 3936:from the original on 6 June 2021 3637:from the original on 2022-10-09. 1485:. Some anthropologists, such as 883: 59: 6827:List of social science journals 6008:Culture and positive psychology 4918: 4457:10.1146/annurev.anthro.24.1.343 3573:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.439 1448:The Chrysanthemum and the Sword 6784:Science and technology studies 5447:High- and low-context cultures 4580:Child & Family Social Work 4121:The Interpretation of Cultures 4035:. Princeton University Press. 3711:10.1146/annurev.anthro.30.1.65 3505: – Branch of anthropology 2112:of small-scale societies are: 2110:standard cross-cultural sample 1967:participating in and observing 1228:Systems theory in anthropology 749:Anthropologists by nationality 1: 4530:Annual Review of Anthropology 4445:Annual Review of Anthropology 4015:Ruth Benedict Ralph Linton,. 3908:10.1525/aa.1948.50.1.02a00290 3699:Annual Review of Anthropology 3606:Annual Review of Anthropology 3561:Annual Review of Anthropology 3463: – Term in public policy 1619:, the critical theory of the 1036:classical social evolutionism 6013:Culture and social cognition 4998:Cross-cultural communication 4620:Schneider, David M. (1984). 3518:Intangible cultural heritage 3414:Bibliography of anthropology 3341:Critiques of kinship studies 3292:basic principles offered by 2007:'s students were developing 1548:Algerian War of Independence 1439:Though such works as Mead's 987:The critique of evolutionism 484: 6095:Intercultural communication 4394:– via IngentaConnect. 4351:. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. 4150:Roseberry, William (1989). 3977:Stocking, George W. (1968) 1913:Chicago School of Sociology 1762:Anthropology of development 1543:and componential analysis. 1377:Boas used his positions at 1373:Kroeber, Mead, and Benedict 1275:(1818–1881), a lawyer from 941:of cultures and societies. 903:. The specific problem is: 6953: 5538:Cross cultural sensitivity 5205:Resistance through culture 4851:Human Relations Area Files 4780:Smith, Dorothy E. (2006). 4726:Douglas, Caulkins (2012). 4408:Guest, Kenneth J. (2013). 4316:The Self in Social Inquiry 3370:Institutional anthropology 3219: 2078:Human Relations Area Files 1954: 1895: 1852:Transpersonal anthropology 1833:Psychological anthropology 1737:, and the anthropology of 1638: 1587:moved issues of power and 1462: 1310: 1096: 831:sociocultural anthropology 769:List of indigenous peoples 29: 6868: 6269: 6178: 6150:Transformation of culture 5583:Cultural environmentalism 5013:Cross-cultural psychology 5008:Cross-cultural psychiatry 5003:Cross-cultural leadership 4915: 4635:Wierzbicka, Anna (2016). 4380:10.1108/09593849510098262 4117:Geertz, Clifford (1973). 4089:Lewis, Herbert S. (1998) 4027:Lutkehaus, Nancy (2008). 3981:. London: The Free Press. 3437:Cross-cultural psychology 3207:(IT) computer employees. 3203:investors, law firms, or 2071:Cross-cultural comparison 1987:. Boas' students such as 514:Cross-cultural comparison 30:For the publication, see 6110:Living things in culture 6100:Intercultural competence 6003:Culture and menstruation 5502:Trans-cultural diffusion 4828:Riles, Annelise (2000). 4696:Critical Kinship Studies 4347:Rosaldo, Renato (1989). 4125:. Basic Books. pp. 3774:10.1525/aeq.2000.31.1.24 3408:Anthropology of religion 3364:Critical Kinship Studies 1926:Interactions between an 1843:Anthropology of religion 1739:industrialized societies 1560:Reinventing Anthropology 1059:in modern anthropology. 821:focused on the study of 686:Historical particularism 18:Cultural anthropologists 6472:international relations 5921:Cultural homogenization 5151:Individualistic culture 5085:Popular culture studies 5070:Intercultural relations 4165:Carsten, Janet (2004). 4104:American Anthropologist 3991:Mead, Margaret (2005). 3896:American Anthropologist 3597:Cunha, Manuela (2014). 3124:Multi-sited ethnography 1898:Participant observation 1892:Participant observation 1808:Multimodal anthropology 1792:historical anthropology 1772:Ecological anthropology 1767:Disability anthropology 1407:Indo-European languages 958:Theoretical foundations 857:participant observation 519:Participant observation 6799:Quantum social science 5856:Archaeological culture 5603:Cultural globalization 5472:Organizational culture 5320:Cultural communication 5278:Cultural appropriation 5065:Intercultural learning 4993:Cross-cultural studies 4830:The Network Inside Out 4221: 3326:in vitro fertilization 3248: 3205:information technology 1823:Political anthropology 1757:Cognitive anthropology 1674: 1671:Clifford Geertz (1973) 1550:and opposition to the 1541:cognitive anthropology 1521:neoclassical economics 1445:(1928) and Benedict's 1442:Coming of Age in Samoa 1369: 1358: 1325: 1171:Theoretical approaches 1023: 963:The concept of culture 844: 661:Cross-cultural studies 6937:Cultural anthropology 6836:Other categorizations 6689:International studies 6674:History of technology 6609:Communication studies 6492:public administration 6125:Participatory culture 5916:Cultural evolutionism 5740:Multiracial democracy 5618:Cultural intelligence 5563:Cultural conservatism 5553:Cultural backwardness 5543:Cultural assimilation 5417:Cultural reproduction 5273:Cultural appreciation 5225:Far-right subcultures 5115:Transcultural nursing 5080:Philosophy of culture 4957:Cultural neuroscience 4937:Cultural anthropology 4752:Oxford Bibliographies 4730:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. 