208:
448:
394:, uses a checkerboard arrangement of two green pixels for each red and blue pixel, although many other color filter patterns have been developed, including patterns using cyan, magenta, yellow, and white pixels. Integral color sensors were initially manufactured by transferring colored dyes through photoresist windows onto a polymer receiving layer coated on top of a monochrome CCD sensor. Since each pixel provides only a single color (such as green), the "missing" color values (such as red and blue) for the pixel are interpolated using neighboring pixels. This processing is also referred to as
355:. Electronic shuttering can be "global," in which case the entire image sensor area's accumulation of photoelectrons starts and stops simultaneously, or "rolling" in which case the exposure interval of each row immediate precedes that row's readout, in a process that "rolls" across the image frame (typically from top to bottom in landscape format). Global electronic shuttering is less common, as it requires "storage" circuits to hold charge from the end of the exposure interval until the readout process gets there, typically a few milliseconds later.
220:
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289:. The charges in the line of pixels nearest to the (one or more) output amplifiers are amplified and output, then each line of pixels shifts its charges one line closer to the amplifiers, filling the empty line closest to the amplifiers. This process is then repeated until all the lines of pixels have had their charge amplified and output.
309:
and has been adapted to silicon-based detector technology. Another approach is to utilize the very fine dimensions available in modern CMOS technology to implement a CCD like structure entirely in CMOS technology: such structures can be achieved by separating individual poly-silicon gates by a very
277:
Cameras integrated in small consumer products generally use CMOS sensors, which are usually cheaper and have lower power consumption in battery powered devices than CCDs. CCD sensors are used for high end broadcast quality video cameras, and CMOS sensors dominate in still photography and consumer
292:
A CMOS image sensor has an amplifier for each pixel compared to the few amplifiers of a CCD. This results in less area for the capture of photons than a CCD, but this problem has been overcome by using microlenses in front of each photodiode, which focus light into the photodiode that would have
625:
In June 2022, Samsung
Electronics announced that it had created a 200 million pixel image sensor. The 200MP ISOCELL HP3 has 0.56 micrometer pixels with Samsung reporting that previous sensors had 0.64 micrometer pixels, a 12% decrease since 2019. The new sensor contains 200 million pixels in a
297:
to increase the number of photons that hit the photodiode. CMOS sensors can potentially be implemented with fewer components, use less power, and/or provide faster readout than CCD sensors. They are also less vulnerable to static electricity discharges.
406:, using an array of layered pixel sensors, separating light via the inherent wavelength-dependent absorption property of silicon, such that every location senses all three color channels. This method is similar to how color film for photography works.
591:. A photodiode array was proposed by G. Weckler in 1968. This was the basis for the PPS. These early photodiode arrays were complex and impractical, requiring selection transistors to be fabricated within each pixel, along with
831:
announced a new image sensing technology that the researchers call QIS, for Quanta Image Sensor. Instead of pixels, QIS chips have what the researchers call "jots." Each jot can detect a single particle of light, called a
506:
that occurs with a flat sensor. Use of a curved sensor allows a shorter and smaller diameter of the lens with reduced elements and components with greater aperture and reduced light fall-off at the edge of the photo.
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a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next. The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first
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at Bell Labs in 1969. While researching MOS technology, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny
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1649:
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1984:
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goods where overall cost is a major concern. Both types of sensor accomplish the same task of capturing light and converting it into electrical signals.
305:") consists of CMOS readout integrated circuits (ROICs) that are bump bonded to a CCD imaging substrate – a technology that was developed for infrared
763:
in 1993. By 2007, sales of CMOS sensors had surpassed CCD sensors. By the 2010s, CMOS sensors largely displaced CCD sensors in all new applications.
