651:
700:
688:
469:
635:
424:
454:
439:
485:
804:
888:
504:
555:
254:
335:
520:
115:
880:'s Blair Atholl Aeroplane Syndicate, began to develop and apply the engineering analysis of individual bays in a biplane, to calculate the structural forces and use the minimal amount of material in each bay to achieve maximum strength. Analytical techniques such as this led to lighter and stronger aircraft and became widely adopted.
765:. Designers have adopted different methods of improving the aerodynamics of the strut-wing and strut-body connections, using similar approaches to those used in interplane struts. Sometimes the streamlining is tapered away close to the wing, as on the Farman F.190; other designs have an extended, faired foot, for example the
919:
Although the strut-braced high-wing monoplane was outpaced during the 1930s by the true cantilever monoplane, it has remained in use throughout the postwar era, in roles where light weight is more important than high speed or long range. These include light cabin aircraft where downward visibility is
915:
By the end of World War I, engine powers and airspeeds had risen enough that the drag caused by bracing wires on a typical biplane was significantly affecting performance, while the heavier but sleeker strut-braced parasol monoplane was becoming practicable. For a period this type of monoplane became
129:
Another way of arranging a rigid structure is to make the cross pieces solid enough to act in compression and then to connect their ends with an outer diamond acting in tension. This method was once common on monoplanes, where the wing and a central cabane or a pylon form the cross members while wire
125:
A square frame made of solid bars is not rigid but tends to bend at the corners. Bracing it with an extra diagonal bar would be heavy. A wire would be much lighter but would stop it collapsing only one way. To hold it rigid, two cross-bracing wires are needed. This method of cross-bracing can be seen
200:
Bracing wires must be carefully rigged to maintain the correct length and tension. In flight the wires tend to stretch under load, and on landing some may become slack. Regular rigging checks are required and any necessary adjustments made before every flight. Rigging adjustments may also be used to
244:
Often, providing sufficient internal bracing would make a design too heavy, so in order to make the airframe both light and strong, the bracing is fitted externally. This was common in early aircraft due to the limited engine power available and the need for light weight in order to fly at all. As
537:
Because cabane struts often carry engine thrust to the upper wing to overcome its drag, the loads along each diagonal between fore and aft struts are unequal and they are often formed as N-struts. They may also have cross-braced torsion wires to help stop the wing twisting. A few biplane designs,
883:
At the same time, the amount of bracing could be progressively reduced. At low speeds a thin wire causes very little drag and early flying machines were sometimes called "bird cages" due to the number of wires present. However, as speeds rise the wire must be made thinner to avoid drag while the
105:
Bracing may be used to resist all the various forces which occur in an airframe, including lift, weight, drag and twisting or torsion. A strut is a bracing component stiff enough to resist these forces whether they place it under compression or tension. A wire is a bracing component able only to
613:
were placed either above, or above and below the fuselage. This could be used both to provide some protection to the pilot if the craft overturned on the ground, and also for the attachment of landing wires which ran out in a slightly inclined vee to fore and aft points near the wing tips. In
98:
structure bends easily unless it carries a lot of heavy reinforcement. Making the structure deeper allows it to be much lighter and stiffer. To reduce weight and air resistance, the structure may be made hollow, with bracing connecting the main parts of the airframe. For example, a high-wing
671:
connects an outboard point on the wing with a point lower on the fuselage to form a rigid triangular structure. While in flight the strut acts in tension to carry wing lift to the fuselage and hold the wing level, while when back on the ground it acts in compression to hold the wing up.
300:: The most common configuration is for two struts to be placed in parallel, one behind the other. These struts will usually be braced by "incidence wires" running diagonally between them. These wires resist twisting of the wing which would affect its angle of incidence to the airflow.
99:
monoplane may be given a diagonal lifting strut running from the bottom of the fuselage to a position far out towards the wingtip. This increases the effective depth of the wing root to the height of the fuselage, making it much stiffer for little increase in weight.
864:
The need for fore-aft wing bracing disappeared with the advent of more powerful engines in 1909, but bracing remained essential for any practical design, even on monoplanes up until World War I when they became unpopular and braced biplanes reigned supreme.