4508:Stone, Linda (2001). 3870:"Cultural Relativism" 3813:Guns, Germs and Steel 2091:Cross-Cultural Survey 1782:Feminist anthropology 1777:Economic anthropology 1509:Economic anthropology 1364: 1353: 1343:, were not possible. 1320: 1263:Foundational thinkers 1193:Feminist anthropology 1020:multilineal evolution 1013: 839: 815:Cultural anthropology 33:Cultural Anthropology 6669:Historical sociology 6120:Oppositional culture 6090:Emotions and culture 5998:Cultural sensibility 5988:Cultural translation 5926:Cultural institution 5906:Cultural determinism 5628:Cultural nationalism 5613:Cultural imperialism 5573:Cultural deprivation 5467:Non-material culture 5100:Sociology of culture 5095:Semiotics of culture 4866:eHRAF World Cultures 4644:Current Anthropology 3787:Milton, Kay (1996). 3535:Sociology of culture 3473:Digital anthropology 3310:Third World feminism 3197:In Search of Respect 3178:Nancy Scheper-Hughes 2268:Circum-Mediterranean 2099:eHRAF World Cultures 2095:George Peter Murdock 2076:that it is not. The 2005:A.R. Radcliffe Brown 1977:Bronisław Malinowski 1818:Medical anthropology 1699:The post-modern turn 1313:Boasian anthropology 1183:Cultural materialism 1178:Actor–network theory 1001:Grafton Elliot Smith 910:improve this section 899:to meet Knowledge's 841:Edward Burnett Tylor 754:Anthropology by year 691:Boasian anthropology 666:Cultural materialism 651:Actor–network theory 249:Paleoanthropological 6849:Geisteswissenschaft 6843:Behavioral sciences 6769:Political sociology 6684:Information science 6629:Development studies 5971:Culture speculation 5966:Cultural relativism 5896:Cultural competence 5786:Cultural Christians 5658:Cultural Revolution 5648:Cultural radicalism 5623:Cultural liberalism 5558:Cultural Bolshevism 5533:Consumer capitalism 5487:Relational mobility 5427:Cultural technology 5335:Cultural dissonance 5252:Culture by location 5215:Alternative culture 5131:Constructed culture 5110:Theology of culture 5050:Cultural psychology 5030:Cultural entomology 4800:Social Anthropology 3455:Cultural relativism 3443:Cultural psychology 3402:Age-area hypothesis 3239:public anthropology 3193:Margaret Mead Award 2086:comparative studies 2009:social anthropology 2001:cultural relativism 1861:Visual anthropology 1848:Cyborg anthropology 1838:Public anthropology 1752:Anthropology of art 1735:virtual communities 1412:The publication of 1379:Columbia University 1099:Cultural relativism 1093:Cultural relativism 1072:Claude Lévi-Strauss 1065:cultural relativism 1016:unilineal evolution 949:, but many others. 827:social anthropology 706:Performance studies 599:Kinship and descent 539:Cultural relativism 189:Paleoethnobotanical 164:Ethnoarchaeological 6904:Society portal 6391:auxiliary sciences 6130:Permission culture 6063:Disability culture 6043:Children's culture 5911:Cultural diversity 5871:Circuit of culture 5653:Cultural retention 5633:Cultural pessimism 5588:Cultural exception 5578:Cultural diplomacy 5568:Cultural contracts 5528:Colonial mentality 5457:Manuscript culture 5432:Cultural universal 5402:Cultural pluralism 5382:Cultural landscape 5377:Cultural invention 5345:Cultural framework 5247:Vernacular culture 5045:Cultural mediation 5025:Cultural economics 5020:Cultural analytics 4952:Cultural geography 4942:Cultural astronomy 4211:2022-12-15 at the 4097:2017-04-03 at the 4075:2007-10-01 at the 3742:2022-12-15 at the 3675:www.britannica.com 3655:2023-01-10 at the 3449:Cultural evolution 3324:(ARTs), including 3216:Kinship and family 2958:Miskito (Mosquito) 2802:Saulteaux (Ojibwa) 2346:Egyptians (Fellah) 1856:Urban anthropology 1813:Media anthropology 1803:Legal anthropology 1682:hermeneutic circle 1645:David M. Schneider 1370: 1359: 1326: 1273:Lewis Henry Morgan 1268:Lewis Henry Morgan 1223:Post-structuralism 1032:cultural evolution 1028:Lewis Henry Morgan 1024: 845: 823:cultural variation 726:Post-structuralism 485:Research framework 6924: 6923: 6764:Political economy 6759:Political ecology 6614:Community studies 6604:Cognitive science 6567:Interdisciplinary 6467:Political science 6229: 6228: 6058:Death