369:. Each functional unit consisted of several sections that operated in turn, for instance, an addition unit might have circuitry dedicated to retrieving the operands from memory, then the actual math unit, and finally another to send the results back to memory. At any given instance only one part of the unit was active, while the rest waited their turn. A pipeline improves on this by feeding in the next instruction before the first has completed, using up that idle time. For instance, while one instruction is being added together, the operands for the next add instruction can be fetched. That way, as soon as the current instruction completes and moves to the output circuitry, the operands for the next addition are already waiting to be added. In this way each functional unit works in "parallel", as well as the machine as a whole. The improvement in performance generally depends on the number of steps the unit takes to complete. For instance, the 6600's multiply unit took 10 cycles to complete an instruction, so by pipelining the units it could be expected to gain about 10 times the speed.
755:
has an access time of 60 of the 27.5-ns minor cycles and a word length of 480 bits (512 bits with parity). Accesses are fully pipelined and buffered, so the two have the same sequential transfer rate of 60 bits every 27.5 ns. The two work in parallel, so the sequential transfer rate from one to the other is 60 bits per 27.5 ns minor-cycle. On an operating system call, the contents of the small core memory are swapped out and replaced from the large core memory by the operating system, and restored afterward.
325:
373:
improved performance over the 6600 by a factor of about 3. To achieve the rest of the goal, the machine would have to run at a faster speed, now possible using new transistor designs. However, there is a physical limit to performance because of the time it takes signals to move between parts of the machine, which in turn is defined by its physical size. As always, Cray's design work spent considerable effort on this problem and thus allow higher operating frequencies. For the 7600, each
362:
complete its trip through the unit before the next could be fed into it, which caused a bottleneck when the scheduler system ran out of instructions. Adding more functional units would not improve performance unless the scheduler was also greatly improved, especially in terms of allowing it to have more memory, so it could look through more instructions for ones that could be fed into the parallel units. That appeared to be a major problem.
297:
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29:
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783:) compatible, as some instructions in the 7600 did not exist in the 6600, and vice versa. It had originally been named the CDC 6800, but was changed to 7600 when Cray decided that it could not be completely compatible. However, due to the 7600's operating system design, the 6600 and 7600 shared a "uniform software environment" despite the low-level differences.
1347:, University of Minnesota. Engineers include Robert Moe, Wayne Specker, Dennis Grinna, Tom Rowan, Maurice Hutson, Curt Alexander, Don Pagelkopf, Maris Bergmanis, Dolan Toth, Chuck Hawley, Larry Krueger, Mike Pavlov, Dave Resnick, Howard Krohn, Bill Bhend, Kent Steiner, Raymon Kort, and Neil R. Lincoln. Discussion topics include
850:
reported that the machine would break down at least once a day, and often four or five times. Acceptance at installation sites took years while the bugs were worked out, and while the machine generally sold well enough given its "high end" niche, it is unlikely the machine generated any sort of real
808:
possible without too much trouble. The machine initially did not come with software; sites had to be willing to write their own operating system, like LTSS, NCAROS, and others; and compilers like LRLTRAN (Livermore's version of
Fortran with dynamic memory management and other non-standard features).
754:
The 7600 has two main core memories. Small core memory holds the instructions currently being executed and the data currently being processed. It has an access time of 10 of the 27.5-ns minor cycles and a 60-bit word length. Large core memory holds data ready to transfer to small core memory. It
762:
There are eight 60-bit registers, each with an address register. Moving an address to an address register starts a small core memory read or write. Arithmetic and logic instructions have these registers as sources and destinations. The programmer or compiler tries to fetch data in time to be used
396:
stack, which were in turn cooled by a liquid-freon system running through the core of the machine. Since this system was mechanical, and therefore prone to failure, the 7600 was redesigned into a large "C" shape to allow access to the modules on either side of the cooling piping by walking into the
758:
There is a 12-word instruction pipeline, called instruction word stack in CDC documentation. All addresses in the stack are fetched, without waiting for the instruction field to be processed. Therefore, the fetch of the target instruction of a conditional branch precedes evaluation of the branch
372:
Things are never that simple, however. Pipelining requires that the unit's internals can be effectively separated to the point where each step of the operation is running on completely separate circuitry. This is rarely achievable in the real world. Nevertheless, the use of pipelining on the 7600
799:
Like the 6600, the 7600 used 60-bit words with instructions that were generally 15 bits in length, although there were also 30-bit instructions. The instructions were packed into the 60-bit words, but a 30-bit instruction could not straddle two words, and control could only be transferred to the
357:
in general were also getting somewhat faster as the production processes and quality improved. These sorts of improvements might be expected to make a machine twice as fast, perhaps as much as five times. However, as with the 6600 design, Cray set himself the goal of producing a machine with ten
795:
known as "Peripheral
Processor Units", or PPUs. For any given cycle of the machine one of the PPUs was in control, feeding data into the memory while the main processor was crunching numbers. When the cycle completed, the next PPU was given control. In this way the memory always held up-to-date
786:
In fact, from a high-level perspective, the 7600 was quite similar to the 6600. At the time computer memory could be arranged in blocks with independent access paths, and Cray's designs used this to their advantage. While most machines would use a single CPU to run all the functionality of the
361:
One of the reasons the 6600 was so much faster than its contemporaries is that it had multiple functional units that could operate in parallel. For instance, the machine could perform an addition of two numbers while simultaneously multiplying two others. However, any given instruction had to
796:
information for the main processor to work on (barring delays in the external devices themselves), eliminating delays on data, as well as allowing the CPU to be built for mathematical performance and nothing else. The PPU could have been called a very smart "communications channel".
