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habitat of the island, there was no consensus on a solution to the problem. The majority of visitors tended to prefer non-lethal methods of managing the population, as opposed to non-management or complete eradication. At that time, park management felt that although the horses were popular with tourists, they were also destructive to beach ecosystems, including an increase in erosion where horses had eaten grasses that previously held sand in place. The 2009 NPCA report emphasized the negative impact that the horses were having on the island environment, and endorsed study findings that between 50 and 70 animals would be an appropriate population for the island. However, the report also noted the management challenges resulting from the "public and political appeal for the animals", but stated that a management plan is necessary. Potential solutions offered by the NPCA included eradicating the herd, confining a reduced herd to a portion of the island, and using contraceptives to reduce herd numbers. As of April 2014, there was no management plan published by the NPS, which considers the herd "feral, free-ranging and unmanaged".
142:
307:. The researchers noted that they were looking at herd size solely as it related to genetic variation, and did not take environmental damage into consideration. In addition, it was found that due to the large amount of introduced blood from outside horses, the Cumberland Island horses were not genetically unique. Due to this, and the ongoing environmental damage, it was concluded that the horses met neither the genetic nor the environmental requirements for feral horses on public lands and that the herd should be reduced or removed completely. The researchers conceded, however, that their analysis did not take "local historical and cultural elements" into consideration, only environmental and genetic.
249:(NPCA) estimated that there were approximately 200 feral horses on Cumberland Island. As of 2010, 121 horses were counted on the island during the yearly census. Censuses conducted between 2000 and 2010 have counted between 120 and 154 horses. Not all horses are counted during the census, and park management estimates that approximately 50 horses are missed in the counts each year, bringing the 2010 total to around 170 horses. The life span of horses on Cumberland Island is approximately half that of their ancestors, due to infestations of parasites and disease. They also suffer from digestive issues linked to the ingestion of a great amount of sand, which causes
327:
and that the herd size had decreased. However, upon later questioning, he refused to expand upon his observations of the damage to the island. The provision expired in 1997, but effectively halted momentum toward a park management plan. The study published in 2000 recommended a management strategy that reduced herd populations to environmentally-recommended sizes through a combination of off-island adoption to private owners and
29:
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105:. There is estimated to be a population of between 150 and 200 horses on the island. Horses on Cumberland Island have a relatively short life expectancy, due to pest infestations, disease and their rugged environment. In 2000 a behavioral study found that instability marks the bands, with large numbers of co-dominant
225:. Since then, few new horses have been introduced to the island, though four Arabians were introduced in the early 1990s in the hopes of diversifying and bettering the existing population. Since 1981, the NPS has been monitoring the horses and tracking their impact on the environment. In 1991, an outbreak of
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included a provision in a federal appropriations bill that prevented any management of the horses. Kingston made the change to the bill after touring the island, but without consultation with the NPS. He initially claimed that he personally did not see significant damage to the island from the horses
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The herd has been studied periodically since the late 1980s, with researchers recommending various management strategies depending on the focus of their study. Current herd levels have been shown to have a negative effect on their environment, and researchers focused on environmental issues recommend
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born on
Cumberland Island were less likely to survive than comparable foals in western feral herds, with survival rates of 58.8-61.1% and 80% respectively. This was found to be especially true in animals born after 1 June, which was attributed to higher temperatures, higher insect levels and reduced
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into the feral horse population in an attempt to improve the animals. Carnegie received a small amount of income from the buying and selling of these animals. Later, many island residents began introducing additional breeds into the herds on the island, further diversifying the bands of horses. In
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In 2009, a study was conducted by the
Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources at the University of Georgia to determine public opinion on the management of the feral livestock (horses and pigs) on the island. The researchers found that 68% of visitors believed the horses were damaging the
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demonstrated the then-current population of 180 horses was over-grazing the island. The researcher recommended reducing the herd size to between 49 and 73 animals, which she contended was the maximum size that the island could support without environmental damage. The study showed that the horses
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In 1995, the NPS began the process of developing a management plan for the
Cumberland Island horse. After compiling information, they released a draft environmental assessment in early 1996 and began taking public comment on a potential management plan. Public opinion was severely divided, with
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not generally forming close relationships with each other and commonly switching which stallion they banded with, and juveniles dispersing quickly. The researchers attributed this to a lack of territory, with bands frequently inhabiting overlapping areas, along with a high number of bachelor
