241:
who have been selected and empowered to serve for the council. The summary of the dissertation must be published before public defense in the form of "autoreferat" in about 150–200 copies, and distributed to major research organizations and libraries. The seeker of the degree must have an official "research supervisor". The dissertation must be delivered together with official references of several reviewers, called "opponents". In a procedure called the "defense of the dissertation" the dissertation is summarized before the commission, followed by speeches by the opponents or the reading of their references, and replies to the comments of the opponents and question of the
Commission members by the
872:
257:
600:
256:(or by similar authority in other applicable countries). However, since end-2010s the dissertation councils accredited at some world-known educational units like Moscow and St. Petersburg State universities or top-level research centers are exempt from requirement to send the defended dissertations to the VAK for control. As of 2021 there were 29 such organizations (s.
204:. Not all those who accomplish aspirantura will be invited to write a dissertation. An analogous situation may be found in American institutions where, after comprehensive examinations, a faculty may decide to award another Masters degree instead of continuing with the dissertation. It is performed either within an educational institution (such as a
37:
645:
In 2015, graduate students were enrolled in the
Candidate of Sciences programs for the last time. The form "Candidate of Science" (singular) is used on the English-language page of bilingual diplomas of Candidate of Sciences issued since 2014 (until 2014, the Candidate of Sciences diplomas in Ukraine
607:
In the USSR, there was required at least three original scientific papers published and/or submitted. At least one paper should be in one of the journals listed by the Higher
Assessment Commission (VAK) of the Russian Ministry of Science. In Belarus, all the three publications have to be published in
240:
The dissertation is presented ("defended") before a committee called the
Dissertation Council which is accredited at the educational or scientific institution. The Council consists of about 20 members, who are the leading specialists (including the academicians) in the field of the dissertation and
212:
network). It can also be carried out without a direct connection to the academy. In exceptional cases, the
Candidate of Sciences degree may be awarded on the basis of published scholarly works without writing a thesis. In experimental sciences the dissertation is based on an independent research
168:
To attain the
Candidate of Sciences degree, an individual must hold a Master's (Magistr) or a Specialist diploma, both one or (more typically) two year degrees in this system. Both of these prerequisites are post-bachelors (Bakalavr) degrees, bachelor's being four years of full-time study. The
220:
A necessary prerequisite is taking courses in philosophy and foreign language, and passing a qualifying examination called "candidate minimum". In the Soviet Union, the candidate minimum included exams in the specialty field of the "dissertant", in a foreign language of his/her choice and in
436:
and others. These doctor degrees are not to be confused with a Ph.D., although its holders are addressed "doctor". Applicants need a master's degree (5 years +) or a comparable degree with excellent grades. This degree is stated before names and awarded after writing a
590:
Since the medieval period, Polish tradition was to call Ph.D. equivalent as "doktor". Only for a short period of time between 1951 and 1958 the communist government tried to replace the title of "doktor" with "kandydat nauk" to follow the Soviet model.
169:
Candidate of
Sciences degree requires a minimum of three years of full-time study during which the individual must conduct and publish advanced original research into a topic that is deemed significant or has practical economic or military potential.
293:) degrees were modeled precisely after the Soviet one by Law 60/1953 in 1953. Requirements to attain the degree were thus literally the same as in the USSR. Since all Czechoslovak top academic research institutions were dissolved after the
164:
in 1917. Academic distinctions and ranks were viewed as survivals of capitalist inequality and hence were to be permanently eliminated. The original decree also recognized some degrees earned prior to 1917 in
Tsarist Russia and elsewhere.
629:
should be considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree. In countries with only one doctoral degree, the degree of
Candidate of Sciences should be considered for recognition as equivalent to this degree.
532:
and there was no need to have completed even a secondary school to attain the degree. RSDr. was also possible to attain at some military universities, however, contrary to the previous case, the applicant had to pass further
737:
Previously, there was also the degree of "naval sciences" (abbr.: к. воен.-мор. н.). For some time (in the 1940s) there was also the degree of "candidate of art criticism sciences" (abbr.: к. иск. н.).