787:
system, Cray realized that this meant each memory block spent a considerable amount of time idle while the CPU was processing instructions and accessing other blocks. In order to take advantage of this, the 6600 and 7600 left mundane housekeeping tasks, printing output or reading
763:
and store data before more data needs the same register, but if it is not ready, the processor goes into a wait state until it is. It also waits if one of the four floating-point arithmetic units is not ready when requested, but due to pipelining, this does not usually happen.
812:
CDC also manufactured two multi-processor computers based on the 7600, with the model number 7700. They consisted of two 7600 machines in an asymmetric configuration: a central and an adjunct machine. They were used for missile launch and inbound tracking of USSR
800:
first instruction in a word. However, the instruction set itself had changed to reflect the new internal memory layout, thereby rendering it incompatible with the earlier 6600. The machines were similar enough to make porting of
841:
From about 1969 to 1975, the CDC 7600 was generally regarded as the fastest computer in the world, except for specialized units. However, even with the advanced mechanicals and cooling, the 7600 was prone to failure. Both
759:
condition. During the execution of a 10-word (up to 40 instruction) loop, all the needed instructions remain in the stack, so no instructions are fetched, leaving small core memory free for data transfers.
771:
The CDC 7600 "was designed to be machine code upward compatible with the 6600, but to provide a substantial increase in performance". One user said: "Most users could run on either system without changes."
348:
As the 6600 neared production quality, Cray lost interest in it and turned to designing its replacement. Making a machine "somewhat" faster would not be too difficult in the late 1960s; the introduction of
381:, each one stuffed with subminiature resistors, diodes, and transistors. The six boards were stacked up and then interconnected along their edges, making a very compact, but basically unrepairable module.
384:
However the same dense packing also led to the machine's biggest problem – heat. For the 7600, Cray once again turned to his refrigeration engineer, Dean Roush, formerly of the
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278:, Model 195. When the system was released in 1967, it sold for around $ 5 million in base configurations, and considerably more as options and features were added.
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and variable-size (up to 512 Kword) secondary memory (depending on site). It was generally about ten times as fast as the CDC 6600 and could deliver about 10
285:, was the physical C-shape, which both reduced floor space and dramatically increased performance by reducing the distance that signals needed to travel.
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field into the 1970s. The 7600 ran at 36.4 MHz (27.5 ns clock cycle) and had a 65 Kword primary memory (with a 60-bit word size) using
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on hand-compiled code, with a peak of 36 MFLOPS. In addition, in benchmark tests in early 1970 it was shown to be slightly faster than its
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Although the 7600 shared many features of the 6600, including hardware, instructions, and its 60-bit word size, it was not object-code
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817:. The radar simulator was a real-time simulator with a CDC 6400 for input/output front-end. These systems were to be used in the
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866:. Its sheer size allows only two corner units to be shown. The rest are in storage. Another 7600 is on display at the
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The 7600 was an architectural landmark, and most of its features are still standard parts of computer design. It is a
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with a 15-bit instruction word containing a 6-bit operation code. There are only 64 machine codes, including a
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In 1978, Science magazine reported that CDC sold "400 of its CDC 6600 models and 75 of its CDC 7600 models."
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in
Redondo Beach CA (later moved to Kwajalein Atoll, South Pacific), and the second one was installed at
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Neil R. Lincoln with 18 Control Data
Corporation (CDC) engineers on computer architecture and design
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Eventually, they were offered for sale: 2 CDC 7700s, 1 CDC 6400; 6 IBM 3033s were also for sale.
