256:) expressed a sense of urgency to the delegates that Yiddish as a language and as the binding glue of Jews throughout Eastern Europe needed help. They proclaimed that the status of Yiddish reflected the status of the Jewish people. Thus only by saving the language could the Jews as a people be saved from the onslaught of assimilation. Before the conference, the plan created by the organizers had several topics that avoided political issues like the status of Yiddish. It included topics addressing the need for more Yiddish educators and educational systems, support for Yiddish press, theater, and literature, and changing the norm of young Jews choosing Hebrew or another non-Jewish language over Yiddish. Regardless of the extensive plan, the status of Yiddish almost immediately came up and took the majority of the conference’s time. Attendees questioned if Yiddish was only “a” national language of the Jewish people or if it was “the” national language. Eventually, the conference, for the first time in history declared Yiddish to be "a national language of the Jewish people." Zionist activists were, however, not opposed to this decision; Yiddish was seen as the realistic choice of a language to organize the Jews of Eastern Europe for Jewish nationalism.
388:. A few of the republics included Yiddish public institutions like post offices and courts. A public educational system entirely based on the Yiddish language was established and comprised kindergartens, schools, and higher educational institutions. Advanced research institutions and Yiddish publishing houses began to open throughout the Soviet Union. At the same time, Hebrew was considered a bourgeois language and its use was generally discouraged. By the mid-1930s, Soviet rule forced scholars to work under intense restrictions. Soviet legislation dictated the content, vocabulary, and spelling of Yiddish scholarship. A few years later, in 1937, leading Yiddish writers and scholars were arrested and executed. Stalinist orders then gradually closed down the remaining publishing houses, research academies, and schools. Growing persecution of surviving Yiddish authors ultimately came to an end on August 12, 1952. Stalin ordered the execution of twenty-four prominent Yiddish scholars and artists in the Soviet Union all in a single night.
392:
561:, a movement for young Yiddish speakers which still continues today. The Yungntruf movement also created the Yiddish Farm in 2012, a farm in New York which offers an immersive education for students to learn and speak in Yiddish. The use of Yiddish is also now offered as a language on Duolingo, used throughout the social media platforms of Jews, and is offered as a language in schools, on an international scale. Particularly in the United States, the use of Yiddish has become a part of the identity of young Jewish Americans ranging from queer to orthodox individuals.
177:
448:
329:
28:
515:
The
Yiddish-speaking Eastern European Jews that came to the US in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were also often underpaid and overworked in unsafe conditions, resulting in the creation of many Jewish unions. Notably, the United Hebrew Trades was a collective of labor unions founded in 1888,
553:
was a literary journal started by Avrom
Sutzkever in 1949 in an attempt to bridge the gap between Yiddish and Hebrew literature. In this journal, Yiddish and Hebrew poems and pieces of literature were published but much of Sutzkever’s work went unrecognized until the 1980s because of the fierce
143:
Although an adherent of the
Enlightenment, broke with its sterile anti-Yiddish philosophy, to become an early ideologue of Yiddishism and of Yiddish-language planning. He courageously stood up for the denigrated folk tongue, calling for its elevation and cultivation. He did this in the form of
538:, however, led to a large decline in the use of Yiddish, as the extensive European Jewish communities, both secular and religious, that used Yiddish in their day-to-day life were largely destroyed. Around 5 million, or 85%, of the Jewish victims of the Holocaust, were speakers of Yiddish.
495:
Yiddish also became the language of Jewish labor and political movements in the US. The majority of the
Yiddish-speaking political parties from the Pale of Settlement had equivalents in the United States. Notably, even the Zionist parties, like the North-American branch of
130:, he contended that the refinement and development of Yiddish were indispensable for the humanization and education of Jews. In a subsequent essay published in the same periodical, he also proposed Yiddish as a bridge linking Jewish and European cultures. Scholar
439:, would be the national language. Although, concurrently, the Soviets made immigration to Birobidzhan very difficult. Ultimately, the vast majority of the Yiddish-language cultural institutions in the Soviet Union were closed in the late 1930s.
549:, created a significant decline in the use of Yiddish in the daily Jewish life. To some, Yiddish was seen as the language of the Jewish people in diaspora and believed its use should be extinguished in the early establishment of Israel.