2380:
845:
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418:. The dichroic elements provide a sharper color separation, thus improving color quality. Because each sensor is equally sensitive within its
447:
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525:. They date back to the 1930s, and several types were developed up until the 1980s. By the early 1990s, they had been replaced by modern
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422:, and at full resolution, 3-CCD sensors produce better color quality and better low light performance. 3-CCD sensors produce a full
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small gap; though still a product of research hybrid sensors can potentially harness the benefits of both CCD and CMOS imagers.
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332:, and low-light sensitivity. For sensors of comparable types, the signal-to-noise ratio and dynamic range improve as the
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1797:
Kozlowski, L. J.; Luo, J.; Kleinhans, W. E.; Liu, T. (14 September 1998). Pain, Bedabrata; Lomheim, Terrence S. (eds.).
784:
50:
532:
The basis for modern solid-state image sensors is MOS technology, which originates from the invention of the MOSFET by
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3037:
2539:
567:(PPS) was the precursor to the active-pixel sensor (APS). A PPS consists of passive pixels which are read out without
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fabricated on top of a single monochrome CCD or CMOS image sensor. The most common color filter array pattern, the
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While in general, digital cameras use a flat sensor, Sony prototyped a curved sensor in 2014 to reduce/eliminate
101:
2030:
Matsumoto, Kazuya; et al. (1985). "A new MOS phototransistor operating in a non-destructive readout mode".
2005:
614:. However, in 1914 Deputy Consul General Carl R. Loop, reported to the state department in a Consular Report on
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increases. It is because in a given integration (exposure) time, more photons hit the pixel with larger area.
285:
image sensor is an analog device. When light strikes the chip it is held as a small electrical charge in each
2191:
1449:. Technical Digest International Electron Device Meeting (IEDM), Washington, DC, Dec 1976. pp. 400–403.
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There are several main types of color image sensors, differing by the type of color-separation mechanism:
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Televista system that "It is stated that the selenium in the transmitting screen may be replaced by any
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There are many parameters that can be used to evaluate the performance of an image sensor, including
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Arduino with MATLAB in the thermography: From the sensor to the thermal camera (Arduino and Beyond)
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levels. The first NMOS APS was fabricated by
Tsutomu Nakamura's team at Olympus in 1985. The
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1891:
1404:
Padmakumar R. Rao et al., "CCD structures implemented in standard 0.18 ÎĽm CMOS technology"
1401:
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1008:
954:
921:
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704:. In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD devices, becoming a fixture in
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otherwise hit the amplifier and not been detected. Some CMOS imaging sensors also use
263:
117:
1156:
SPIE Proceedings Vol. 1900: Charge-Coupled
Devices and Solid State Optical Sensors III
1154:(12 July 1993). Blouke, Morley M. (ed.). "Active pixel sensors: are CCDs dinosaurs?".
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1830:
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active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor) was later improved by a group of scientists at the
715:. Since then, the PPD has been used in nearly all CCD sensors and then CMOS sensors.
708:
689:
653:
615:
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of photodiode arrays was also a limitation to performance, as the photodiode readout
545:
431:
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344:
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129:
125:
121:
2001:
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1932:
Boyle, William S; Smith, George E. (1970). "Charge
Coupled Semiconductor Devices".