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A lecture given by a CDC representative at the computer center at UCLA, in about 1970.
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CDC 7600 serial number 1. This image shows two sides of the C-shaped chassis.
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Among the 7600's notable state-of-the-art contributions, beyond extensive
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833:. They were actual 7600s connected by chassis 25 to make them a 7600 MP.
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allowed denser packing of components and, in turn, a higher clock speed.
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Presentation of the CDC 7600 and other machines designed by
Seymour Cray
791:, for instance, to a series of ten smaller 12-bit machines based on the
1626:
1103:"They were also more than ten times faster than early MOS transistors"
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was never completed, and
Seymour Cray went on to form his own company,
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1022:. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Archived from
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with the CDC 6600. In addition, it was not entirely source-code (
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In order to solve this problem, Cray turned to the concept of an
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1456:
271:
1268:
Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. (1991).
947:
CDC 7600 Presentation by Gordon Bell of
Microsoft Research
1181:
Milestones in
Computer Science and Information Technology
1258:, which is when something from the old runs on the new.
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862:One surviving 7600 is partially on display at the
1391:Chippewa Falls Museum of Industry and Technology
1020:Computational and Information Systems Laboratory
1016:"Control Data Corporation (CDC) 7600: 1971–1983"
870:, along with its console and a tape controller.
868:Chippewa Falls Museum of Industry and Technology
1122:J. E. Thornton (1980). "The CDC 6600 Project".
331:3D rendering of a full overview of two CDC 7600
1217:The Architecture of High Performance Computers
1085:
1083:
1468:
1106:"Parallel Operation in the Control Data 6600"
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83:$ 62 - $ 155 thousands (monthly rent in 1968)
8:
1767:Control Data Corporation mainframe computers
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397:inside of the "C" and opening the cabinet.
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1055:. Computer History Museum. Archived from
1377:of Microsoft Research (formerly of DEC)
1242:"Instruction buffering in the CDC 7600"
1124:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
879:
292:
1757:Computer-related introductions in 1969
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1004:
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392:plate to the back of each side of the
96:Height : 188 cm (74 in)
18:
1158:Anthony, Sebastian (April 10, 2012).
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1041:
751:operations in the central processor.
7:
1433:World's most powerful supercomputer
1302:"Control Data 7600 Computer System"
33:3D rendering with a figure as scale
14:
1762:Control Data Corporation hardware
936:CDC 7600 Reference Manual, Feb 71
916:CDC 7600 site preparation, May 76
1511:
821:. One computer was installed at
377:actually consisted of up to six
323:
309:
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98:Width: 302 cm (119 in)
27:
1272:IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems
1160:"The history of supercomputers"
851:profits for CDC. The successor
1254:This is not to say it was not
767:Relationship with the CDC 6600
749:fixed-point multiply or divide
1:
1326:. July 27, 1981. p. 49.
1156:"parallel functional units"
1077:Multiply by a factor of ten.
831:Huntington Beach, California
1396:Lot of links about CDC 7600
250:to be the successor to the
162:(up to 512000 60-bit words)
1793:
989:A Seymour Cray Perspective
1654:Chippewa Operating System
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1345:Charles Babbage Institute
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1484:Control Data Corporation
1373: – by C.
1177:Edwin D. Reilly (2003).
388:company. Roush added an
48:Control Data Corporation
1704:PLATO (computer system)
1386:Computer History Museum
1136:10.1109/MAHC.1980.10044
864:Computer History Museum
453:X0 (LCM start address)
358:times the performance.
1256:backward compatibility
379:printed circuit boards
345:
1699:Storage Module Device
1276:. MIT Press. p.
819:Pacific Missile Range
341:CDC 7600 assembly at
340:
317:CDC 7600 with scaling
1713:Affiliated companies
1381:SCD Computer Gallery
1091:"7600s at Livermore"
1049:"7600 Supercomputer"
892:, pp. 12, legend - 3
367:instruction pipeline
258:'s dominance of the
837:Reception and usage
741:load-store computer
616:Increment registers
607:A7 (write address)
596:A6 (write address)
407:
406:CDC 7600 registers
351:integrated circuits
994:2016-05-15 at the
585:A5 (read address)
574:A4 (read address)
563:A3 (read address)
552:A2 (read address)
541:A1 (read address)
405:
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148:processor @ 36 MHz
16:1967 supercomputer
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1451:
1450:
1440:Succeeded by
1287:978-0-262-16123-7
1059:on 3 October 2012
890:Adams Survey 1968
827:McDonnell Douglas
806:operating systems
745:no-operation code
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736:
733:
732:
518:Address registers
444:Operand registers
240:
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1777:60-bit computers
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1421:Preceded by
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1220:. IBBETT. 2013.