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environmentalists approving of the management plan, which would have likely resulted in the reduction or removal of the herd, and animal rights activists and island residents protesting the plan. However, before a plan could be implemented,
157:. Popular myth states they were brought to the island by the Spanish in the 16th century. However, it is believed that these first horses more than likely did not survive due to the lack of visits made by the Spanish and the local
85:. However, it is unlikely that any horses left by the Spanish survived, and more likely the current population descends from horses brought to the island in the 18th century by the English. Cumberland Island became part of the
724:
125:, but also state the herd is not genetically unique enough to warrant special preservation. The National Park Service has no current management plan for the horses, and their one effort to create one was blocked by
165:. The horses seen there today are most likely descendants of horses brought by these settlers, as this is when a large majority of the horses began to roam freely and revert to their natural state, becoming
264:
looked at data collected between 1986 and 1990 in an effort to better understand the herd dynamics of the
Cumberland Island herd. The study found that band instability was high, with
793:
273:(those without mares). They also saw a high number of co-dominant stallions, where two or more stallions would lead a band together, and alternate breeding of the band's mares.
728:
458:
750:
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173:
Robert
Stafford, who allowed visitors to purchase and capture the horses, which Stafford called "marsh tackies," for their own personal use. The horses were next used as
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food availability. The number of horses in the
Cumberland bands was comparable to western bands and those on some eastern islands. However, Assateague and
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331:. The researchers recommended that contraceptive use be focused on the female members of the herd, due to the high numbers of bachelor stallions.
246:
425:
242:
222:
86:
613:
Turner, Monica Goigel (September 1988). "Simulation and management implications of feral horse grazing on
Cumberland Island, Georgia".
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killed about 40 horses, or approximately 18% of the herd. The population on
Cumberland Island is one of seven feral horse herds on US
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194:
170:
169:. During the 19th century, efforts were made to capture and make use of the horses. The first attempts were made by the island
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were significantly reducing plant stocks on the island, and reducing future plant production due to trampling. A 1991 study of
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81:. Popular myth holds that horses arrived on the island sometime in the 16th century with the arrival of the Spanish
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798:
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in feral horse herds on eastern US barrier islands was conducted by researchers from the
University of Georgia and
490:"Population Characteristics of Feral Horses on Cumberland Island, Georgia and Their Management Implications"
198:
704:
349:
300:
78:
803:
788:
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Goodloe, Robin B.; Warren, Robert J.; Cothran, E. Gus; Bratton, Susan P.; Trembicki, Kathryn A. (1991).
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on the island finding them of little practical use. In the 18th century, the
English began settling
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98:
682:
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509:
459:"Wild Horses in a Georgia Wilderness? Cumberland Island National Seashore Completes Annual Count"
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tended to have larger bands, with an average of 8.1 and 12.3 horses per band, respectively.
725:"Public divided over how to manage invasive animal and plant species on Cumberland Island"
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28:
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488:
Goodloe, Robin B.; Warren, Robert J.; Osborn, David A.; Hall, Cynthia (January 2000).
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561:. National Parks Conservation Association. April 2009. pp. 8–9. Archived from
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303:. The study concluded that a herd of 122 was the minimum size necessary to prevent
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756:. National Parks Conservation Association. April 2009. p. 15. Archived from
250:
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The National Park Service (NPS) acquired the island in 1972 and declared it the
70:
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660:"Genetic Variation and its Management Applications in Eastern US Feral Horses"
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186:
122:
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121:, state that a herd size nearly as large as current is necessary to prevent
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Cumberland Island National Seashore: A History of Conservation Conflict
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a severe reduction in herd numbers. Other researchers, looking at
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1921, a large number of horses were brought onto the island from
109:, early dispersal of juveniles, and frequent band-changing among
274:
265:
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93:(NPS) took over its management. These horses are similar to the
751:"Cumberland Island National Seashore: A Resource Assessment"
556:"Cumberland Island National Seashore: A Resource Assessment"
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An initial study published in 1988 by a researcher from
314:
Cumberland horses among the vegetation on the island
38:
256:A study published in 2000 by researchers from the
181:. After the war, records suggest that people from
712:. University of Virginia Press. pp. 241–242.