1509:
899:
821:
619:
580:
492:
480:
472:
468:
452:
286:
141:
137:
1110:
Semiconductor
Devices: Physics and Technology : International Student Version
1074:
Silicon Earth: Introduction to
Microelectronics and Nanotechnology, Second Edition
1844:
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3669:
3664:
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3510:
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2849:
2718:
2619:
2511:
2474:
2444:
2397:
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2321:
2242:
2131:
1980:
1222:
1151:
1041:
973:
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673:
595:
588:
544:
in 1959. Later research on MOS technology led to the development of solid-state
537:
395:
192:
105:
77:
1563:
1524:
1477:
1442:
959:"The Optical Mouse, and an Architectural Methodology for Smart Digital Sensors"
3795:
3317:
3297:
3211:
3201:
3062:
3027:
3002:
2931:
2671:
2656:
2636:
2518:
2454:
2370:
2316:
1967:
1243:
1226:
814:
730:
603:
435:
255:
188:
85:
1646:"Sony's first 'curved sensor' photo may herald better images, cheaper lenses"
1454:
347:
of image sensors is generally controlled by either a conventional mechanical
17:
3709:
3282:
3244:
3206:
3102:
2992:
2459:
2422:
2417:
2402:
2355:
2338:
1968:
U.S. Patent 4,484,210: Solid-state imaging device having a reduced image lag
1744:
1678:
1579:
1548:
1525:"Fabrication and performance of color filter arrays for solid-state imagers"
1501:
1101:
1077:
584:
568:
541:
496:
371:
1593:
414:, using three discrete image sensors, with the color separation done by a
3302:
3117:
2614:
2544:
2412:
2333:
2328:
2105:
2051:
1799:"Comparison of passive and active pixel schemes for CMOS visible imagers"
419:
319:
259:
3342:
2491:
2437:
30:
1822:
1185:
779:
in 1975, used a 32Ă—32 MOS image sensor. It was a modified MOS dynamic
610:(CDS) could also not be used with a photodiode array without external
2889:
2306:
2256:
833:
572:
463:
Special sensors are used in various applications such as creation of
301:
Another design, a hybrid CCD/CMOS architecture (sold under the name "
271:
212:
184:
69:
53:
chip (center chip with glass window) used as an image sensor by the
740:
in Japan during the mid-1980s. This was enabled by advances in MOS
3557:
2972:
2432:
1227:"A Review of the Pinned Photodiode for CCD and CMOS Image Sensors"
908:, the development of electronic imaging technology since the 1880s
803:
484:
446:
370:
362:
302:
218:
206:
149:
145:
73:
1849:. Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Manufactures. 1914.
824:
introduced in 1999, most optical mouse devices use CMOS sensors.
1478:"Color Filters and Processing Alternatives for One-chip Cameras"
757:
753:
557:
172:
81:
2215:
1862:"Samsung Electronics releases a sensor with 200 million pixels"
1769:"1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated"
949:
947:
2211:
1158:. Charge-Coupled Devices and Solid State Optical Sensors III.
685:
456:
1417:
Image
Sensors and Signal Processing for Digital Still Cameras
100:
that convey the information. The waves can be light or other
1809:. International Society for Optics and Photonics: 101–110.
820:
sensor chip. Since the first commercial optical mouse, the
262:) technologies. Both CCD and CMOS sensors are based on the
1351:"CMOS Is Winning the Camera Sensor Battle, and Here's Why"
1259:"CMOS Is Winning the Camera Sensor Battle, and Here's Why"
964:. In H. T. Kung; Robert F. Sproull; Guy L. Steele (eds.).
211:
A micrograph of the corner of the photosensor array of a
191:. Analog sensors for invisible radiation tend to involve
1375:
1162:. International Society for Optics and Photonics: 2–14.
912:
List of large sensor interchangeable-lens video cameras
896:, mosaic of tiny color filters over color image sensors
375:
Foveon's scheme of vertical filtering for color sensing
274:
amplifiers being the building blocks of a CMOS sensor.
163:
The two main types of electronic image sensors are the
2074:"CMOS Image Sensor Sales Stay on Record-Breaking Pace"
1443:"Integral color filter arrays for solid state imagers"
676:. This was largely resolved with the invention of the
1013:"The Optical Mouse: Early Biomimetic Embedded Vision"
72:
that detects and conveys information used to form an
1564:"Color imaging system using a single CCD area array"
3771:
3718:
3623:
3566:
3472:
3356:
3268:
3220:
2960:
2727:
2527:
2249:
1070:"Let There Be Light: The Bright World of Photonics"
902:, the scientific study of light-sensitive materials
571:, with each pixel consisting of a photodiode and a
27:
Device that converts images into electronic signals
2130:Brain, Marshall; Carmack, Carmen (24 April 2000).
