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junctures when it was necessary for a vessel to proclaim its nature, it was customary for a merchant vessel to indicate its noncombatant status by flying a flag which bore the emblem of
Mercury, the God of the Merchant. The caduceus, in our use of it, is not distinctively the emblem of the physician, but the emblem of the whole Medical Department. The enlisted men of the medical department outnumber the physicians of that department. Besides the ambulance wagons, many vehicles are employed in field service in war which are not distinctively medical, but which are used for medical purposes. Both the enlisted men and the vehicles of the department (not to mention many other objects), should bear some sign of neutralization for protection. It seemed to Colonel Hoff and to the board that the Geneva cross, which in addition to its use as an emblem of neutrality is also the emblem of the Swiss Republic, there might well be substituted an emblem which is not the emblem of a foreign country, and the caduceus was selected, as the emblem which for many ages has served to indicate the noncombatant.
424:
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chose a herald's wand as a symbol, making it clear that he chose it as a symbol of prudence. This same passage was also earlier referenced by Engle in refuting
Garrison's claim. Engle and Friedlander are not the only ones to have noted that the use of the Caduceus by Caius had nothing to do with supposed medical symbolism; as indicated in a publication produced by the Royal College of Physicians itself: " by introducing the caduceus into the ceremony of the College of Physicians, Caius unintentionally added to the confusion between the two emblems for later times, when few people understand the visual signs with which he was so familiar."
688:
169:, he presided over the panel of forty-two divine judges that assessed the souls of the deceased for reward or punishment in the afterlife. Thoth was at times depicted with two staves encircled by one cobra each, which might well have influenced the iconography of Hermes' caduceus. However, in ancient Egypt the snake staff represented the attribute of a powerful sorcerer, not a merchant or messenger. Compared to Hermes, Thoth was associated much more with magic and with potent actions preserving balance in the divine world, than with the unpredictable whims of a trickster deity.
316:
617:(37% used a staff of Asclepius whereas 63% used a caduceus). Friedlander felt it likely that this might reflect the fact that "professional medical organizations have more often sought a real understanding of the meaning of the two symbols whereas commercial organizations have been less interested in the historical basis of their logo or insignia and more concerned with how well a certain symbol will be recognized by the iconographically unsophisticated audience they are trying to attract to their wares."
68:
586:
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his silver-tongued eloquence could always make the worse appear the better cause. From this latter point of view, would not his symbol be suitable for certain
Congressmen, all medical quacks, book agents and purveyors of vacuum cleaners, rather than for the straight-thinking, straight-speaking therapeutist? As conductor of the dead to their subterranean abode, his emblem would seem more appropriate on a hearse than on a physician's car.
212:
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serpents stand for wisdom and the two wings imply diligence and activity, qualities which are undoubtedly possessed by our
Medical officers." The editor also points out that the majority of Medical Corps personnel are not even doctors. According to this line of reasoning, the caduceus was never intended to be a symbol of medicine. The inconsistency was noticed several years later by the
570:
381:
part of the nineteenth century several United States publishers appear to have copied or modified
Churchill's caduceus and placed this mark on their medical books. Other contemporary British publishers did not use a caduceus and the caduceus had never been as widely connected to medicine in Great Britain or in Europe as it has been in the United States.