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961:. Archived from
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1543:CDC 3000 series
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1408:Inside the 7600
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1026:on 20 July 2011
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530:A0 (SCM start)
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1130:(4): 338–348.
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1588:CDC Cyber 200
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1446:136 megaflops
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987:Gordon Bell.
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965:on 2016-05-15
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857:Cray Research
854:
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789:punched cards
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1715:and products
1583:CDC STAR-100
1559:
1503:Seymour Cray
1431:
1365:Seymour Cray
1361:CDC STAR-100
1355:, CDC 7600,
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1073:
1063:25 September
1061:. Retrieved
1057:the original
1052:
1030:25 September
1028:. Retrieved
1024:the original
1019:
967:. Retrieved
963:the original
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753:
738:
719:
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711:Increment 7
700:Increment 6
689:Increment 5
678:Increment 4
667:Increment 3
656:Increment 2
645:Increment 1
634:Increment 0
629:
618:
615:
520:
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446:
443:
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401:Architecture
383:
371:
364:
360:
347:
280:
256:Control Data
254:, extending
248:Seymour Cray
243:
241:
64:Release date
58:Seymour Cray
44:Manufacturer
1722:ETA Systems
1623:Languages:
1427:3 megaflops
1375:Gordon Bell
1164:Extremetech
1053:Collections
512:Register 7
509:X7 (write)
504:Register 6
501:X6 (write)
496:Register 5
488:Register 4
480:Register 3
472:Register 2
464:Register 1
456:Register 0
355:Transistors
274:rival, the
187:Predecessor
1751:Categories
1659:CDC Kronos
1491:Key people
1437:1969–1975
1320:"For Sale"
969:2010-04-08
959:"CDC 7600"
874:References
777:compatible
747:, with no
610:Address 7
599:Address 6
588:Address 5
577:Address 4
566:Address 3
555:Address 2
544:Address 1
533:Address 0
493:X5 (read)
485:X4 (read)
477:X3 (read)
469:X2 (read)
461:X1 (read)
283:pipelining
93:Dimensions
72:Units sold
1736:Cray Inc.
1676:CDC SCOPE
1601:CDC Cyber
1521:Computers
1324:InfoWorld
802:compilers
793:CDC 160-A
720:(18 bits)
619:(18 bits)
521:(18 bits)
447:(60 bits)
201:CDC Cyber
197:Successor
182:36 MFLOPS
160:Megabytes
67:June 1967
1694:CDC Wren
1610:Software
1565:CDC 8600
1560:CDC 7600
1553:CDC 6600
1538:CDC 1700
1528:CDC 1604
1424:CDC 6600
1416:Records
1357:CDC 8600
1353:CDC 6600
1349:CDC 1604
992:Archived
853:CDC 8600
394:cordwood
390:aluminum
252:CDC 6600
244:CDC 7600
191:CDC 6600
126:Chippewa
54:Designer
22:CDC 7600
1627:COMPASS
1144:5905504
781:COMPASS
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549:
538:
527:
172:15 MIPS
1669:NOS/VE
1575:Vector
1443:Cray-1
1402:Photos
1284:
1224:
1189:
1142:
428:. . .
420:. . .
289:Design
268:MFLOPS
154:Memory
146:60-bit
134:KRONOS
115:System
88:Casing
39:Design
1727:ETA10
1642:MIMIC
1637:Cybil
1632:SYMPL
1305:(PDF)
1140:S2CID
1109:(PDF)
815:ICBMs
386:Amana
178:FLOPS
158:3.84
130:SCOPE
103:Power
80:Price
1650:OS:
1363:and
1282:ISBN
1222:ISBN
1187:ISBN
1065:2011
1032:2011
848:NCAR
846:and
844:LLNL
804:and
343:LLNL
242:The
168:MIPS
1664:NOS
1617:026
1278:388
1132:doi
829:in
823:TRW
708:B7
697:B6
686:B5
675:B4
664:B3
653:B2
642:B1
628:B0
272:IBM
141:CPU
106:95
75:+75
1753::
1359:,
1351:,
1343:,
1322:.
1280:.
1185:.
1162:.
1138:.
1126:.
1082:^
1051:.
1040:^
1018:.
1003:^
978:^
922:^
906:^
882:^
859:.
729:P
132:,
128:,
108:kW
1476:e
1469:t
1462:v
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1128:2
1111:.
1093:.
1067:.
1034:.
998:.
972:.
432:0
424:7
416:9
231:e
224:t
217:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