1040:Brain, Marshall; Carmack, Carmen (24 April 2000).
223:Image sensor (upper left) on the motherboard of a
798:technology. The first optical mouse, invented by
2208:(with graphical buckets and rainwater analogies)
1710:The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future
1671:Musburger, Robert B.; Ogden, Michael R. (2014).
195:of various kinds, while digital sensors include
175:sensor). Both CCD and CMOS sensors are based on
49:An American Microsystems, Inc., (AMI) 1-kilobit
606:capacitance resulted in increased noise level.
890:, the sizes and shapes of common image sensors
160:tends to replace chemical and analog imaging.
2227:
8:
2159:"Super Sensitive Sensor Sees What You Can't"
1231:IEEE Journal of the Electron Devices Society
1217:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1203:
521:Early analog sensors for visible light were
3779:Conservation and restoration of photographs
1702:
1700:
1698:
1447:1976 International Electron Devices Meeting
3516:Comparison of digital and film photography
2234:
2220:
2212:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1003:
1001:
684:, Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at
3736:Photographs considered the most important
2192:Digital Camera Sensor Performance Summary
1740:Smart CMOS Image Sensors and Applications
1242:
1175:
968:. Computer Science Press. pp. 1–19.
495:, and other highly sensitive arrays for
2118:the Cyclops was the first digital camera
459:'s HAWK-I, a cryogenic wide-field imager
270:being the building blocks of a CCD, and
76:. It does so by converting the variable
44:
29:
1732:
1730:
943:
846:List of sensors used in digital cameras
626:1-by-1.4-inch (25 by 36 mm) lens.
1887:
1877:
1357:from the original on 25 September 2015
1285:
1283:
656:. As it was fairly straightforward to
1568:IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices
1529:IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices
1482:IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices
864:, used before image sensors for video
794:MOS image sensors are widely used in
179:(MOS) technology, with CCDs based on
7:
1017:Advances in Embedded Computer Vision
3731:Museums devoted to one photographer
2101:"Building the First Digital Camera"
2032:Japanese Journal of Applied Physics
3278:Timeline of photography technology
2169:from the original on 24 March 2018
1954:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1970.tb01790.x
1652:from the original on July 11, 2014
1349:Moynihan, Tom (29 December 2011).
1301:from the original on 28 April 2018
25:
2099:Benchoff, Brian (17 April 2016).
1908:Scientific charge-coupled devices
1600:from the original on 13 July 2016
1476:Parulski, Kenneth (August 1985).
827:In February 2018, researchers at
3829:
3819:
3818:
1846:Daily Consular and Trade Reports
1321:"What is a backlit CMOS sensor?"
742:semiconductor device fabrication
672:Early CCD sensors suffered from
3830:
1803:Infrared Readout Electronics IV
1562:Dillon, Peter (February 1978).
1523:Dillon, Peter (February 1978).
1420:. CRC Press. pp. 169–172.
1331:from the original on 2017-05-06
1269:from the original on 2017-05-01
1019:. Springer. pp. 3–22 (3).
917:Oversampled binary image sensor
351:, as in film cameras, or by an
1674:Single-Camera Video Production
1594:"Deepest Ever Look into Orion"
426:signal, which is preferred in
187:(MOS field-effect transistor)
1:
3328:Painted photography backdrops
3260:Golden triangle (composition)
2535:35 mm equivalent focal length
1104:; Lee, Ming-Kwei (May 2012).
966:VLSI Systems and Computations
548:image sensors, including the
1911:. SPIE Press. pp. 3–4.
1713:. Springer. pp. 245–8.
692:structure with low lag, low
104:. Image sensors are used in
3038:Intentional camera movement
1905:Janesick, James R. (2001).
1644:Dent, Steve (8 July 2014).