500:, published much of their material in Yiddish rather than Hebrew. Further, at the beginning of the 20th century, American Jewish radicals also printed many political newspapers and other materials. These included the newspaper
365:, Poland in 1897 and active through 1920, promoted the use of Yiddish as a Jewish national language, and to some extent opposed the Zionist project of reviving Hebrew. Moreover, beyond the Labour Bund group in Poland, the
134:
characterizes
Lifshitz as "he first conscious, goal-oriented language reformer" in the field of Yiddish, and highlights his pivotal role in countering the negative attitudes toward the language propagated within the
391:
564:
Additionally, the decline of secular
Yiddish education after the Holocaust encouraged the creation of summer programs and university courses at more than 50 institutions catered to Yiddish learning.
124:
and, in the
European context of his audience, the "mother tongue" of the Jewish people. In this essay, which was eventually published in 1863 in an early issue of the influential Yiddish periodical
337:
613:
1545:
Katz, Dovid. "Language: Yiddish." YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in
Eastern Europe 31 October 2011. 14 March 2024 <https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Language/Yiddish>.
152:
Several prominent
Yiddish authors also emerged in this time, transforming the perception of Yiddish from a "jargon" of no literary value into an accepted artistic language.
93:
particularly in the
Russian Empire, expanded the Yiddish press to use it as a tool to spread their enlightenment ideas, thereby building a platform for future Yiddishists.
77:. The movement also fluctuated throughout the 20th and 21st century because of the revival of the Hebrew language and the negative associations with the Yiddish language.
516:
eventually representing over 250,000 members. Forverts, and other leftist Yiddishist newspapers, were instrumental in organizing and recruiting for these organizations.
1478:
Attracting a Following to High-Culture Functions for a Language of Everyday Life: The Role of the Tshernovits Language Conference in the ‘Rise of Yiddish,’
372:
In the Soviet Union during the 1920s, Yiddish was promoted as the language of the Jewish proletariat. It became one of the official languages in the
312:
who adopted Russian or Polish. YIVO’s work was largely secular in nature, reflecting its original members. The Division of Philology, which included
89:, or Jewish Enlightenment, movement that arose in the late 18th century played a large role in rejecting Yiddish as a Jewish language. However, many
1270:
1245:
1214:
966:
879:
841:
801:
557:
However, Yiddish did not become a completely “dead” language after the Holocaust. In the mid 20th century there was the establishment of the
110:(1828–1878), who is considered the father of Yiddishism and Yiddish lexicography, circulated an essay entitled “The Four Classes” (Yiddish:
381:
385:
103:, which would become a mainstay of the Yiddish press, including not only news but also stories and several novels in serialization.
1525:
1492:
1317:
1148:
730:
697:
658:
1573:, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30153699. Accessed 15 Mar. 2024. https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.middlebury.edu/stable/30153699?seq=8
1621:
366:
542:
373:
1636:
1631:
377:
565:
236:). The conference proclaimed Yiddish a modern language with a developing high culture. The organizers of this gathering (
304:(1879–1933). He characterized his advocacy of Yiddish as "realistic" Jewish nationalism, contrasted to the "visionary"
1641:
1616:
1555:
Panczyk, Jowita. 2023. “Is the War Over Yet?” Mimeo. December 18, 2023. https://mimeo.dubnow.de/is-the-war-over-yet/.
1558:
Pinsker, Shachar. “Choosing Yiddish in Israel: Yung Yisroel between Home and Exile, the Center and the Margins.” In
1309:
608:
550:
66:
1626:
253:
107:
1611:
1179:
401:
316:, standardized Yiddish orthography under YIVO. Simultaneously, the Division of History, originally headed by
588:
54:
458:
424:
153:
1531:
Fox, Sandra. “‘The Passionate Few’: Youth and Yiddishism in American Jewish Culture, 1964 to Present.”
874:. SUNY series in modern Jewish literature and culture. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
320:, translated major works from Russian to Yiddish and conducted further research on historical topics.
603:
508:
94:
796:. Pitt series in Russian and East European studies. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
621:— the first Yiddish grammar, published only partially. It proposed a romanized version based on the
933:
1392:
1097:
1034:
769:
650:
Class Struggle in the Pale: The Formative Years of the Jewish Workers' Movement in Tsarist Russia
593:
572:
165:
131:
1548:
Mitchell, Bruce. “Yiddish and the Hebrew Revival: A New Look at the Changing Role of Yiddish.”