and culture 5951:Cultural movement 5941:Cultural literacy 5801:Eastern Orthodoxy 5713:Dominator culture 5708:Deculturalization 5608:Cultural hegemony 5598:Cultural genocide 5593:Cultural feminism 5412:Cultural property 5407:Cultural practice 5392:Cultural leveling 5387:Cultural learning 5372:Cultural industry 5367:Cultural identity 5350:Cultural heritage 5340:Cultural emphasis 5325:Cultural conflict 5298:Cultural behavior 5288:Cultural artifact 5200:Primitive culture 5176:Political culture 4871:eHRAF Archaeology 4592:10.1111/cfs.12042 4489:978-0-19-285346-2 4349:Culture and Truth 4272:978-0-19-285346-2 4042:978-0-691-00941-4 4010:978-0-231-13491-0 3737:Primitive Culture 3425:Community studies 3189:Philippe Bourgois 3185:"Western" culture 3121: 3120: 2160:Nyakyusa (Ngonde) 2103:eHRAF Archaeology 1989:Alfred L. Kroeber 1983:taught it in the 1731:indigenous rights 1678:thick description 1515:and practiced by 1511:as influenced by 938: 937: 930: 901:quality standards 892:This section may 812: 811: 711:Political economy 534:Thick description 331:Political economy 194:Zooarchaeological 154:Bioarchaeological 16:(Redirected from 6944: 6912: 6902: 6901: 6888: 6887: 6876: 6875: 6779:Regional science 6624:Cultural studies 6599:Business studies 6256: 6249: 6242: 6233: 6210: 6209: 6198: 6197: 6186: 6185: 6075:Drinking culture 6028:Culture industry 5976:Cultural tourism 5956:Cultural mulatto 5931:Cultural jet lag 5866:Cannabis culture 5823:Cultural Muslims 5745:Pluriculturalism 5728:Multiculturalism 5718:Interculturalism 5693:Culture minister 5683:Cultural Zionism 5678:Cultural subsidy 5673:Cultural silence 5548:Cultural attaché 5507:Transculturation 5462:Material culture 5452:Interculturality 5308:Cultural capital 5293:Cultural baggage 5230:Youth subculture 5171:Official culture 5136:Dominant culture 5075:Internet culture 5040:Cultural mapping 5035:Cultural history 4962:Cultural studies 4947:Cultural ecology 4921: 4920: 4902: 4895: 4888: 4879: 4853:(HRAF) based at 4847:Official website 4834: 4833: 4825: 4816: 4815: 4795: 4786: 4785: 4777: 4768: 4767: 4765: 4763: 4743: 4732: 4731: 4723: 4700: 4699: 4691: 4685: 4684: 4682: 4667: 4641: 4632: 4626: 4625: 4617: 4611: 4610: 4602: 4596: 4595: 4575: 4569: 4568: 4560: 4554: 4553: 4525: 4514: 4513: 4505: 4494: 4493: 4477: 4467: 4461: 4460: 4440: 4429: 4428: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4405: 4396: 4395: 4393: 4391: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4344: 4338: 4337: 4329: 4320: 4319: 4311: 4305: 4304: 4296: 4290: 4283: 4277: 4276: 4258: 4231: 4228: 4222: 4198: 4192: 4185: 4179: 4178: 4172: 4162: 4156: 4155: 4147: 4141: 4140: 4124: 4114: 4108: 4087: 4081: 4067:Nugent, Stephen 4065: 4059: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4034: 4024: 4018: 4017: 3998: 3988: 3982: 3975: 3969: 3968: 3956: 3947: 3945: 3943: 3941: 3932:. 11 June 2010. 3926: 3920: 3919: 3891: 3885: 3884: 3882: 3881: 3872:. Archived from 3866: 3860: 3859: 3849: 3825: 3816: 3811:Diamond, Jared. 3809: 3803: 3802: 3784: 3778: 3777: 3757: 3748: 3729: 3723: 3722: 3694: 3685: 3684: 3682: 3681: 3667: 3661: 3645: 3639: 3638: 3636: 3629: 3603: 3594: 3585: 3584: 3556: 3508: 3275:municipality of 2611:Insular Pacific 2371:Gheg (Albanians) 2269: 2125:Nama (Hottentot) 2115: 1672: 1659:Marshall Sahlins 1621:Frankfurt School 1593:Marshall Sahlins 1517:Marshall Sahlins 1483:natural sciences 1473:Marshall Sahlins 1341:natural sciences 1130:moral relativism 1087:hunter-gatherers 1070:Others, such as 977:V. Gordon Childe 971:" came from Sir 933: 926: 922: 919: 913: 887: 886: 879: 804: 797: 790: 332: 214:Anthrozoological 63: 40: 21: 6952: 6951: 6947: 6946: 6945: 6943: 6942: 6941: 6927: 6926: 6925: 6920: 6896: 6864: 6831: 6815: 6789:Science studies 6573:Administration 6562: 6288: 6265: 6263:Social sciences 6260: 6230: 6225: 6174: 6165:Western culture 6160:Welfare culture 6085:Eastern culture 5946:Cultural mosaic 5901:Cultural critic 5891:Cultural center 5839: 5813:Cultural Hindus 5759: 5750:Polyculturalism 5723:Monoculturalism 5698:Culture of fear 5668:Cultural safety 5663:Cultural rights 5643:Cultural racism 5638:Cultural policy 5516: 5422:Cultural system 5397:Cultural memory 5330:Cultural cringe 5256: 5188:Popular culture 5119: 5055:Cultural values 4976: 4925: 4911: 4906: 4855:Yale University 4843: 4838: 4837: 4827: 4826: 4819: 4797: 4796: 4789: 4779: 4778: 4771: 4761: 4759: 4745: 4744: 4735: 4725: 4724: 4703: 4693: 4692: 4688: 4680: 4639: 4634: 4633: 4629: 4619: 4618: 4614: 4604: 4603: 4599: 4577: 4576: 4572: 4562: 4561: 4557: 4527: 4526: 4517: 4507: 4506: 4497: 4490: 4469: 4468: 4464: 4442: 4441: 4432: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4407: 4406: 4399: 4389: 4387: 4361: 4360: 4356: 4346: 4345: 4341: 4331: 4330: 4323: 4313: 4312: 4308: 