363:, during official visits to his eponymous college, had carried before him a silver caduceus on a cushion, and later presented this artefact to the college, where it remains in the college's possession. This use was adduced by the medical historian (and primary apologist for the use of the caduceus in a medical context)
380:
That John
Churchill adopted the caduceus as his printer's device independent of any idea that it symbolized medicine does not mean that, once having adopted it, it did not play some role in the caduceus coming to be accepted as a symbol of medicine, at least in the United States. During the remaining
375:
used the symbol as a printer's device, beginning some time around 1844. Friedlander has examined this subject in detail, and shows that
Churchill was well aware that the rod of Asclepius was the accepted symbol of medicine. He is, it seems, inclined to think that the adoption of the caduceus in this
367:
to support his argument that the caduceus was used as a symbol of medicine as far back as the 16th century. However, as Walter
Friedlander noted, "what Caius used was a non-specific herald's wand, rather than the caduceus of Hermes." In support of this assertion he quotes Caius's own words on why he
198:
If the caduceus was inspired by and adapted from an amalgam of serpent depictions in other cultures, probably with changes in explanatory myths and divine prerogatives, then Greek mythology might well have created an exaggerated impression that the origins of the caduceus were entirely separate from
625:
It is hard to trust a profession that cannot even get its symbols straight. Most physicians in the United States think that the symbol of their profession is something called the caduceus. But this is actually not true. Historians have discovered that someone in the U.S. Army
Medical Corps mistook
651:
As god of the high-road and the market-place Hermes was perhaps above all else the patron of commerce and the fat purse: as a corollary, he was the special protector of the traveling salesman. As spokesman for the gods, he not only brought peace on earth (occasionally even the peace of death), but
616:
In a survey of 242 logos used by organizations related to health or medicine, Friedlander found that professional associations were more likely to display the rod of
Asclepius (62%), while organizations with a commercial focus were more likely to use the caduceus (76%). Hospitals were an exception
519:
Hoff was far too scholarly and intelligent a man to commit the blunder of 'confusing' the caduceus with the serpent staff of Aesculapius. The sign of Mercury was deliberately adopted, as I have heard him state, because it was the emblem of the merchant and hence the emblem of the noncombatant. In
464:
Later, in 1871, the Surgeon General designated the caduceus as the seal of the Marine Hospital Service (destined to become the U.S. Public Health Service in 1912). Gershen states that the change was for aesthetic reasons, whereas Friedlander states the caduceus was adopted by the Marine Hospital
493:
of 28 June 1902 discusses the argument, which reflects the fact that a number of medical officers were unhappy with the choice. The article editor claims that the symbol was not chosen for its medical connotations and proposes the following symbolic interpretation: "the rod represents power, the
343:
translation), in keeping with the connotations of the caduceus as a symbol of messengers and publishers based on the association of Hermes or Mercury with eloquence and negotiation. Friedlander observed that Frobenius could hardly be considered a medical printer, as had previously been asserted,
695:
Others are unapologetic about the association of medicine with commerce, recognizing the importance of "advertising essential for competitive marketing", and suggesting that it is up to individual physicians to choose between the two symbols, based on their own views about what associations are
476:
in 1902 and was added to the uniforms of Army medical officers. According to Friedlander, this was brought about by one Captain Frederick P. Reynolds, although Bernice Engle states "the use of the caduceus in our army I believe to be due chiefly to the late Colonel Hoff, who has emphasized the
673:
Well, so much for the caduceus. Somebody obviously got the wrong symbol for modern medicine–or did they? The caduceus seems to be an appropriate symbol for modern commercial medicine. Of particular relevance are the functions of escorting souls of the dead, wisdom, fertility, commerce, luck,
612:
has "the more ancient and authentic claim to be the emblem of medicine". Most attempts to defend the caduceus's use in a medical context date from the last quarter of the 19th century through the first quarter of the 20th, and have been characterized as "based on flimsy and pseudo-historical
620:
The use of the caduceus in a medical context has long been frowned upon by many professionals, academics and others who are familiar with the historical significance of both symbols. This has occasioned impassioned remarks by those frustrated with the continuing confusion.
39:
and features two snakes winding around an often winged staff. It is often used as a symbol of medicine, especially in the United States. Ancient sources associate Hermes with a variety of attributes, including wisdom, trade, deception, thievery, eloquence, negotiation, and
460:
for this purpose. Hospital stewards were not physicians; they played a supporting role preparing drugs for surgeons, supervising nurses and cooks, maintaining accounting and medical records, and in emergencies sometimes performed minor surgery or provided prescriptions.
327:
Beginning with the 16th century there is limited evidence of the use of the caduceus in what is arguably a medical context. However, this evidence is also ambiguous. In some cases it is clear that the caduceus symbolized wisdom, without any specific medical connotations.