53:
during the latter part of the 19th century. Some of the leading founders of this movement were
1521:
1500:
The Tshernovits Conference Revisited: The ‘First World Conference for Yiddish’ 85 Years Later,
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189:
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990:
420:
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346:
309:
245:
181:
1576:
Zohar, Emma. “Bread, Butter and Education: The Yiddishist Movements in Poland, 1914–1916.”
1136:
Multilingual America: Transnationalism, Ethnicity, and the Languages of American Literature
116:די פיר קלאַסן) in which he referred to Yiddish as a completely separate language from both
598:
568:
481:
436:
241:
237:
157:
117:
62:
856:
Schaechter, Mordkhe. "Yiddish language modernization and lexical elaboration", in :
200:
From 30th of August to 4th of September 1908, "The Conference for the Yiddish Language" (
1437:""The Passionate Few": Youth and Yiddishism in American Jewish Culture, 1964 to Present"
1469:
Gennady Estraikh. “A Quest for Yiddishland: The 1937 World Yiddish Cultural Congress.”
626:
618:
489:
432:
358:
193:
70:
50:
148:(in the 1860s) and in his excellent Russian-Yiddish and Yiddish-Russian dictionaries .
1600:
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682:
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17:
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912:
524:
431:. There, the Soviets envisaged setting up a new "Soviet Zion", where a proletarian
301:
249:
185:
161:
126:
99:
65:(1859–1916). The Yiddishist movement gained popularity alongside the growth of the
58:
622:
176:
1204:
831:
791:
97:, a prominent member of the Haskalah, founded the influential Yiddish periodical
1206:
Messiahs of 1933: How American Yiddish Theatre Survived Adversity Through Satire
579:
were especially influential in establishing American academic Yiddish programs.
502:
453:
428:
1540:
The Tshernovits Language Conference. A Milestone in Jewish Nationalist Thought.
1410:
1346:
27:
497:
447:
225:
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1388:
1093:
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765:
1436:
1373:"Yiddish and the Hebrew Revival: A New Look at the Changing Role of Yiddish"
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463:
305:
297:
982:
994:
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558:
229:
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86:
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1286:
Herberg, Will (1952). "The Jewish Labor Movement in the United States".
1101:
1077:
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773:
753:
520:
362:
233:
42:
1480:
International Journal of the Sociology of Language 24, 1980, S. 43–73.
328:
1174:
From Hester Street to Hollywood: The Jewish-American Stage and Screen
546:
121:
45:: ײִדישיזם) is a cultural and linguistic movement which began among
625:(Northeastern) dialect, as a unifying language for the Jews of the
527:, was becoming a major language, spoken by over 11,000,000 people.
1518:
Modern Yiddish culture. The story of the Yiddish language movement
833:
Modern Yiddish Culture: The Story of the Yiddish Language Movement
680:
Fried, Lewis; Brown, Gene; Chametzky, Jules; Harap, Louis (1988).
390:
327:
293:
175:
1513:
35, no. 1/4 (2017): 417–30. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44983551.
872:
Classic Yiddish fiction: Abramovitsh, Sholem Aleichem, and Peretz
519:
Owing in a large part to the efforts of the Yiddishist movement,
619:
L. L. Zamenhof § Work on Yiddish language and Jewish issues
270:
1552:
90, no. 2 (1998): 189–97. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30153700.
351:אַלגעמײנער ייִדישער אַרבעטער בונד אין ליטע פּוילין און רוסלאַנד
168:
and are thereby highly influential in the Yiddishist movement.
1485:
Ideology, Society and Language. The Odyssey of Nathan Birnbaum
343:
The General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia
300:). YIVO was initially proposed by Yiddish linguist and writer
196:
during the Czernowitz Conference; widely publicized post card.
46:
1240:. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 5.
961:. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 5.
1509:
Gitelman, Zvi. “The Divergent Fates of Yiddish and Hebrew.”
860:, ed. by Istvan Fodor, Vol. III, Hamburg, 1984, pp. 195-196.
1565:
Shanes, Joshua. “Yiddish and Jewish Diaspora Nationalism.”
355:
Algemeyner Yidisher Arbeter Bund in Lite, Poyln un Rusland
69:
and other Jewish political movements, particularly in the
1560:
Choosing Yiddish: New Frontiers of Language and Culture
913:"Yiddish and Yiddishism: A Jewish Nationalist Ideology"
476:, the movement became very active there, especially in
472:
As many Eastern European Jews began to emigrate to the
1542:
New York NY 1957 (Masters Essay. Columbia University).