187:
to the fuselage. In some pioneer aircraft, wing bracing wires were also run diagonally fore and aft to prevent distortion under side loads such as when turning. Besides the basic loads imposed by lift and gravity, bracing wires must also carry powerful
884:
forces it carries increase. The steady increase in engine power allowed an equally steady increase in weight, necessitating less bracing. Special bracing wires with flat or aerofoil sections were also developed in attempts to further reduce drag.
675:
For aircraft of moderate engine power and speed, lift struts represent a compromise between the high drag of a fully cross-braced structure and the high weight of a fully cantilevered wing. They are common on high-wing types such as the
752:
used extruded I section beams of light alloy, onto which were screwed a fore and aft pair of duralumin fairings. Later aircraft have had streamlined struts formed directly from shaped metal, like the extruded light alloy struts of the
821:
Jury struts come in many configurations. On monoplanes with one main strut, there may be just a single jury strut connecting the main strut to an intermediate point on the wing. A braced monoplane with 'V' struts such as the
911:
all-metal "technology demonstrator" monoplane, possessing no external bracing for its thick-airfoil cantilever wing design, which could fly at just over 160 km/h with an inline-six piston engine of just 120 horsepower.
393:
fighter, while appearing to be a two-bay biplane, has only one bay, but has the midpoints of the rigging braced with additional struts; however, these are not structurally contiguous from top to bottom wing. The
265:
aircraft have their upper and lower planes connected by interplane struts, with the upper wing running across above the fuselage and connected to it by shorter cabane struts. These struts divide the wings into
82:, which were then equally common. Today, bracing in the form of lift struts is still used for some light commercial designs where a high wing and light weight are more important than ultimate performance.
534:
running up from the top of the fuselage or crew cabin to the wing centre section. Such a wing is usually also braced elsewhere, with the cabane struts forming part of the overall bracing scheme.
236:
Routine rigging of the wires was needed to maintain structural stiffness against bending and torsion. A particular problem for internal wires is access in the cramped interior of the fuselage.
67:
which slows down the aircraft and raises considerably more design issues than internal bracing. Another disadvantage of bracing wires is that they require routine checking and adjustment, or
233:
fabric, which had no strength of its own. Wire cross-bracing was extensively used to stiffen such airframes, both in the fabric-covered wings and in the fuselage, which was often left bare.
718:
Sometimes each wing has just a single lift strut, as on the Cessna 152, but they often come in pairs, sometimes parallel as on the
Catalina, sometimes splayed or as V-form pairs (e.g.
245:
engine powers rose steadily through the 1920s and 30s, much heavier airframes became practicable, and most designers abandoned external bracing in order to allow for increased speed.
722:) joined to the fuselage at a single point. Many more complicated arrangements have been used, often with two primary lift struts augmented by auxiliary interconnections known as
102:
Typically, the ends of bracing struts are joined to the main internal structural components such as a wing spar or a fuselage bulkhead, and bracing wires are attached close by.
349:. Wings are described by the number of bays on each side. For example, a biplane with cabane struts and one set of interplane struts on each side of the aircraft is a
726:
between each other or to the wing or the fuselage. Each pair of the inverted V struts of the Pawnee, for example, is assisted by a pair of vertical support struts.
869:
156:
The thickness and profile of a wire affect the drag it causes, especially at higher speeds. Wires may be made of multi-stranded cable, a single strand of
850:
842:
of 1903, the fuselage was no more than a braced framework and even fore-aft diagonal bracing was used to hold the wings at right angles to it.
1171:
468:
618:
monoplanes the wing passes above the fuselage and is joined to the fuselage by cabane struts, similarly to the upper wing of a biplane.
818:
are small subsidiary struts used to stiffen it. They prevent problems such as resonant vibration and buckling under compressive loads.
453:
371:
two-seater unarmed observation biplanes of 1914 were two of the very few single-engined, three-bay biplanes used during World War I .
423:
363:
Jenny is a two-bay biplane, while large heavy types were often multi-bay biplanes or triplanes – the earliest examples of the German
1397:
1372:
1345:
1296:
1226:
1110:
1052:
291:
229:
Internal bracing was most significant during the early days of aeronautics when airframes were literally frames, at best covered in
206:
184:
306:
replace the incidence wires by a third strut running diagonally from the top of one strut to the bottom of the other in a pair.