509:
in which the author stated "There is nothing in history to justify the use of the caduceus as the emblem of the physician it is most unfortunate that the 'confusion' exists." In an anonymous rebuttal contained in a letter to the editor published three months later in
150:, who later became known as Hermes Trismegistus. although these various factors may link Hermes/Mercury, along with his Caduceus, with alchemical medicine, they may just as well link all the other non-medical aspects of alchemy with Hermes/Mercury and the Caduceus".
161:(the tendency of the ancient Greeks to identify foreign deities with their own gods), determination of the equivalence of deities is a complex matter. The role of Hermes in the afterlife was limited to guiding souls of the deceased, whereas the powerful
514:
it was claimed that the late Col. John R. van Hoff was a member of the board that selected the emblem ("if he was not the one who was chiefly instrumental in its adoption"). In the letter to the editor reproduced by Emerson, the anonymous author claims
451:
of Army hospital stewards as early as 1856 (William K. Emerson indicates the insignia was adopted earlier, in 1851). It has been asserted that this was a result of ignorance or misinterpretation regarding the pre-existing designation of the
446:
Widespread confusion regarding the supposed medical significance apparently arose as a result of events in the United States that occurred in the second half of the 19th century. As pointed out by Garrison, the caduceus had appeared on the
116:(and by extension commerce and negotiation), early evidence of any symbolic association between the Caduceus and medicine or medical practice is scarce and ambiguous. It is likely linked to the alchemical "universal solvent",
199:
those of the rod of asclepius. From the perspectives of ethnography and literary history, their cultural and iconographic origins were probably deeply entwined as part of the complex and artistically fluid history of
722:, has suggested that the caduceus is appropriate as a medical symbol "because it embodies an esoteric truth that must be grasped to gain practical control over the shifting forces that determine health and illness."
344:
noting that in a review of 257 of the works bearing this printer's device only one was related to medicine. Similar use of the caduceus in printers' marks continues to the present day, with companies including
560:
since its foundation in 1863. (Although now part of the AMEDD, the Army Medical Corps retains the caduceus for its own plaque and insignia.) The medical insignia of U.S. Air Force uses the rod of Asclepius.
339:(1460–1527), who depicted the staff entwined with serpents and surmounted by a dove, with a biblical epigraph in Greek, "Be ye therefore wise as serpents and harmless as doves" (Matthew 10:16, here in the
394:
In any case, in Great Britain, as late as 1854, the distinction between the rod of Asclepius and the caduceus as symbols of two very different professions was apparently still quite clear. In his article
1055:
By some misconception, the caduceus became the insignia of the U.S. Army Medical Corps. The proper symbol of medicine is the staff of Aesculapius, which is a coarse rod entwined by a single serpent.
131:'s seal with Caduceus symbols both top and bottom. The seal was apparently used to mark preparations of eye medicine. It is believed likely that rather than being evidence of a medical association
183:, or as snakes embodying the deity itself. Ancient examples of attributes similar to the caduceus, or to aspects of Hermes' portfolio of divine roles, include the Sumerian messenger and snake god
501:
Considerable light is shed on this confusion by an anonymous letter republished by Emerson, a historian of United States Army insignia and uniforms. He indicates that the April 1924 issue of
146:("Thrice-Great Hermes") with early chemistry and medicine as aspects of alchemy as an esoteric practice. He notes that "there are very definite connections between medicine and (Hermes)-
27:
Branch Plaque. The adoption, in 1902, of the caduceus for US Army medical officer uniforms popularized the erroneous use of the symbol throughout the medical field in the United States.