4298: 4297: 4293: 4284: 4280: 4273: 4260: 4259: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4213:Wayback Machine 4199: 4195: 4186: 4182: 4164: 4163: 4159: 4149: 4148: 4144: 4137: 4116: 4115: 4111: 4099:Wayback Machine 4088: 4084: 4077:Wayback Machine 4066: 4062: 4057: 4053: 4043: 4026: 4025: 4021: 4011: 3990: 3989: 3985: 3976: 3972: 3958: 3957: 3950: 3939: 3937: 3928: 3927: 3923: 3893: 3892: 3888: 3879: 3877: 3868: 3867: 3863: 3827: 3826: 3819: 3810: 3806: 3799: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3759: 3758: 3751: 3744:Wayback Machine 3730: 3726: 3696: 3695: 3688: 3679: 3677: 3669: 3668: 3664: 3657:Wayback Machine 3646: 3642: 3634: 3601: 3596: 3595: 3588: 3558: 3557: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3506: 3491:Ethnomusicology 3419:Ceremonial pole 3397: 3372: 3357:Anna Wierzbicka 3343: 3330:Maria C. Inhorn 3318: 3302:David Schneider 3289: 3224: 3218: 3213: 3187:. For example, 3151:Michael Taussig 3135:Arjun Appadurai 3126: 3117: 2941: 2882:Omaha (Dhegiha) 2852:Northern Paiute 2765: 2731:Western Samoans 2618:Javanese (Miao) 2606: 2557:Negeri Sembilan 2427:Yurak (Samoyed) 2415: 2267: 2262: 2185:Mbuti (Pygmies) 2082:Yale University 2073: 2050:forms, such as 1959: 1953: 1900: 1894: 1870: 1865: 1747: 1701: 1673: 1670: 1655:Clifford Geertz 1651:David Schneider 1647: 1641:Clifford Geertz 1639:Main articles: 1637: 1601:Fernand Braudel 1585:Michel Foucault 1581:Antonio Gramsci 1491:Clifford Geertz 1479: 1463:Main articles: 1461: 1375: 1315: 1309: 1270: 1265: 1237: 1232: 1213:Practice theory 1173: 1122:epistemological 1109:anthropological 1101: 1095: 989: 965: 960: 934: 923: 917: 914: 907: 888: 884: 877: 817:is a branch of 808: 779: 778: 744: 736: 735: 716:Practice theory 656:Alliance theory 646: 638: 637: 633:Postcolonialism 562: 554: 553: 487: 477: 476: 442:Anthropological 437: 427: 426: 330: 280: 279: 259: 258: 209: 199: 198: 129: 119: 118: 89: 81: 38: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6950: 6948: 6940: 6939: 6929: 6928: 6922: 6921: 6919: 6918: 6906: 6894: 6882: 6869: 6866: 6865: 6863: 6862: 6857: 6852: 6845: 6839: 6837: 6833: 6832: 6830: 6829: 6823: 6821: 6817: 6816: 6814: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6802: 6801: 6796: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6755: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6736: 6735: 6734: 6732:social science 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6664:Global studies 6661: 6659:Gender studies 6656: 6651: 6650: 6649: 6644: 6642:social science 6638:Environmental 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6585: 6584: 6579: 6570: 6568: 6564: 6563: 6561: 6560: 6559: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6528: 6527: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6496: 6495: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6464: 6463: 6462: 6452: 6451: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6435: 6430: 6420: 6419: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6378: 6377: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6351: 6350: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6337:macroeconomics 6334: 6332:microeconomics 6324: 6323: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6296: 6294: 6290: 6289: 6287: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6270: 6267: 6266: 6261: 6259: 6258: 6251: 6244: 6236: 6227: 6226: 6224: 6223: 6216: 6204: 6192: 6179: 6176: 6175: 6173: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6071: 6070: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5984: 5983: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5961:Cultural probe 5958: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5886:Cross-cultural 5883: 5881:Coffee culture 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5851:Animal culture 5847: 5845: 5841: 5840: 5838: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5826: 5825: 5815: 5810: 5809: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5773: 5767: 5765: 5761: 5760: 5758: 5757: 5755:Transculturism 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5736: 5735: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5688:Culture change 5685: 5680: 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4972:Culture theory 4969: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4933: 4931: 4927: 4926: 4916: 4913: 4912: 4907: 4905: 4904: 4897: 4890: 4882: 4876: 4875: 4874: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4842: 4841:External links 4839: 4836: 4835: 4817: 4787: 4769: 4748:"Institutions" 4733: 4701: 4686: 4656:10.1086/687360 4627: 4612: 4597: 4570: 4555: 4515: 4495: 4488: 4462: 4430: 4415: 4397: 4354: 4339: 4321: 4306: 4291: 4278: 4271: 4232: 4223: 4193: 4180: 4157: 4142: 4135: 4109: 4082: 4060: 4051: 