1119:
614:
California Institute for Yiddish Culture and Language
414:
219:
207:
111:
1078:"Yiddish in the Soviet Union: A First-Person Report"
1580:. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2019. 67–84. Web.
1520:. Fordham Univ Press, New York 1976, reprint 2000
1171:
989:, University of Pittsburgh Press, pp. 83–97,
681:
369:regarded Yiddish as the Jewish national language.
461:, published by Maryson's publishing company, the
901:. Internet Archive. New York, F. Ungar Pub. Co.
898:Yiddish literature; its scope and major writers
506:, which began as a socialist endeavor, and the
1336:(4., erg. Aufl., Hamburg: Buske, 1984), p. 3.
284:
278:
224:) took place in the Austro-Hungarian city of
213:
212:) also known as "The Czernowitz Conference" (
201:
8:
1578:The Jewish Experience of the First World War
1471:Quest. Issues in Contemporary Jewish History
1265:. New York (N.Y.): Oxford university press.
825:
823:
821:
554:rivalry between Hebraists and Yiddishists.
357:), a secular Jewish socialist party in the
1593:, Czernowitz, August 30-September 3, 1908.
180:From right to left, Hersch Dovid Nomberg,
35:Language and culture preservation movement
1236:Rojanski, Rachel (2020). "Introduction".
957:Rojanski, Rachel (2020). "Introduction".
435:could be developed. Yiddish, rather than
1209:. Temple University Press. p. 210.
1015:"Bund: The Jewish Socialist Labor Party"
983:"NEW TRENDS IN INTERWAR YIDDISH CULTURE"
836:. Fordham University Press. p. 47.
446:
26:
1504:The Earliest Stage of Language Planning
639:
395:Railroad station in Birobidzhan, Russia
684:Handbook of American-Jewish Literature
399:In 1928, the Soviet Union created the
203:קאָנפֿערענץ פֿאָר דער ייִדישער שפּראַך
164:are now seen as the basis for classic
785:
783:
480:. One aspect of this became known as
7:
1569:, vol. 90, no. 2, 1998, pp. 178–88.
382:Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic
139:, or Jewish Enlightenment movement:
31:Members of Yiddishist movement, 1908
1115:
858:Language Reform: History and Future
410:
350:
285:
279:
214:
209:Konferents for der Yidisher Shprakh
202:
1306:Yiddish: a Linguistic Introduction
987:The Rise of Modern Yiddish Culture
793:The rise of modern Yiddish culture
386:Galician Soviet Socialist Republic
286:ייִדישער װיסנשאַפֿטלעכער אינסטיטוט
25:
1591:First Yiddish Language Conference
754:"Yiddish and the Jewish Identity"
290:Yidisher Visnshaftlekher Institut
1562:, 277-294. Wayne State UP, 2013.
1487:; Karoma Publ., Ann Arbor 1987,
1334:Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache
1263:Yiddish: biography of a language
895:Madison, Charles Allan (1968).
484:, and involved authors such as
367:International Jewish Labor Bund
296:, Poland (Vilnius, now part of
1411:"Is the War Over Yet? | Mimeo"
1347:"Is the War Over Yet? | Mimeo"
934:"YIVO | Czernowitz Conference"
830:Goldsmith, Emanuel S. (1997).
543:revival of the Hebrew language
1:
1288:The American Jewish Year Book
1170:Cohen, Sarah Blacher (1983).
1238:Yiddish in Israel: a history
959:Yiddish in Israel: a history
653:. CUP Archive. p. 118.
545:as the national language of
275:Yiddish Scientific Institute
1120:
415:
374:Ukrainian People's Republic
220:
208:
112:
108:Yehoshua Mordechai Lifshitz
1658:
1506:, Berlin, 1993 S. 321–331.
1310:Cambridge University Press
1261:Shandler, Jeffrey (2020).
1053:"YIVO | Language: Yiddish"
790:Fishman, David E. (2005).
725:. JHU Press. p. 213.
688:. Genewood Press. p.
609:Jewish political movements
1511:Harvard Ukrainian Studies
1294:: 3–74 – via JSTOR.
647:Mendelsohn, Ezra (1970).
423:and bordering China, its
411:ייִדישע אווטאָנאָמע געגנט
215:טשערנאָוויצער קאָנפֿערענץ
172:The Czernowitz Conference
1371:Mitchell, Bruce (1998).
1180:Indiana University Press
1133:Sollors, Werner (1998).