1623:. Independently published.
1225:; Hondongwa, D. B. (2014).
974:10.1007/978-3-642-68402-9_1
587:, and MOSFETs as selection
579:, with pixels containing a
3883:
3726:Most expensive photographs
3083:Multi-exposure HDR capture
1441:Dillon, Peter (Dec 1976).
1414:Nakamura, Junichi (2005).
1295:Canon Professional Network
1106:"MOS Capacitor and MOSFET"
1068:Cressler, John D. (2017).
750:micron and then sub-micron
722:
680:(PPD). It was invented by
633:
608:Correlated double sampling
514:
317:
183:and CMOS sensors based on
3814:
2200:"Does Pixel Size Matter?"
1244:10.1109/JEDS.2014.2306412
761:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
177:metal–oxide–semiconductor
102:electromagnetic radiation
3660:Digital image processing
2132:"How Computer Mice Work"
1860:Web, Desk (2022-06-25).
1707:Williams, J. B. (2017).
1455:10.1109/IEDM.1976.189067
1042:"How Computer Mice Work"
575:switch. It is a type of
108:imaging devices of both
3333:Photography and the law
1777:Computer History Museum
1580:10.1109/T-ED.1978.19046
1549:10.1109/T-ED.1978.19045
1502:10.1109/T-ED.1985.22133
667:television broadcasting
504:Petzval field curvature
428:television broadcasting
367:Bayer pattern on sensor
3680:Gelatin silver process
2704:Science of photography
2689:Photographic processes
2667:Perspective distortion
1985:"Active Pixel Sensors"
1619:Gitto, Simone (2020).
1395:ieee.org - CCD in CMOS
1291:"CCD and CMOS sensors"
878:Full-frame digital SLR
868:Semiconductor detector
857:Electro-optical sensor
736:(APS) was invented by
644:(CCD) was invented by
460:
384:Integral color sensors
376:
368:
295:Back-side illumination
230:The two main types of
227:
216:
57:
42:
40:flexible circuit board
3138:Schlieren photography
2677:Photographic printing
2600:Exposure compensation
1114:John Wiley & Sons
906:History of television
771:The first commercial
713:digital still cameras
663:digital video cameras
642:charge-coupled device
636:Charge-coupled device
630:Charge-coupled device
550:charge-coupled device
465:multi-spectral images
451:Infrared view of the
450:
374:
366:
340:Exposure-time control
330:signal-to-noise ratio
236:charge-coupled device
225:Nikon Coolpix L2 6 MP
222:
210:
165:charge-coupled device
116:types, which include
48:
33:
2922:Straight photography
2560:Chromatic aberration
2052:10.1143/JJAP.24.L323
851:Contact image sensor
620:diamagnetic material
565:passive-pixel sensor
552:(CCD) and later the
477:Flat-panel detectors
203:CCD vs. CMOS sensors
197:flat-panel detectors
3862:Digital photography
3789:photographic plates
3474:Digital photography
2652:Hyperfocal distance
2565:Circle of confusion
2044:1985JaJAP..24L.323M
1946:1970BSTJ...49..587B
1815:1998SPIE.3360..101K
1541:1978ITED...25...97D
1494:1985ITED...32.1381P
1168:1993SPIE.1900....2F
932:Whisk broom scanner
888:Image sensor format
767:Other image sensors
734:active-pixel sensor
725:Active-pixel sensor
719:Active-pixel sensor
706:consumer electronic
554:active-pixel sensor
529:CCD image sensors.
469:video laryngoscopes
240:active-pixel sensor
169:active-pixel sensor
3293:Autochrome Lumière
3288:Analog photography
3113:Pigeon photography
2902:Social documentary
2381:discontinued films
1934:Bell Syst. Tech. J
1890:has generic name (
1773:The Silicon Engine
1737:Ohta, Jun (2017).