248:
If the defense is successful (66.6% majority of votes by the secret ballot voting by the members of the council), it is recommended and later must be approved by the central statewide board called
741:
Some specialties permit the award of the candidate degree for several variants of branches of science, depending on the dominant subject area of the dissertation; e. g., specialty 02.00.04 (
964:
562:
in medical university programs), enroll in an approximately three-year post-graduate program and defend their dissertation before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university.
642:(PhD). According to the new law, the degree of Candidate of Sciences is equated to the PhD degree (it is mentioned in the Candidate of Sciences diplomas issued since 2014).
745:) can be awarded the degree of candidate of physico-mathematical, technical, or chemical sciences. However, for each dissertation only one branch of science can be chosen.
1339:
1301:
1264:
1227:
129:
866:
1515:
649:
As of 2024, those who were enrolled in the
Candidate of Sciences programs until 2015 still may defend their theses and obtain the Candidate of Sciences degree.
1200:
988:
180:
is required in Germany. This is also sometimes the case in the United States and the United Kingdom, where in addition to the possession of a doctoral (
1007:
957:
638:
In 2014, with the adoption of the new Law of Ukraine "On Higher Education", the degree of Candidate of Sciences was replaced with the degree of
1550:
294:
521:
323:
There also have been other academic degrees in Czechoslovakia and its successional states, that incorporate the "Dr." abbreviation, e.g.
124:
and was the first of two doctoral level degrees in some other countries (Czechia, Slovakia, Ukraine, etc.). It is formally classified as
1059:
838:
804:
121:
514:
234:
657:
Depending on the specialty of research in the dissertation, a candidate degree in Russia is awarded one of the following degrees:
298:
1254:
1193:
157:
213:
project conducted under the supervision of a professor, the results of which must be published in at least three papers in
618:
900:
559:
493:
249:
226:
1094:
1545:
1161:
1134:
1118:
935:
1250:
209:
302:
102:
1540:
1186:
1156:
930:
82:
1319:
1246:
1003:
137:
62:
1292:
603:
Sample contents of modern Candidate of Sciences diploma (here, Candidate of Engineering Sciences), 1999
1467:
1423:
1329:
1315:
1273:
1218:
774:
764:
754:
639:
551:
222:
133:
1481:
1458:
1443:
1032:
769:
93:
1061:Инструкция по оформлению диссертации, автореферата и публикаций по теме диссертации (ВАК Беларуси)
688:
geologo-mineralogical sciences (abbr.: к. г.-м. н.) or geological sciences (abbr.: к. геол. н.) ;
1385:
742:
555:
468:
173:
161:
141:
73:
28:
1310:
1477:
1241:
982:
113:
1065:
1507:
1463:
1380:
1236:
831:
Mutual Recognition of Qualification: The Russian Federation and The Other European Countries
829:
529:
53:
795:
1502:
1486:
1448:
1433:
1400:
1210:
1138:
622:
571:
424:
388:
352:
286:
1472:
1428:
1278:
543:
504:
479:
458:
416:
404:
380:
368:
344:
332:
313:
278:
274:
1534:
160:, all previous degrees, ranks and titles having been abolished immediately after the
1034:Высшая аттестационная комиссия Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации
599:
1390:
526:
Political College of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
197:
193:
177:
616:"Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other countries"
1453:
759:
615:
229:
and other post-Soviet states, the latter examination was replaced by the one in
214:
894:
489:
230:
205:
136:, usually in natural sciences, by scientific institutions in other countries.
36:
1348:
1178:
1151:
1122:
925:
550:) An applicant is required to have master's degree (or its equivalent, e.g.
442:
797:
Revision of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED)
625:, in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of
1160:(in Russian) (3rd ed.). Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciklopediya. Vol. 11.