399:
A.H. Burkitt notes that among the very old symbols still used in London at that time, which were based on associations between pagan gods and professions, "we find Mercury, or his
703:
is quoted as saying, "If it's got wings on it, it's not really the symbol of medicine; some may find it hard to believe, but it's true. It's something like using the logo for the
95:), older representations from Syria and India of sticks and animals looking like serpents or worms are interpreted by some as a direct representation of traditional treatment of
665:
On the other hand, it has also been remarked – not without considerable irony – that commercial aims in medicine, especially in the United States of America, make the caduceus
533:
According to this view the caduceus was not intended to be a medical symbol (and, though explained differently, this reflects the view advanced by the editor commenting in
731:
557:
439:
699:
In North America, there are calls to clarify the symbol and to move to a uniform use of the rod of Asclepius. For example, the director of communications of the
223:
The Caduceus became a symbol of alchemy and pharmacy in medieval Europe. Its first appearance as a medical symbol can be traced back to 1st−4th century CE in
630:
and introduced the Medical Corps' symbol at the beginning of the twentieth century. Soon thereafter, everyone in the United States was emulating the mistake.
351:
There are a few other examples of use in this period. It may have been used as a symbol by Sir William Butts, physician to Henry VIII. Similarly, physician
20:
371:
In support of the idea that the caduceus had a long-standing association with medicine, Garrison also mentioned the fact that the English medical printer
495:
1723:
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of 28 June 1902 discussed above). Nevertheless, after World War I the caduceus was employed as an emblem by both the Army Medical Department and the
478:
428:
1354:
741:
553:
51:
became established in the United States in the late 19th and early 20th century as a result of well-documented mistakes and misunderstandings of
423:
376:
context probably had something to do with the relation between publishing and the role of Mercury as a messenger and scribe. He notes, however
1678:
1624:
819:
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It has been said that the caduceus is particularly inappropriate for use as a medical symbol due to its long associations with the Greek god
457:
747:
24:
436:
1703:
1599:
1574:
1549:
1510:
1388:
1088:
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737:
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and Britain, which had an engraving of the name of the physician, the name of the special medicine or medical formula and the
139:
who described the Caduceus as "possessing the ability to charm the eyes of men", which relates to the business of an oculist.
142:
Walter Friedlander proposed that early association of the Caduceus with medicine might have derived from the association of
700:
1742:
542:
1772:
545:
used the symbol for a time, but in 1912, after considerable discussion, the caduceus was abandoned by the AMA and the
360:
304:
191:
holding a scepter with two winding snakes (which lacked the wings of a caduceus), and the benevolent Egyptian goddess
1206:
PERCEPTIONS OF THE SERPENT IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: ITS BRONZE AGE ROLE IN APOTROPAIC MAGIC, HEALING AND PROTECTION
996:
Wilcox, Robert A; Whitham, Emma M (15 April 2003). "The symbol of modern medicine: why one snake is more than two".
704:
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eloquence, cheating and thieving. These have become symbolic of how medicine evolved in the late Twentieth Century.
597:
589:
489:
372:
1074:
1762:
364:
356:
279:
used the caduceus in his medical manuscripts from 1486 CE. Others followed (not uncontroversially, see section
477:
suitability of the caduceus as an emblem of neutrality. Reynolds had the idea rejected several times by the
315:
1767:
1358:
1079:
696:
appropriate. The AMA has used the Rod of Asclepius for over a century, and its current logo since 2005.
19:
916:
719:
156:
108:
While there is ample historical evidence of the use of the Caduceus, or Herald's Staff, to represent
1752:
1486:
Word Rounds: A history of words, both medical and nonmedical, and their relationship to one another
778:
345:
332:
200:
180:
143:
113:
67:
1747:
1336:
1066:
1021:
482:
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448:
176:
1640:
1699:
1674:
1620:
1595:
1570:
1545:
1506:
1454:
1384:
1328:
1297:
1254:
1236:
1131:
1084:
1044:
1013:
882:
872:
815:
538:
249:
216:
124:
92:
1444:
1413:
1287:
1244:
1121:
1009:
1005:
971:
840:
790:
627:
609:
585:
578:
546:
453:
336:
295:, since the 5th century CE, resurfaced in 1544 CE. A publication of the medical writings of
259:
86:
56:
1757:
1278:
766:
708:
1655:
1167:
920:
1249:
1224:
1126:
1109:
760:
276:
273:
97:
1473:
Medicines For The Union Army: The United States Army Laboratories During The Civil War
1449:
1432:
465:
Service "because of its relationship with merchant seamen and the maritime industry".