4047:margaret Mead. 4041: 4019: 4009: 3983: 3970: 3948: 3921: 3886: 3861: 3817: 3804: 3797: 3779: 3749: 3724: 3686: 3662: 3640: 3586: 3547: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3538: 3532: 3526: 3521: 3515: 3509: 3500: 3494: 3488: 3482: 3479:Engaged theory 3476: 3470: 3464: 3461:Culture change 3458: 3452: 3446: 3440: 3434: 3428: 3422: 3416: 3411: 3405: 3398: 3396: 3393: 3371: 3368: 3342: 3339: 3317: 3314: 3288: 3285: 3220:Main article: 3217: 3214: 3212: 3209: 3139:James Clifford 3125: 3122: 3119: 3118: 3116: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3100: 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2398: 2393: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2333: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2293: 2288: 2286:Wodaabe Fulani 2283: 2278: 2272: 2270: 2264: 2263: 2261: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2192: 2190:Nkundo (Mongo) 2187: 2182: 2177: 2172: 2167: 2162: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2132: 2127: 2121: 2119: 2072: 2069: 2031:(for example, 1955:Main article: 1952: 1949: 1905:field research 1896:Main article: 1893: 1890: 1869: 1866: 1864: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1850: 1845: 1840: 1835: 1830: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1805: 1800: 1794: 1785: 1779: 1774: 1769: 1764: 1759: 1754: 1748: 1746: 1743: 1705:James Clifford 1700: 1697: 1668: 1636: 1633: 1595:, who drew on 1533:Rodney Needham 1495:Julian Steward 1460: 1457: 1414:Alfred Kroeber 1387:Alfred Kroeber 1374: 1371: 1311:Main article: 1308: 1305: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1236: 1233: 1231: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1188:Culture theory 1185: 1180: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1097:Main article: 1094: 1091: 1044:Julian Steward 988: 985: 964: 961: 959: 956: 936: 935: 891: 889: 882: 876: 873: 859:(often called 810: 809: 807: 806: 799: 792: 784: 781: 780: 777: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 745: 742: 741: 738: 737: 734: 733: 731:Systems theory 728: 723: 718: 713: 708: 703: 698: 693: 688: 683: 678: 673: 671:Culture theory 668: 663: 658: 653: 647: 644: 643: 640: 639: 636: 635: 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 590: 589: 579: 574: 569: 563: 560: 559: 556: 555: 552: 551: 546: 541: 536: 531: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 505: 504: 494: 488: 483: 482: 479: 478: 475: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 438: 433: 432: 429: 428: 425: 424: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 327: 322: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 281: 278: 277: 272: 266: 265: 264: 261: 260: 257: 256: 254:Primatological 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 216: 210: 205: 204: 201: 200: 197: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 146: 141: 136: 130: 127:Archaeological 125: 124: 121: 120: 117: 116: 111: 106: 101: 96: 94:Archaeological 90: 87: 86: 83: 82: 80: 79: 74: 68: 65: 64: 56: 55: 49: 48: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6949: 6938: 6935: 6934: 6932: 6917: 6916: 6911: 6907: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6893: 6892: 6883: 6881: 6880: 6871: 6870: 6867: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6855:Human science 6853: 6851: 6850: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6840: 6838: 6834: 6828: 6825: 6824: 6822: 6818: 6812: 6811:Vegan studies 6809: 6807: 6804: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6791: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6774:Public health 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6739: 6737: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6709: 6708:Philosophies 6707: 6705: 6704:Media studies 6702: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6679:Human ecology 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6639: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6589:Anthrozoology 6587: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6574: 6572: 6571: 6569: 6565: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6533: 6532: 6529: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6514:developmental 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6501: 6500: 6497: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6487:public policy 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6469: 6468: 6465: 6461: 6458: 6457: 6456: 6453: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6438:legal systems 6436: 6434: 6433:legal history 6431: 6429: 6428:jurisprudence 6426: 6425: 6424: 6421: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6383: 6382: 6379: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6356: 6355: 6352: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6329: 