214:, all of which had been running wild on western
794:Horse breeds originating in the United States
432:. Trade Winds Advertising Inc. Archived from
8:
21:
698:
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27:
20:
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727:. University of Georgia. Archived from
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247:National Parks Conservation Association
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533:. National Park Service. 16 April 2014
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426:"The Wild Horses of Cumberland Island"
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33:Cumberland Island horses on the beach
7:
397:"Feral Animals on Cumberland Island"
243:Cumberland Island National Seashore
223:Cumberland Island National Seashore
87:Cumberland Island National Seashore
241:A 2009 resource assessment of the
14:
531:"Cumberland Island Feral Horses"
185:captured some of the horses for
723:Martin, Sandy (1 August 2011).
667:Journal of Wildlife Management
494:Journal of Wildlife Management
197:on the island and introduced
1:
292:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
262:US Fish and Wildlife Service
615:Journal of Range Management
587:Gross, Jamie (April 2004).
430:Gateway to the Golden Isles
227:eastern equine encephalitis
131:US House of Representatives
820:
703:Dilsaver, Lary M. (2004).
286:Controversy and management
253:and abdominal distension.
129:, a Georgia member of the
97:living on the islands of
46:
26:
280:Shackleford Banks horses
199:Tennessee Walking Horses
67:Cumberland Island horses
463:National Parks Traveler
22:Cumberland Island horse
16:American breed of horse
350:Colonial Spanish Horse
315:
301:University of Kentucky
146:
355:Florida Cracker Horse
313:
258:University of Georgia
144:
91:National Park Service
593:Travel & Leisure
345:Carolina Marsh Tacky
251:intestinal blockages
53:Equus ferus caballus
763:on 26 November 2013
731:on 9 September 2015
568:on 26 November 2013
177:animals during the
119:genetic variability
23:
589:"Horses Gone Wild"
316:
191:Thomas M. Carnegie
179:American Civil War
147:
799:Cumberland Island
321:US Representative
297:genetic variation
163:Cumberland Island
155:Cumberland Island
145:A Cumberland foal
89:in 1972 when the
75:Cumberland Island
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39:Country of origin
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159:Native Americans
77:in the state of
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237:Characteristics
231:barrier islands
189:. Around 1881,
149:Horses are not
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95:bands of horses
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329:contraceptives
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212:Globe, Arizona
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69:are a band of
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407:on 2014-05-01
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127:Jack Kingston
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83:conquistadors
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42:United States
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804:Feral horses
789:Horse breeds
765:. Retrieved
758:the original
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733:. Retrieved
729:the original
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670:
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636:10150/645080
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434:the original
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409:. Retrieved
405:the original
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360:Banker horse
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99:Chincoteague
71:feral horses
66:
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195:plantations
193:bought two
783:Categories
411:2012-03-31
366:References
305:inbreeding
203:Paso Finos
187:horse meat
123:inbreeding
103:Assateague
73:living on
271:stallions
216:rangeland
107:stallions
440:29 March
339:See also
260:and the
207:Arabians
687:3808969
645:3899586
514:3802980
468:3 April
245:by the
175:cavalry
137:History
79:Georgia
685:
643:
512:
205:, and
151:native
767:1 May
761:(PDF)
754:(PDF)
735:1 May
710:(PDF)
683:JSTOR
663:(PDF)
641:JSTOR
598:1 May
572:1 May
566:(PDF)
559:(PDF)
537:1 May
510:JSTOR
275:Foals
266:mares
167:feral
111:mares
769:2014
737:2014
600:2014
574:2014
539:2014
470:2012
442:2012
153:to
101:and
65:The
675:doi
631:hdl
623:doi
502:doi
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671:55
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