484:
861:
wood, selected for its strength and light weight. Metal struts were also used, and both wood and metal continue in use today.
945:
838:
to support the lightweight airframes demanded by the low engine powers and slow flying speeds then available. From the first
777:
326:
replaces the usual pair of struts by a single, thicker streamlined strut with its ends extended fore and aft along the wing.
63:
In general, bracing allows a stronger, lighter structure than one which is unbraced, but external bracing in particular adds
42:
to give it rigidity and strength under load. Bracing may be applied both internally and externally, and may take the form of
1262:
1418:
438:
1423:
1413:
312:
converge from separate attachment points on upper wing to a single point on the lower wing. They are often used for the
412:
has a W-shape cabane; however, as it does not connect the wings to each other, it does not add to the number of bays.
359:, one bay is usually enough. But for larger wings carrying greater payloads, several bays may be used. The two-seat
126:
clearly on early biplanes, where the wings and interplane struts form a rectangle which is cross-braced by wires.
106:
resist tension, going slack under compression, and consequently is nearly always used in conjunction with struts.
681:
657:
573:
above it and undercarriage struts below to resist the same forces of lift and gravity. Many later monoplanes,
460:
183:
are sometimes run diagonally between fore and aft interplane struts to stop the wing twisting and changing its
143:
1141:
772:
Lift struts are sometimes combined with other functions, for example helping to support the engines as on the
530:
Where an aircraft has a wing running clear above the main fuselage, the two components are often connected by
74:
During the early years of aviation, bracing was a universal feature of all forms of aeroplanes, including the
792:
650:
524:
119:
715:
have had lift struts mounted above the wing, acting in compression in flight and in tension on the ground.
699:
382:
series of single-engined high-speed reconnaissance biplanes of World War I, and the early World War II-era
949:
395:
221:
or threaded-end fittings so that they can be readily adjusted. Once set, the adjuster is locked in place.
175:
which hold the wings up when they are not generating lift. (The wires connecting a basket or gondola to a
278:
run downwards and outwards from the upper wing. The resulting combination of struts and wires is a rigid
192:
generated during manoeuvres, such as the increased load on the landing wires at the moment of touchdown.
1351:
290:
Interplane struts hold apart the wings of a biplane or multiplane, also helping to maintain the correct
176:
49:
1356:
788:
961:
784:
539:
338:
202:
64:
929:
687:
542:
two-seat fighter/escort, had its fuselage clear of the lower wing as well as the upper one, using
941:
937:
766:
745:
267:
948:
until the early 1980s. A turbojet-powered HD.45 was unsuccessfully proposed to compete with the
581:
wings with their lift bracing within the wing to avoid the drag penalties of external wires and
1393:
1368:
1341:
1292:
1222:
1167:
1106:
1048:
749:
53:
634:
602:
559:
383:
317:
803:
719:
374:
Some biplane wings are braced with struts leaned sideways with the bays forming a zigzag
887:
873:
1407:
971:
598:
430:
275:
230:
1377:
Steventon, H.W.B.; "Theoretical
Considerations in the Design of Wing Strut Joints",
976:
907:
rigging around the start of World War I, and by mid-1915 his firm had designed the
900:
839:
823:
808:
758:
754:
734:
712:
692:
615:
606:
364:
360:
356:
334:
271:
257:
Biplane with interplane and cabane struts cross-braced by flying and landing wires.
210:
1001:
The de
Havilland DH82A Tiger Moth - Maintenance and Repair Manual, Third Edition
1266:
1003:. Hatfield, Hertfordshire. The de Havilland Aircraft Company Ltd. (Date unknown)
966:
908:
892:
791:
categories. Larger examples include the Short 360 36-passenger aircraft and the
773:
730:
574:
569:
relied entirely on external wire bracing, either directly to the fuselage or to
508:
503:
491:
475:
445:
390:
379:
313:
31:
345:
The span of a wing between two sets of interplane or cabane struts is called a
877:
783:
Lift struts remain common on small (2/4-seat) high-wing light aircraft in the
677:
641:
594:
578:
279:
218:
157:
95:
738:
704:
566:
554:
214:
147:
75:
17:
737:, for example, had its high wings joined to the lower fuselage by parallel
621:
On some types the cabane is replaced by a single thick, streamlined pylon.