934:(in Russian) (3rd ed.). Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciklopediya. Vol. 11.
1086:
1004:"World Education Services: Credential Evaluations for Russian Students"
899:. Moscow, Russia: The Council of the People's Commissars of the USSR.
542:
Granting CSc. was abolished in 1998 and replaced with Ph.D. or Th.D. (
1438:
1405:
1395:
1324:
611:
In 1971, there were 249,200 scientists holding the Candidate degree.
301:, newly established in 1953. The degree could also be awarded by the
125:
117:
208:) or a scientific research institution (such as an institute of the
172:
In order to attain the rank of full Professor in these countries, a
17:
499:
474:
453:
399:
363:
327:
598:
467:
is a "Doctor of Medicine" degree equivalent to the North-American
181:
35:
33:
Junior scientific degree in Soviet Union and post-Soviet countries
513:
was a quasi-degree, awarded exclusively to functionaries of the
184:) degree, some volume of further research must be demonstrated.
153:
1182:
297:
in 1948, the supreme academic authority was represented by the
132:
level 8, "doctoral or equivalent." It may be recognized as a
449:
exam in at least 2-3 related fields of doctoral studies.
1038:
570:
Candidate was abolished in 1996 and replaced with PhD. (
107:
87:
893:
Kuybyshev, Valerian Vladimirovich (13 January 1934).
868:
Education and Professional Employment in the U.S.S.R.
67:
1495:
1414:
1373:
1366:
1338:
1300:
1291:
1263:
1226:
1217:
715:
physico-mathematical sciences (abbr.: к. ф.-м. н.);
582:). Requirements are similar to the Czech system.
554:in technical and economic university programs or
1119:"Номенклатура специальностей научных работников"
871:U.S.: National Science Foundation. p. 377.
727:state administration (abbr.: к. н. держ. упр.) ;
441:of 50.000 to 80.000 words and defending it at a
1113:
1111:
320:), added behind the bearer's name and a comma.
40:Cover of a Soviet Candidate of Sciences diploma
1516:Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)
733:veterinary sciences (abbr.: к. ветеринар. н.).
1194:
712:philosophical sciences (abbr.: к. филос. н.);
706:pharmaceutical sciences (abbr.: к. фарм. н.);
156:on 13 January 1934 by a decision of the
8:
709:philological sciences (abbr.: к. филол. н.);
661:agricultural sciences (abbr.: к. с.-х. н.);
471:, attained after 6-year university studies.
252:or "Vysshaya attestacionnaya komissiya" or
1370:
1297:
1223:
1201:
1187:
1179:
724:sociological sciences (abbr.: к. соц. н.);
721:psychological sciences (abbr.: к. пс. н.);
685:geographic sciences (abbr.: к. геогр. н.);
158:Council of People's Commissars of the USSR
718:political sciences (abbr.: к. полит. н.);
524:, who either or not "graduated" from the
691:historical sciences (abbr.: к. ист. н.);
277:, the Candidate and Doctor of Sciences (
176:degree is required in the same way that
786:
703:pedagogic sciences (abbr.: к. пед. н.);
700:military sciences (abbr.: к. воен. н.);
682:engineering sciences (abbr.: к. т. н.);
1091:Офіційний вебпортал парламенту України
987:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
980:
860:
858:
670:biological sciences (abbr.: к. б. н.);
1027:
1025:
919:
917:
694:juridical sciences (abbr.: к. ю. н.);
560:Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (MVDr.)
112:) is the first of two doctoral level
7:
896:On Scientific Degrees and Challenges
679:economic sciences (abbr.: к. э. н.);
673:chemical sciences (abbr.: к. х. н.);
646:contained the Ukrainian text only).