1736:
975:
943:
Engle, Bernice (December 1929). "The Use of Mercury's Caduceus as a Medical Emblem".
605:
320:
284:
224:
1071:
People, Parasites, and Plowshares: Learning from Our Body's Most Terrifying Invaders
1025:
691:
The Caduceus and the Rod of Asclepius as used by neighboring offices (Ridgewood, NY)
1417:
784:
574:
162:
647:, who was patron of commerce and traders as well as thieves, liars, and gamblers.
793: – Oath of ethics taken by physicians (to Asclepius and other healing gods)
715:
266:
242:
236:
211:
102:
1204:
1292:
1273:
352:
288:
1332:
1301:
1240:
886:
772:
498:, but for reasons which are not entirely clear, the symbol was not changed.
292:
52:
1458:
1381:
The Royal College of Physicians and its Collections: An Illustrated History
1017:
569:
1258:
1135:
435:
262:
and this element has been represented by the caduceus for many centuries.
165:
Thoth was truly lord of the underworld and master of death. Together with
55:
and classical culture. Critics say the correct symbol for medicine is the
1379:
Davenport, Geoffery; McDonald, Ian; Moss-Gibbons, Caroline, eds. (2001).
869:
The Golden Wand of Medicine: A History of the Caduceus Symbol in Medicine
604:
Despite widespread acceptance of the caduceus as a medical symbol in the
388:
The Golden Wand of Medicine: A History of the Caduceus Symbol in Medicine
296:
172:
72:
32:
1340:
1316:
270:
245:
232:
128:
41:
1185:
750:
logo includes two serpents entwined around the stem of a flaming torch
1433:"The use of the caduceus in the insignia of the Army medical officer"
904:
644:
593:
192:
188:
166:
109:
36:
1542:
A Balm for Gilead: Meditations On Spirituality and the Healing Arts
637:
A Balm for Gilead: Meditations On Spirituality and the Healing Arts
686:
584:
568:
469:
434:
422:
314:
210:
184:
147:
136:
117:
66:
18:
300:
291:, was the first physician to adopt it as his emblem. The rod of
228:
1671:
White Coat Tales: Medicine's Heroes, Heritage and Misadventures
763: – Staves carried by Moses's brother, Aaron, in the Torah
340:
1592:
Where Have All the Healers Gone?: A Doctor's Recovery Journey
681:
Where Have All the Healers Gone?: A Doctor's Recovery Journey
1077:, 2016 (first edition in 2013), pages 147-163 (chapter 7 on
505:
printed a review of an earlier article that appeared in the
135:, this is rather an allusion to the words of the Greek poet
1719:
1696:
Health and Healing: The Philosophy of Integrative Medicine
485:— to adopt it. This resulted in considerable controversy.
1641:"The symbol for a new AMA: Medicine for the 21st Century"
1406:
Journal of the British Archaeological Association, London
331:
The caduceus appears in a general medical context in the
227:' stamps that were found mostly in Celtic areas, such as
1503:
Encyclopedia of United States Army Insignia and Uniforms
1404:
Burkitt, A.H. (1854). "On Tradesmen's Signs of London".
527:
Encyclopedia of United States Army Insignia and Uniforms
348:
still using the symbol as an element of their insignia.
248:
used the Caduceus to represent preparations containing
781: – Serpent that only appears in myths and legends
1317:"The Use of Mercury's Caduceus as a Medical Emblem"
814:(8th ed.). Boston: Pearson. pp. 177–190.
1505:. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 181–182.
732:All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi
403:, appropriate in trade, as indicating expedition.
787: – Word avoided due to inconsistent meanings
187:, the occasional depictions of the major goddess
91:Before the ancient Romans and Greeks (about 2612
1383:. The Royal College of Physicians. p. 112.
964:The Journal of the American Medical Association
671:
649:
623:
517:
481:, but persuaded the new incumbent — Brig. Gen.
440:Army Medical Department regimental coat of arms
378:
1720:"Northern Ireland Ambulance Service home page"
1357:. Gonville & Caius College. Archived from
1043:. American College of Physicians. p. 37.