6328: 6325: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6302: 6301: 6298: 6297: 6295: 6291: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6271: 6268: 6264: 6257: 6252: 6250: 6245: 6243: 6238: 6237: 6234: 6222: 6221: 6217: 6215: 6214: 6205: 6203: 6202: 6193: 6191: 6190: 6181: 6180: 6177: 6171: 6170:Youth culture 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6155:Urban culture 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6140:Remix culture 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6115:Media culture 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6105:Languaculture 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6069: 6066: 6065: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6033:Culture shock 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5993:Cultural turn 5991: 5989: 5986: 5982: 5979: 5978: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5861:Bennett scale 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5848: 5846: 5842: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5824: 5821: 5820: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5791:Protestantism 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5778: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5768: 5766: 5762: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5734: 5733:Biculturalism 5731: 5730: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5525: 5523: 5519: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5497:Technoculture 5495: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5477:Print culture 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5442:Enculturation 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5362:Cultural icon 5360: 5356: 5353: 5352: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5314: 5311: 5310: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5303:Cultural bias 5301: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5283:Cultural area 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5268:Acculturation 5266: 5265: 5263: 5259: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5242:Super culture 5240: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5212: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5194: 5191: 5190: 5189: 5186: 5182: 5179: 5178: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5156:Legal culture 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5128: 5126: 5122: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5105:Sound culture 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5006: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4996: 4995: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4985: 4983: 4979: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4934: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4914: 4910: 4903: 4898: 4896: 4891: 4889: 4884: 4883: 4880: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4861: 4858: 4857: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4845: 4844: 4840: 4831: 4824: 4822: 4818: 4813: 4809: 4806:(3): 345–53. 4805: 4801: 4794: 4792: 4788: 4783: 4776: 4774: 4770: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4742: 4740: 4738: 4734: 4729: 4722: 4720: 4718: 4716: 4714: 4712: 4710: 4708: 4706: 4702: 4697: 4690: 4687: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4650:(4): 408–28. 4649: 4645: 4638: 4631: 4628: 4623: 4616: 4613: 4608: 4601: 4598: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4574: 4571: 4566: 4559: 4556: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4524: 4522: 4520: 4516: 4511: 4504: 4502: 4500: 4496: 4491: 4485: 4481: 4476: 4475: 4466: 4463: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4431: 4426: 4419: 4416: 4411: 4404: 4402: 4398: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4358: 4355: 4350: 4343: 4340: 4335: 4328: 4326: 4322: 4317: 4310: 4307: 4302: 4295: 4292: 4288: 4282: 4279: 4274: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4255: 4253: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4245: 4243: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4233: 4227: 4224: 4220: 4214: 4210: 4207: 4203: 4197: 4194: 4190: 4184: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4170: 4169:After Kinship 4161: 4158: 4153: 4146: 4143: 4138: 4136:9780465097197 4132: 4128: 4123: 4122: 4113: 4110: 4106: 4105: 4101: 4100: 4096: 4093: 4086: 4083: 4079: 4078: 4074: 4071: 4064: 4061: 4055: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4038: 4033: 4032: 4023: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4006: 4002: 3997: 3996: 3987: 3984: 3980: 3974: 3971: 3966: 3962: 3955: 3953: 3949: 3935: 3931: 3925: 3922: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3902:(1): 163–66. 