253:
1130:. London: Jane's All the World's Aircraft Publishing Co. Ltd. p. 47.
858:
835:
762:
570:
161:
39:
952:, maybe due to the high-speed turbojet mismatched to a slower airframe.
733:, often by enclosing metal load bearing members in shaped casings. The
519:
114:
94:
structure which resists bending or twisting. By comparison, an unbraced
644:
with a single lift strut, joining the fuselage to the high-mounted wing
558:
Wire-braced monoplane with wires from central mountings to wings, i.e.
368:
262:
189:
139:
79:
933:
854:
846:
742:
375:
38:
comprises additional structural members which stiffen the functional
1242:
834:
Bracing, both internal and external, was extensively used in early
886:
802:
698:
686:
582:
553:
518:
502:
333:
252:
113:
91:
44:
903:
was seriously interested in doing away with drag-inducing struts
814:
A lift strut can be so long and thin that it bends too easily.
868:
From 1911, the
British researcher Harris Booth working at the
660:
with double parallel strutted parasol wing and central pylon
1072:. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Co. Ltd. p. 309.
1086:
Barrière, Michael. "The Farman 190 and its derivatives".
680:
and almost universal on parasol-winged types such as the
316:
wing, in which the lower wing has a considerably smaller
609:
designs), dorsal and sometimes ventral strut systems or
274:
run upwards and outwards from the lower wing, while the
282:-like structure independent of its fuselage mountings.
1206:. Vol. 2. London: Putnam Publishing. p. 227.
1191:. Vol. 2. London: Putnam Publishing. p. 327.
355:
For a small type such as a World War I scout like the
546:cabane struts to accomplish such a design feature.
27:
Structural members to stiffen and strengthen airframe
153:
Unlike struts, bracing wires always act in tension.
1291:. Shrewsbury: Airlife Publishing Ltd. p. 186.
1221:. Shrewsbury: Airlife Publishing Ltd. p. 427.
928:Braced high-aspect-ratio wings were used by French
711:Less commonly, some low-winged monoplanes like the
1352:Rigging: The Erection and Trueing-Up of Aeroplanes
1166:. Coulsdon, Surrey: IHS Jane's. pp. 613–4.
826:may have a complicated assembly of jury struts.
146:aircraft, wire bracing was also common on early
1338:Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition
845:Some very early aircraft used struts made from
729:From early times these lift struts have been
8:
1379:The Aircraft Engineer: Supplement to Flight
1340:, Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997.
944:/32/34 airliners, still used by the French
1105:. London: Putnam Publishing. p. 236.
1081:
1079:
1011:
1009:
895:pioneered unbraced cantilever wing design.
389:Other variations have also been used. The
171:which hold the wings down when flying and
270:which are braced by diagonal wires. The
118:Interplane struts and bracing wires on a
90:Bracing works by creating a triangulated
511:is one of the few biplanes to ever have
1164:Jane's All the World's Aircraft 2010-11
1128:Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1956-57
1070:Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1966-67
992:
695:low-wing monoplane with V lifting strut
523:Cabane N-struts and torsion wires on a
419:
179:are also called flying wires.) Thinner
1392:, London: Universal Books Ltd., 1990.
920:also important, and small transports.
757:, or from composites, for example the
1365:An Illustrated Dictionary of Aviation
1045:An Illustrated Dictionary of Aviation
367:, and all production examples of the
7:
1263:"de Havilland Twin Otter Series 400"
167:Bracing wires primarily divide into
940:demonstrator in 1948, and then the
217:. Individual wires are fitted with
25:
130:bracing forms the outer diamond.
723:
649:
633:
483:
467:
452:
437:
422:
71:, even when located internally.
1360:, 23 January 1919. p. 107.
999:de Havilland Aircraft Company.