726:Notable modern users (as a symbol of medicine)
1615:Morford, Mark PO; Lenardon, Robert J (2007).
862:
860:
858:
856:
854:
852:
850:
556:(AMEDD) has included the Rod of Asclepius in
252:, later known as mercury. Quicksilver (named
8:
1527:The Oxford Illustrated Companion To Medicine
1041:Medical meanings: a glossary of word origins
71:Babylonian terracotta relief of Ishtar from
1544:. Georgetown University Press. p. 55.
1437:Bulletin of the Medical Library Association
253:
203:for healing, magic and protective rituals.
154:
1569:. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
1496:
1494:
1225:"The earliest medical use of the caduceus"
1110:"The earliest medical use of the caduceus"
195:who was often depicted as a winged cobra.
1724:Health and Social Care (Northern Ireland)
1567:Hermes the Thief: The Evolution of a Myth
1448:
1431:Garrison, Lt.Col. Fielding H. (1919–20).
1291:
1248:
1125:
837:Hermes the Thief: The Evolution of a Myth
468:The caduceus was formally adopted by the
429:Surgeon General of the United States Army
269:use of the caduceus to signify pharmacy,
59:, which has only one snake and no wings.
120:, the symbol of which was the caduceus.
16:Misunderstanding of the symbol of Hermes
1010:10.7326/0003-4819-138-8-200304150-00016
938:
936:
934:
932:
930:
898:
896:
802:
239:for which the medicine was to be used.
215:The spirit of medicine, as imagined by
63:Early use in a possible medical context
1274:"Snake and staff symbolism in healing"
1272:Retief, FP; Cilliers, L (2010-03-10).
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
415:, for professors of the healing art".
201:snakes as deities or as divine symbols
1212:(Thesis). University of South Africa.
991:
989:
987:
985:
127:Museum in London holds a 3rd-century
7:
1698:. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 45–46.
1643:. American Medical News. 2005-06-20.
1229:Canadian Medical Association Journal
1114:Canadian Medical Association Journal
657:Stuart L. Tyson, "The Caduceus", in
458:Surgeon General of the United States
1488:, Flower Valley Press, 2001, p. 45.
839:. New York: Vintage Books. p.
359:, and at the time President of the
1656:"Exclusive: AMA Goes for New Logo"
748:Northern Ireland Ambulance Service
335:used by the Swiss medical printer
179:as devotional emblems for various
173:Depictions similar to the caduceus
14:
1475:, Haworth Press, 2001, pp. 14–15.
1203:Golding, W R J (November 2013).
976:10.1001/jama.1981.03310420020013
738:United States Army Medical Corps
669:, at least for some physicians.
573:The emergency medical services'
496:librarian to the Surgeon General
442:(1863) uses the Rod of Asclepius
49:caduceus as a symbol of medicine
1673:. Springer. pp. 207–208.
1654:Ostrovsky, Gene (2005-06-16).
1418:10.1080/00681288.1853.11887416
903:Tyson, Stuart L. (June 1932).
867:Friedlander, Walter J (1992).
775: – Brass serpent in Torah
397:On Tradesmen's Signs of London
75:(early second millennium
1:
1108:Hart, Gerald D (1972-12-09).
1039:Haubrich, William S. (2003).
962:Cooper, M T (1981). "Knots".
835:Brown, Norman Oliver (1947).
701:Minnesota Medical Association
35:is the traditional symbol of
608:, it has been said that the
543:American Medical Association
175:also occurred in bronze age
153:Despite a long tradition of
1501:Emerson, William K (1996).
998:Annals of Internal Medicine
558:its regimental coat of arms
419:Adoption by the US military
361:Royal College of Physicians
1789:
1669:Taylor, Robert B. (2008).
1594:. iUniverse. p. 129.
1540:Sulmasy, Daniel p (2006).
1315:Engle, Bernice S. (1929).
1223:Hart, G. D. (1972-12-09).
769: – Symbol of pharmacy
742:US Army Medical Department
705:National Rifle Association
535:The Army and Navy Register
490:The Army and Navy Register
84:
1565:Brown, Norman O. (1947).