3901: 3897: 3890: 3887: 3876:on 2007-06-13 3875: 3871: 3865: 3862: 3857: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3824: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3808: 3805: 3800: 3794: 3790: 3783: 3780: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3756: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3745: 3741: 3738: 3733: 3732:Tylor, Edward 3728: 3725: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3693: 3691: 3687: 3676: 3672: 3666: 3663: 3659: 3658: 3654: 3651: 3644: 3641: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3600: 3593: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3555: 3553: 3549: 3542: 3536: 3533: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3519: 3516: 3513: 3510: 3504: 3503:Folkloristics 3501: 3498: 3495: 3492: 3489: 3486: 3483: 3480: 3477: 3474: 3471: 3468: 3465: 3462: 3459: 3456: 3453: 3450: 3447: 3444: 3441: 3438: 3435: 3432: 3429: 3426: 3423: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3412: 3409: 3406: 3403: 3400: 3399: 3394: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3367: 3365: 3360: 3358: 3353: 3349: 3348:ethnocentrism 3340: 3338: 3334: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3305: 3303: 3299: 3298:Rodney Neeham 3295: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3268: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3247: 3242: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3223: 3215: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3181: 3179: 3175: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3143:George Marcus 3140: 3136: 3132: 3123: 3114: 3111: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3085: 3083: 3080: 3078: 3075: 3073: 3070: 3068: 3065: 3063: 3060: 3058: 3055: 3053: 3050: 3048: 3045: 3043: 3040: 3038: 3035: 3033: 3030: 3028: 3025: 3023: 3020: 3017: 3014: 3012: 3009: 3007: 3004: 3001: 2998: 2996: 2993: 2990: 2987: 2985: 2982: 2980: 2977: 2975: 2972: 2970: 2967: 2964: 2961: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2948: 2945: 2944: 2938: 2935: 2933: 2930: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2918: 2915: 2913: 2910: 2908: 2905: 2903: 2900: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2883: 2880: 2878: 2875: 2873: 2870: 2868: 2865: 2863: 2860: 2858: 2855: 2853: 2850: 2848: 2845: 2843: 2840: 2838: 2835: 2833: 2830: 2828: 2825: 2823: 2820: 2818: 2815: 2813: 2810: 2808: 2805: 2803: 2800: 2798: 2795: 2793: 2790: 2788: 2787:Copper Eskimo 2785: 2783: 2780: 2778: 2775: 2774: 2772: 2769: 2768: 2762: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2752: 2749: 2747: 2744: 2742: 2739: 2737: 2734: 2732: 2729: 2727: 2724: 2722: 2719: 2717: 2714: 2712: 2709: 2707: 2704: 2702: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2682: 2679: 2677: 2674: 2672: 2669: 2666: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2644: 2641: 2639: 2636: 2634: 2631: 2629: 2626: 2624: 2621: 2619: 2616: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2609: 2603: 2600: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2543: 2540: 2538: 2535: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2525: 2523: 2520: 2518: 2515: 2513: 2510: 2508: 2505: 2503: 2500: 2498: 2495: 2493: 2490: 2488: 2485: 2483: 2480: 2478: 2475: 2473: 2470: 2468: 2465: 2463: 2460: 2458: 2457:Uttar Pradesh 2455: 2453: 2450: 2448: 2445: 2443: 2440: 2438: 2435: 2433: 2430: 2428: 2425: 2424: 2422: 2420:East Eurasia 2419: 2418: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2402: 2399: 2397: 2394: 2392: 2389: 2387: 2384: 2382: 2379: 2377: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2361:Rwala Bedouin 2359: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2327: 2326:Kenuzi Nubian 2324: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2297: 2294: 2292: 2289: 2287: 2284: 2282: 2279: 2277: 2274: 2273: 2271: 2266: 2265: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2231: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2214: 2213:Ashanti (Twi) 2211: 2209: 2206: 2204: 2201: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2191: 2188: 2186: 2183: 2181: 2178: 2176: 2173: 2171: 2168: 2166: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2136: 2133: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2122: 2120: 2117: 2116: 2113: 2111: 2106: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2070: 2068: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2023:among social 2022: 2021:relationships 2018: 2013: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1997:Margaret Mead 1994: 1993:Ruth Benedict 1990: 1986: 1985:United States 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1968: 1964: 1963:ethnographies 1958: 1950: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1929: 1924: 1922: 1921:formal system 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1899: 