1116:ייִדישע אױטאָנאָמע געגנט
1082:The Massachusetts Review
722:The Hammer and the Flute
402:Jewish Autonomous Oblast
324:Soviet Russia - The Bund
221:Tshernovitser Konferents
1535:26, no. 3 (2021): 1–34.
1417:(in German). 2023-12-18
1353:(in German). 2023-12-18
1203:Schecter, Joel (2008).
531:Contemporary Yiddishism
512:founded by anarchists.
457:, translated by Doctor
451:Yiddish translation of
232:(today in southwestern
144:articles in the weekly
1622:19th century in Europe
1516:Emanuel S. Goldsmith:
1121:yidishe oytonome gegnt
1076:Lansky, Aaron (1990).
589:Anti-Yiddish sentiment
469:
416:yidishe avtonome gegnt
396:
333:
308:and the "self-hating"
197:
150:
55:Mendele Moykher-Sforim
32:
1533:Jewish social studies
1441:Jewish Social Studies
1114:In standard Yiddish:
1013:Katz, Alfred (1965).
995:10.2307/j.ctt7zw828.9
870:Frieden, Ken (1995).
752:Davis, Barry (1987).
719:Keller, Mary (2002).
509:Freie Arbeiter Stimme
459:Jacob Abraham Maryson
450:
425:administrative center
394:
331:
292:) was established in
179:
154:Mendele Mocher Sforim
141:
30:
18:Czernowitz Conference
1637:20th-century Judaism
1632:19th-century Judaism
1435:Fox, Sandra (2021).
1057:yivoencyclopedia.org
938:yivoencyclopedia.org
604:War of the Languages
466:Literatur Gezelshaft
260:Further developments
95:Aleksander Zederbaum
81:19th-century origins
1538:Herbert J. Lerner:
1498:Joshua A. Fishman:
1483:Joshua A. Fishman:
1476:Joshua A. Fishman:
1312:, Cambridge, 2005,
567:Scholars including
376:and in some of the
1642:Jewish nationalism
1617:Literary movements
594:Yiddish literature
573:Mordkhe Schaechter
541:Additionally, the
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419:). Located in the
397:
334:
198:
132:Mordkhe Schaechter
33:
1272:978-0-19-065196-1
1247:978-0-253-04518-8
1216:978-1-59213-872-2
1019:The Polish Review
968:978-0-253-04518-8
915:. h-net.org. 1999
881:978-0-7914-2601-2
843:978-0-8232-1695-6
803:978-0-8229-4272-6
468:, New York, 1917.
318:Elias Tcherikower
190:Isaac Leib Peretz
67:Jewish Labor Bund
61:(1852–1915), and
16:(Redirected from
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1627:Jewish movements
1473:, no. 17 (2020).
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332:A Bundist poster
310:assimilationists
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246:Chaim Zhitlowsky
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182:Chaim Zhitlovsky
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242:Nathan Birnbaum
238:Benno Straucher
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166:Yiddish fiction
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1567:Monatshefte
1550:Monatshefte
1447:(3): 1–34.
1377:Monatshefte
498:Poalei-Zion
454:Das Kapital
429:Birobidzhan
162:I.L. Peretz
146:Kol-mevaser
1601:Categories
1421:2024-04-19
1357:2024-04-02
1222:2008-10-08
1189:2008-10-08
1182:. p.
1156:2008-10-08
1062:2024-04-09
1000:2024-04-19
943:2024-04-19
919:2019-11-12
738:2008-10-08
705:2008-10-08
666:2008-10-08
634:References
226:Czernowitz
39:Yiddishism
1453:1527-2028
1389:0026-9271
1141:NYU Press
1094:0025-4878
1031:0032-2970
766:0309-2984
623:Białystok
559:Yungntruf
523:, before
486:Ben Hecht
464:Kropotkin
306:Hebraists
298:Lithuania
106:In 1861,
91:maskilim,
1397:30153700
1102:25090218
1039:25776615
812:60373499
583:See also
503:Forverts
384:and the
338:The Bund
269:In 1925
230:Bukovina
137:Haskalah
87:Haskalah
1607:Yiddish
1464:Sources
774:4288755
521:Yiddish
407:Yiddish
363:Vilnius
347:Yiddish
280:ייִוואָ
234:Ukraine
43:Yiddish
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160:, and
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118:German
1571:JSTOR
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770:JSTOR
294:Wilno
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963:ISBN
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488:and
271:YIVO
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120:and
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