1293:10.4314/actat.v26i2.52573
1168:"The Negative Confession"
1075:Columbia University Press
810:Powell, Barry B. (2015).
590:Toronto paramedic service
431:, depicting the Caduceus.
303:physician, had it at the
258:) was believed to be the
1590:Van Orden, Luke (2002).
1157:Friedlander 1992, p. 76.
1148:Friedlander 1992, p. 41.
596:, with a caduceus in an
357:Caius College, Cambridge
319:The printer's device of
554:Army Medical Department
260:basis of all substances
255:mercurius philosophorum
1471:George Winston Smith,
1080:Dracunculus medinensis
909:The Scientific Monthly
707:when referring to the
692:
685:
663:
659:The Scientific Monthly
641:
601:
592:ambulance in Ontario,
582:
531:
443:
432:
392:
386:Walter J Friedlander,
324:
254:
220:
181:major or minor deities
155:
82:
47:The modern use of the
28:
1694:Weil, Andrew (2004).
1321:The Classical Journal
945:The Classical Journal
734:(established in 1956)
690:
667:an appropriate symbol
626:the caduceus for the
588:
572:
549:was adopted instead.
438:
426:
318:
214:
70:
25:US Army Medical Corps
22:
1529:. 2001. p. 262.
720:alternative medicine
512:The Military Surgeon
503:The Military Surgeon
157:interpretatio graeca
1743:History of medicine
1617:Classical Mythology
1484:Barton J. Gershen,
921:1932SciMo..34..492T
871:. Greenwood Press.
779:Snakes in mythology
635:Daniel P. Sulmasy,
539:Navy Hospital Corps
525:William K Emerson,
346:F. A. Davis Company
144:Hermes Trismegistus
1773:1902 introductions
1067:Dickson Despommier
693:
602:
583:
565:Contemporary views
483:William H. Forwood
474:United States Army
470:Medical Department
444:
433:
325:
221:
83:
29:
1680:978-0-387-73079-0
1626:978-0-19-514725-4
1235:(11): 1107–1110.
1120:(11): 1107–1110.
821:978-0-321-96704-6
718:, a proponent of
409:Serpent and staff
365:Fielding Garrison
285:Sir William Butts
267:medieval European
217:Salomon Trismosin
1780:
1728:
1727:
1716:
1710:
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1200:
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1190:WorldHistory.org
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1172:WorldHistory.org
1164:
1158:
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683:
679:Luke Van Orden,
661:
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610:rod of Asclepius
579:rod of Asclepius
547:rod of Asclepius
529:
454:rod of Asclepius
427:The flag of the
390:
337:Johann Frobenius
333:printer's device
257:
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87:Rod of Asclepius
80:
79:
57:Rod of Asclepius
1788:
1787:
1783:
1782:
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1779:
1778:
1777:
1763:Medical symbols
1733:
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1279:Acta Theologica
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1106:
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905:"The Caduceus"
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812:Classical Myth
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207:Medieval times
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1359:the original
1355:"John Caius"
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177:Mesopotamia
103:Guinea worm
1753:Pictograms
1737:Categories
1365:2010-06-19
798:References
405:Esculapius
353:John Caius
289:Henry VIII
85:See also:
1748:Asclepius
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105:disease.
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755:See also
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449:chevrons
401:caduceus
384:—
297:Avicenna
271:Bavarian
243:Medieval
225:oculists
73:Eshnunna
33:caduceus
1341:3289465
1259:4565648
1250:1941059
1186:"Thoth"
1136:4565648
1127:1941059
917:Bibcode
472:of the
456:by the
301:Persian
274:printer
246:alchemy
237:disease
233:Germany
129:oculist
114:Mercury
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1758:Hermes
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193:Wadjet
189:Innana
167:Osiris
133:per se
110:Hermes
101:, the
37:Hermes
1337:JSTOR
1286:(2).
1210:(PDF)
1022:S2CID
185:Nirah
148:Thoth
137:Homer
118:Azoth
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