1891: 1889: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1867: 1862: 1859: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1839: 1836: 1834: 1831: 1829: 1826: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1789: 1786: 1783: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1753: 1750: 1749: 1744: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1727:biotechnology 1724: 1720: 1719:globalization 1716: 1715:postmodernism 1711: 1706: 1698: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1689:Victor Turner 1685: 1683: 1679: 1667: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1646: 1642: 1634: 1632: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1609:John Comaroff 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1573: 1568: 1563: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1529:Peter Worsley 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1504: 1503:Marvin Harris 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1487:Lloyd Fallers 1484: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1458: 1456: 1454: 1450: 1449: 1444: 1443: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1430:Sigmund Freud 1427: 1426:Ruth Benedict 1423: 1422:Margaret Mead 1419: 1415: 1410: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1399:Ruth Benedict 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1372: 1367: 1366:Ruth Benedict 1363: 1356: 1355:Margaret Mead 1352: 1348: 1344: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1330: 1323: 1319: 1314: 1306: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1267: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1234: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1218:Structuralism 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1198:Functionalism 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1175: 1170: 1168: 1166: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1137:ethnocentrism 1133: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1100: 1092: 1090: 1088: 1084: 1083:structuralism 1080: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1066: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1049: 1048:ethnographers 1045: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1021: 1017: 1012: 1008: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 986: 984: 980: 978: 974: 970: 962: 957: 955: 952: 948: 942: 932: 929: 921: 911: 906: 902: 898: 897: 890: 881: 880: 874: 872: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 849: 842: 838: 834: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 805: 800: 798: 793: 791: 786: 785: 783: 782: 775: 774:Organizations 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 746: 740: 739: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 721:Structuralism 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 697: 696:Functionalism 694: 692: 689: 687: 684: 682: 679: 677: 674: 672: 669: 667: 664: 662: 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 648: 642: 641: 634: 630: 627: 625: 622: 620: 617: 615: 612: 610: 607: 605: 602: 600: 597: 595: 592: 588: 587:sociocultural 585: 584: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 564: 558: 557: 550: 549:Emic and etic 547: 545: 544:Ethnocentrism 542: 540: 537: 535: 532: 530: 527: 525: 522: 520: 517: 515: 512: 510: 507: 503: 500: 499: 498: 495: 493: 492:Anthropometry 490: 489: 486: 481: 480: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 457:Ethnopoetical 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 439: 436: 431: 430: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 412:Transpersonal 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 392:Psychological 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 352:Institutional 350: 348: 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 328: 326: 323: 321: 320:Environmental 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 282: 276: 273: 271: 268: 267: 263: 262: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 211: 208: 203: 202: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 159:Environmental 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 131: 128: 123: 122: 115: 112: 110: 107: 105: 102: 100: 97: 95: 92: 91: 85: 84: 78: 75: 73: 70: 69: 67: 66: 62: 58: 57: 54: 50: 46: 42: 41: 36: 34: 19: 6913: 6889: 6877: 6847: 6654:Food studies 6594:Area studies 6347:mathematical 6342:econometrics 6309: 6300:Anthropology 6218: 6211: 6199: 6187: 6135:Rape culture 6080:Drug culture 6068:Deaf culture 6053:Cyberculture 6023:Culture hero 5936:Cultural lag 5876:Civilization 5776:Christianity 5482:Protoculture 5166:Microculture 5146:High culture 5141:Folk culture 5090:Postcritique 4936: 4829: 4803: 4799: 4781: 4760:. 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