891:The mid-1915 origin, all-metal
776:or the undercarriage as on the
294:for the connected wing panels.
1367:. New York McGraw Hill, 2005.
1204:British Civil Aircraft 1919-59
1189:British Civil Aircraft 1919-59
946:Institut Geographique National
778:Scottish Aviation Twin Pioneer
741:tubes enclosed in streamlined
1:
209:, usually with the help of a
60:, which act only in tension.
1381:, 30 May 1930, Pages 33–35 (
1103:Westland Aircraft since 1915
870:National Physics Laboratory
667:On a high-wing aircraft, a
56:as the need arises, and/or
1440:
1126:Bridgman, Leonard (1956).
593:In many early wire-braced
1324:, Vol. 18, 1920, page 81.
1068:Taylor, John W R (1966).
1047:. New York: McGraw Hill.
807:Complex jury struts on a
682:Consolidated PBY Catalina
658:Consolidated PBY Catalina
490:Warren truss struts on a
1289:Airlife's World Aircraft
1219:Airlife's World Aircraft
853:struts made either from
849:. Most designs employed
507:The World War I British
461:Boeing-Stearman Model 75
416:Interplane strut gallery
916:the design of choice.
793:de Havilland Twin Otter
707:has a strut-braced wing
525:de Havilland Tiger Moth
378:. Examples include the
138:Most commonly found on
120:de Havilland Tiger Moth
1202:Jackson, A.J. (1960).
1187:Jackson, A.J. (1960).
1162:Jackson, Paul (2010).
1043:Kumar, Bharat (2005).
1024:Halliwell 1919, p.107.
950:Sud Aviation Caravelle
896:
811:
708:
696:
562:
538:like the British 1917
527:
516:
342:
258:
201:set and maintain wing
122:
1311:Crane 1997, Page 294.
1287:Simpson, Rod (2001).
1217:Simpson, Rod (2001).
1101:James, Derek (1991).
1090:(December 2010): 187.
899:The German professor
890:
806:
702:
690:
557:
522:
506:
429:Parallel struts on a
337:
320:than the upper wing.
256:
117:
1419:Aircraft wing design
1142:"New Remos GX eLITE"
1033:Crane 1997, Page 379
1424:Wing configurations
1414:Aircraft components
1088:Air-Britain Archive
1015:Taylor, 1990. p.71.
962:Aircraft structures
876:, then working for
761:lift struts of the
351:single-bay biplane.
339:Handley Page V/1500
1390:The Lore of Flight
1388:Taylor, John W.R.
938:Hurel-Dubois HD.10
897:
812:
767:Skyeton K-10 Swift
709:
697:
563:
528:
517:
343:
292:angle of incidence
259:
207:angle of incidence
185:angle of incidence
123:
1385:Pages 586a-586c).
1350:Halliwell, F.W. "
1173:978-0-7106-2916-6
872:and the engineer
750:Westland Lysander
703:The 36-passenger
575:beginning in 1915
341:multi-bay biplane
286:Interplane struts
164:sectioned steel.
16:(Redirected from
1431:
1325:
1320:Ledeboer, J.H.;
1318:
1312:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1284:
1278:
1277:
1275:
1274:
1265:. Archived from
1259:
1253:
1252:
1250:
1249:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1184:
1178:
1177:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1150:
1149:
1138:
1132:
1131:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1083:
1074:
1073:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1040:
1034:
1031:
1025:
1022:
1016:
1013:
1004:
997:
653:
637:
603:Fokker Eindecker
560:Fokker Eindecker
487:
471:
456:
441:
426:
409:
408:
404:
401:
384:Fiat CR.42 Falco
240:External bracing
225:Internal bracing
86:Design principle
21:
1439:
1438:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1404:
1403:
1333:
1328:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1299:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1272:
1270:
1261:
1260:
1256:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1229:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1201:
1200:
1196:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1174:
1161:
1160:
1156:
1147:
1145:
1144:. 13 April 2011
1140:
1139:
1135:
1125:
1124:
1120:
1113:
1100:
1099:
1095:
1085:
1084:
1077:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1042:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1028:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1007:
998:
994:
990:
985:
958:
926:
832:
801:
720:Auster Autocrat
665:
664:
663:
662:
661:
654:
646:
645:
638:
627:
591:
552:
540:Bristol Fighter
501:
494:
488:
479:
472:
463:
457:
448:
442:
433:
427:
418:
406:
402:
399:
397:
332:
298:Parallel struts
288:
251:
242:
227:
198:
181:incidence wires
136:
112:
110:Bracing methods
88:
48:, which act in
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1437:
1435:
1427:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1406:
1405:
1402:
1401:
1386:
1375:
1361:
1348:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1326:
1313:
1304:
1297:
1279:
1254:
1243:"Pilatus PC-6"
1234:
1227:
1209:
1194:
1179:
1172:
1154:
1133:
1118:
1111:
1093:
1075:
1060:
1053:
1035:
1026:
1017:
1005:
991:
989:
986:
984:
981:
980:
979:
974:
969:
964:
957:
954:
925:
922:
874:Richard Fairey
831:
828:
800:
797:
763:Remos GX eLITE
655:
648:
647:
639:
632:
631:
630:
629:
628:
626:
623:
590:
587:
551:
548:
515:cabane struts.