1400:2015-06-22 at the
1381:2012-06-03 at the
927:Push broom scanner
894:Color filter array
818:integrated circuit
698:quantum efficiency
688:in 1980. It was a
682:Nobukazu Teranishi
616:Archibald M. Low's
523:video camera tubes
461:
388:color filter array
377:
369:
353:electronic shutter
228:
217:
154:technology changes
140:equipment such as
96:, small bursts of
58:
43:
38:image sensor on a
3844:
3843:
3645:Collodion process
3581:Chromogenic print
3568:Color photography
3078:Multiple exposure
3053:Lo-fi photography
2580:Color temperature
1918:978-0-8194-3698-6
1823:10.1117/12.584474
1465:– via IEEE.
1186:10.1117/12.148585
1087:978-1-351-83020-1
983:978-3-642-68404-3
862:Video camera tube
829:Dartmouth College
748:reaching smaller
678:pinned photodiode
534:Mohamed M. Atalla
443:Specialty sensors
248:complementary MOS
156:, electronic and
152:, and others. As
16:(Redirected from
3874:
3833:
3832:
3822:
3821:
3700:Print permanence
3650:Cross processing
3608:CMYK color model
3593:Color management
3546:Foveon X3 sensor
3541:Three-CCD camera
3185:Miniature faking
3143:Sabattier effect
2755:Astrophotography
2610:Zebra patterning
2236:
2229:
2222:
2213:
2207:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2115:
2113:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2085:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2010:
2004:. Archived from
1993:Semantic Scholar
1989:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1889:
1885:
1883:
1875:
1873:
1872:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1734:
1725:
1724:
1704:
1693:
1692:
1668:
1662:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1641:
1635:
1634:
1616:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1488:(8): 1381–1389.
1473:
1467:
1466:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1411:
1405:
1392:
1386:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1346:
1340:
1339:
1337:
1336:
1317:
1311:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1287:
1278:
1277:
1275:
1274:
1255:
1249:
1248:
1246:
1219:
1198:
1197:
1179:
1148:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1037:
1031:
1030:
1009:Lyon, Richard F.
1005:
996:
995:
963:
955:Lyon, Richard F.
951:
883:Image resolution
811:
806:in 1980, used a
777:Cromemco Cyclops
646:Willard S. Boyle
577:photodiode array
403:Foveon X3 sensor
359:Color separation
234:sensors are the
226:
55:Cromemco Cyclops
21:
3882:
3881:
3877:
3876:
3875:
3873:
3872:
3871:
3847:
3846:
3845:
3840:
3810:
3767:
3714:
3705:Push processing
3626:
3619:
3613:RGB color model
3562:
3468:
3352:
3264:
3230:Diagonal method
3216:
2956:
2860:Photojournalism
2723:
2555:Black-and-white
2523:
2502:Slide projector
2497:Movie projector
2376:available films
2245:
2240:
2204:clarkvision.com
2197:
2188:
2183:
2182:
2172:
2170:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2142:
2140:
2129:
2128:
2124:
2111:
2109:
2098:
2097:
2093:
2083:
2081:
2072:
2071:
2067:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2014:
2012:
2011:on 9 March 2019
2008:
1987:
1981:Fossum, Eric R.
1979:
1978:
1974:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1931:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1886:
1876:
1870:
1868:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1796:
1795:
1791:
1781:
1779:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1755:
1736:
1735:
1728:
1721:
1706:
1705:
1696:
1689:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1655:
1653:
1643:
1642:
1638:
1631:
1618:
1617:
1613:
1603:
1601:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1428:
1413:
1412:
1408:
1402:Wayback Machine
1393:
1389:
1383:Wayback Machine
1374:
1370:
1360:
1358:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1334:
1332:
1319:
1318:
1314:
1304:
1302:
1289:
1288:
1281:
1272:
1270:
1257:
1256:
1252:
1223:Fossum, Eric R.