595:Former Soviet Union, Russia, Belarus
578:, in 1996-2002 officially in Latin:
697:medical sciences (abbr.: к. м. н.);
308:The abbreviation of the degree is
188:Procedure for attaining the degree
140:also have a more advanced degree,
122:Commonwealth of Independent States
25:
528:. The leading subject taught was
515:Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
235:history and philosophy of science
196:is commonly carried out during a
152:The degree was introduced in the
938:from the original on 16 May 2019
608:the journals listed by the VAK.
299:Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences
237:; in Ukraine it was philosophy.
233:, and in Russia recently in the
1255:Certificate of Higher Education
1164:from the original on 2020-06-21
1097:from the original on 2023-02-06
1010:from the original on 2018-03-30
970:from the original on 2011-07-17
903:from the original on 2018-04-18
875:from the original on 2018-04-27
844:from the original on 2016-08-01
810:from the original on 2017-02-11
676:culturology (abbr.: к. культ.);
667:art criticism (abbr.: к. иск.);
730:theology (abbr.: к. богосл.) ;
664:architecture (abbr.: к. арх.);
1:
1551:Education in the Soviet Union
484:medicinae veterinariae doctor
250:Higher Attestation Commission
1064:(in Russian). Archived from
1037:(in Russian). Archived from
1251:Diploma of Higher Education
210:Russian Academy of Sciences
108:
88:
68:
1567:
865:De Witt, Nicholas (1961).
556:Doctor of Medicine (MUDr.)
463:medicinae universae doctor
413:Doctor of Natural Sciences
303:Slovak Academy of Sciences
26:
1157:Great Soviet Encyclopedia
931:Great Soviet Encyclopedia
412:
376:
340:
97:
77:
57:
1060:
1033:
1247:Higher National Diploma
409:rerum naturalium doctor
138:Former Soviet countries
837:. UNESCO. p. 97.
604:
575:
547:
509:rerum socialium doctor
508:
483:
462:
429:doktor prírodných vied
428:
420:
408:
392:
384:
372:
356:
348:
337:juris utriusque doctor
336:
318:candidatus scientiarum
317:
290:
282:
41:
1354:Candidate of Sciences
627:Candidate of Sciences
602:
421:doktor přírodních věd
269:Former Czechoslovakia
264:Local characteristics
217:scientific journals.
46:Candidate of Sciences
39:
1424:Academic certificate
1316:Postgraduate diploma
775:Education in Ukraine
765:Education in Belarus
755:Doctor of Philosophy
640:Doctor of Philosophy
377:Doctor of Philosophy
223:scientific communism
200:study period called
134:Doctor of Philosophy
50:Candidate of Science
1546:Education in Russia
1459:Professional degree
770:Education in Russia
653:Branches of science
580:philosophiae doctor
373:philosophiae doctor
1386:Doctor of Sciences
1137:2009-03-05 at the
743:physical chemistry
621:2019-12-20 at the
605:
305:and universities.
227:post-Soviet Russia
174:Doctor of Sciences
162:October Revolution
142:Doctor of Sciences
114:scientific degrees
42:
29:Doctor of Sciences
1528:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1478:Specialist degree
1362:
1361:
1330:Engineer's degree
1287:
1286:
1274:Bachelor's degree
1242:Foundation degree
1087:"Про вищу освіту"
512:
487:
466:
432:
396:
360:
106:
86:
66:
16:(Redirected from
1558:
1541:Doctoral degrees
1464:Graduate diploma
1381:Higher doctorate
1371:
1298:
1237:Associate degree
1224:
1203:
1196:
1189:
1180:
1173:
1172:
1170:
1169:
1147:
1141:
1133:
1131:
1130:
1121:. Archived from
1115:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1102:
1093:(in Ukrainian).
1083:
1077:
1076:
1074:
1073:
1056:
1050:
1049:
1047:
1046:
1029:
1020:
1019:
1017:
1015:
999:
993:
992:
986:
978:
976:
975:
969:
962:
954:
948:
947:
945:
943:
921:
912:
911:
909:
908:
890:
884:
883:
881:
880:
862:
853:
852:
850:
849:
843:
836:
828:Kouptsov, Oleg.