500:
497:
496:
495:
489:
482:
480:
474:I-struts on a
473:
466:
464:
459:N-struts on a
458:
451:
449:
444:V-struts on a
443:
436:
434:
428:
421:
417:
414:
331:
328:
287:
284:
250:
247:
241:
238:
226:
223:
197:
194:
190:inertial loads
135:
132:
111:
108:
87:
84:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1436:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1399:
1398:0-9509620-1-5
1395:
1391:
1387:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1374:
1373:0-07-139606-3
1370:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1347:
1346:1-56027-287-2
1343:
1339:
1336:Crane, Dale:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1323:
1317:
1314:
1308:
1305:
1300:
1298:1-84037-115-3
1294:
1290:
1283:
1280:
1269:on 2011-02-24
1268:
1264:
1258:
1255:
1244:
1238:
1235:
1230:
1228:1-84037-115-3
1224:
1220:
1213:
1210:
1205:
1198:
1195:
1190:
1183:
1180:
1175:
1169:
1165:
1158:
1155:
1143:
1137:
1134:
1129:
1122:
1119:
1114:
1112:0-85177-847-X
1108:
1104:
1097:
1094:
1089:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1071:
1064:
1061:
1056:
1054:0-07-139606-3
1050:
1046:
1039:
1036:
1030:
1027:
1021:
1018:
1012:
1010:
1006:
1002:
996:
993:
987:
982:
978:
975:
973:
972:Flexible wing
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
959:
955:
953:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
932:(now part of
931:
923:
921:
917:
913:
910:
906:
902:
894:
889:
885:
881:
879:
875:
871:
866:
862:
860:
856:
852:
848:
843:
841:
837:
829:
827:
825:
819:
817:
810:
805:
798:
796:
794:
790:
786:
781:
779:
775:
770:
768:
764:
760:
756:
751:
747:
744:
740:
736:
732:
727:
725:
721:
716:
714:
706:
701:
694:
689:
685:
683:
679:
673:
670:
659:
652:
643:
636:
624:
622:
619:
617:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
588:
586:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
561:
556:
549:
547:
545:
541:
535:
533:
532:cabane struts
526:
521:
514:
510:
505:
499:Cabane struts
498:
493:
486:
481:
477:
470:
465:
462:
455:
450:
447:
440:
435:
432:
431:Sopwith Camel
425:
420:
415:
413:
411:
392:
387:
385:
381:
377:
372:
370:
366:
362:
358:
353:
352:
348:
340:
336:
329:
327:
325:
321:
319:
315:
311:
307:
305:
301:
299:
295:
293:
285:
283:
281:
277:
276:landing wires
273:
269:
264:
255:
248:
246:
239:
237:
234:
232:
224:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
195:
193:
191:
186:
182:
178:
174:
173:landing wires
170:
165:
163:
159:
154:
151:
149:
145:
141:
134:Bracing wires
133:
131:
127:
121:
116:
109:
107:
103:
100:
97:
93:
85:
83:
81:
77:
72:
70:
66:
61:
59:
55:
51:
47:
46:
41:
37:
33:
19:
1389:
1382:
1378:
1364:
1355:
1337:
1331:Bibliography
1321:
1316:
1307:
1288:
1282:
1271:. Retrieved
1267:the original
1257:
1246:. Retrieved
1237:
1218:
1212:
1203:
1197:
1188:
1182:
1163:
1157:
1146:. Retrieved
1136:
1127:
1121:
1102:
1096:
1087:
1069:
1063:
1044:
1038:
1029:
1020:
1000:
995:
977:Wing warping
930:Hurel-Dubois
927:
918:
914:
904:
901:Hugo Junkers
898:
882:
867:
863:
844:
840:Wright flyer
833:
824:Fleet Canuck
820:
815:
813:
809:Fleet Canuck
782:
771:
759:carbon fibre
755:Auster AOP.9
735:Farman F.190
728:
717:
713:Piper Pawnee
710:
693:Piper Pawnee
674:
668:
666:
620:
616:parasol wing
610:
607:wing warping
592:
577:, have used
564:
543:
536:
531:
529:
512:
388:
376:Warren truss
373:
365:Albatros B.I
361:Curtiss JN-4
357:Fokker D.VII
354:
350:
346:
344:
323:
322:
309:
308:
303:
302:
297:
296:
289:
272:flying wires
260:
243:
235:
228:
199:
180:
172:
169:flying wires
168:
166:
155:
152:
137:
128:
124:
104:
101:
89:
73:
68:
62:
57:
43:
35:
29:
18:Cabane strut
1322:Aeronautics
967:Closed wing
936:) with the
909:Junkers J 1
893:Junkers J 1
851:streamlined
816:Jury struts
799:Jury struts
795:19-seater.
789:light-sport
774:Westland IV
731:streamlined
724:jury struts
625:Lift struts
597:, e.g. the
509:Bristol F.2
492:Fiat C.R.42
476:Fokker Dr.1
446:Nieuport 10
391:SPAD S.XIII
380:Ansaldo SVA
314:sesquiplane
261:Nearly all
219:turnbuckles
50:compression
32:aeronautics
1408:Categories
1363:Kumar, B.
1273:2011-04-15
1248:2011-04-14
1148:2011-04-15
983:References
878:J.W. Dunne
785:ultralight
678:Cessna 152
669:lift strut
642:Cessna 152
599:Blériot XI
595:monoplanes
579:cantilever
567:monoplanes
550:Monoplanes
280:box girder
211:clinometer
158:piano wire
148:monoplanes
144:multiplane
142:and other
96:cantilever
76:monoplanes
924:Post-WWII
739:duralumin
705:Short 360
571:kingposts
215:plumb-bob
956:See also
836:aircraft
748:and the
746:fairings
478:triplane
410:Strutter
396:Sopwith
324:I-struts
310:V-struts
304:N-struts
249:Biplanes
203:dihedral
162:aerofoil
80:biplanes
40:airframe
830:History
611:cabanes
589:Cabanes
544:ventral
513:ventral
405:⁄
369:DFW B.I
263:biplane
196:Rigging
177:balloon
140:biplane
69:rigging
54:tension
36:bracing
1396:
1383:Flight
1371:
1357:Flight
1344:
1295:
1225:
1170:
1109:
1051:
934:Safran
855:spruce
847:bamboo
743:spruce
605:(both
583:struts
565:Early
45:struts
988:Notes
942:HD.31
318:chord
231:doped
160:, or
92:truss
58:wires
1394:ISBN
1369:ISBN
1342:ISBN
1293:ISBN
1223:ISBN
1168:ISBN
1107:ISBN
1049:ISBN
787:and
601:and
330:Bays
268:bays
213:and
205:and
78:and
65:drag
1354:".
905:and
859:ash
857:or
347:bay
52:or
30:In
1410::
1078:^
1008:^
780:.
769:.
691:A
684:.
656:A
640:A
585:.
386:.
150:.
34:,
1400:.
1301:.
1276:.
1251:.
1231:.
1176:.
1151:.
1115:.
1057:.
407:2
403:1
400:+
398:1
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