825:
819:
818:
816:
815:
809:
802:
791:
530:Marxism-Leninism
502:
488:is a "Doctor of
477:
456:
414:
402:
393:doktor filozofie
385:doktor filosofie
378:
366:
342:
330:
295:Communist Putsch
111:
101:
99:
91:
81:
79:
71:
61:
59:
21:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1531:
1530:
1529:
1520:
1503:Honorary degree
1491:
1487:Terminal degree
1449:Magister degree
1434:External degree
1416:
1410:
1358:
1334:
1311:Master's degree
1283:
1259:
1213:
1211:academic degree
1207:
1177:
1176:
1167:
1165:
1149:
1148:
1144:
1139:Wayback Machine
1128:
1126:
1117:
1116:
1109:
1100:
1098:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1071:
1069:
1062:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1044:
1042:
1035:
1031:
1030:
1023:
1013:
1011:
1001:
1000:
996:
979:
973:
971:
967:
960:
958:"Archived copy"
956:
955:
951:
941:
939:
926:"Кандидат наук"
923:
922:
915:
906:
904:
892:
891:
887:
878:
876:
864:
863:
856:
847:
845:
841:
834:
827:
826:
822:
813:
811:
807:
800:
793:
792:
788:
783:
751:
655:
636:
623:Wayback Machine
597:
588:
568:
552:Engineer (Ing.)
540:
439:rigorous thesis
271:
266:
190:
150:
34:
31:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1564:
1562:
1554:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1533:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1518:
1513:
1505:
1499:
1497:
1493:
1492:
1490:
1489:
1484:
1475:
1473:Higher diploma
1470:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1429:Artist diploma
1426:
1420:
1418:
1417:classification
1412:
1411:
1409:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1377:
1375:
1368:
1364:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1357:
1356:
1351:
1345:
1343:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1313:
1307:
1305:
1295:
1289:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1282:
1281:
1279:Honours degree
1276:
1270:
1268:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1257:
1244:
1239:
1233:
1231:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1208:
1206:
1205:
1198:
1191:
1183:
1175:
1174:
1150:Volkov, M. N.
1142:
1107:
1078:
1051:
1021:
994:
949:
924:Volkov, M. N.
913:
885:
854:
820:
785:
784:
782:
779:
778:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
750:
747:
735:
734:
731:
728:
725:
722:
719:
716:
713:
710:
707:
704:
701:
698:
695:
692:
689:
686:
683:
680:
677:
674:
671:
668:
665:
662:
654:
651:
635:
632:
596:
593:
587:
584:
567:
564:
539:
538:Czech Republic
536:
535:
534:
497:
472:
434:
433:
397:
361:
275:Czechoslovakia
270:
267:
265:
262:
192:The work on a
189:
186:
149:
146:
120:, some of the
109:kandydat navuk
98:кандыдат навук
32:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1563:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1536:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
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1419:
1413:
1407:
1404:
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1399:
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1389:
1387:
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1382:
1379:
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1372:
1369:
1365:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1337:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1325:Diplom degree
1323:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1280:
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1271:
1269:
1266:
1262:
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1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1219:Undergraduate
1216:
1212:
1204:
1199:
1197:
1192:
1190:
1185:
1184:
1181:
1163:
1159:
1158:
1153:
1152:"Доктор наук"
1146:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1125:on 2009-03-05
1124:
1120:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1082:
1079:
1068:on 2013-11-21
1067:
1063:
1055:
1052:
1041:on 2018-12-01
1040:
1036:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1009:
1005:
998:
995:
990:
984:
966:
959:
953:
950:
937:
933:
932:
927:
920:
918:
914:
902:
898:
897:
889:
886:
874:
870:
869:
861:
859:
855:
840:
833:
832:
824:
821:
806:
799:
798:
790:
787:
780:
776:
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
753:
752:
748:
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