1221:
1220:
1201:
1177:10.1.1.408.6558
1152:Fossum, Eric R.
1150:
1149:
1138:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1100:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1052:
1050:
1039:
1038:
1034:
1027:
1007:
1006:
999:
984:
961:
957:(August 1981).
953:
952:
945:
940:
922:Computer vision
842:
809:
800:Richard F. Lyon
769:
727:
721:
650:George E. Smith
638:
632:
519:
517:Digital imaging
513:
445:
438:visual effects.
398:or de-bayering.
361:
342:
322:
316:
281:Each cell of a
242:(CMOS sensor),
224:
205:
158:digital imaging
142:thermal imaging
134:medical imaging
118:digital cameras
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3880:
3878:
3870:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3849:
3848:
3842:
3841:
3839:
3838:
3827:
3815:
3812:
3811:
3809:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3792:
3791:
3786:
3775:
3773:
3769:
3768:
3766:
3765:
3764:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3722:
3720:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3631:
3629:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3617:
3616:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3590:
3585:
3584:
3583:
3572:
3570:
3564:
3563:
3561:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3549:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3507:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3495:
3494:
3482:Digital camera
3478:
3476:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3308:Camera obscura
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3274:
3272:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3250:Rule of thirds
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3226:
3224:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3188:
3187:
3177:
3172:
3171:
3170:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3018:Harris shutter
3015:
3013:Hand-colouring
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2898:
2897:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2731:
2729:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2699:Red-eye effect
2696:
2691:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2605:Exposure value
2602:
2597:
2592:
2590:Depth of focus
2587:
2585:Depth of field
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2521:
2516:
2515:
2514:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2390:
2385:
2384:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2348:
2343:
2342:
2341:
2336:
2326:
2325:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2253:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2231:
2224:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2198:Clark, Roger.
2195:
2194:by Roger Clark
2187:
2186:External links
2184:
2181:
2180:
2150:
2122:
2091:
2065:
2022:
1972:
1959:
1940:(4): 587–593.
1924:
1917:
1897:
1852:
1836:
1789:
1760:
1753:
1726:
1719:
1694:
1687:
1681:. p. 64.
1663:
1636:
1630:979-8698999171
1629:
1611:
1585:
1574:(2): 102–107.
1554:
1515:
1468:
1433:
1426:
1406:
1387:
1368:
1341:
1327:. 2012-07-02.
1312:
1279:
1265:. 2011-12-29.
1250:
1199:
1136:
1122:
1102:Sze, Simon Min
1093:
1086:
1080:. p. 29.
1060:
1032:
1025:
997:
982:
942:
941:
939:
936:
935:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
909:
903:
897:
891:
885:
880:
875:
870:
865:
859:
854:
848:
841:
838:
773:digital camera
768:
765:
746:MOSFET scaling
723:Main article:
720:
717:
634:Main article:
631:
628:
598:circuits. The
512:
509:
489:microbolometer
444:
441:
440:
439:
416:dichroic prism
407:
399:
360:
357:
341:
338:
315:
312:
307:staring arrays
268:MOS capacitors
264:MOS technology
238:(CCD) and the
215:digital camera
204:
201:
181:MOS capacitors
167:(CCD) and the
122:camera modules
92:objects) into
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3879:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3857:Image sensors
3855:
3854:
3852:
3837:
3828:
3826:
3817:
3816:
3813:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3781:
3780:
3777:
3776:
3774:
3770:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3743:
3742:
3741:Photographers
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3723:
3721:
3717:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3635:Bleach bypass
3633:
3632:
3630:
3628:
3622:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3603:primary color
3601:
3599:
3596:
3595:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3588:Reversal film
3586:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3577:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3569:
3565:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3553:Image sharing
3551:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3493:
3490:
3489:
3488:
3485:
3484:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3475:
3471:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3454:United States
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3313:Daguerreotype
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3223:
3219:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3169:
3166:
3165:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3158:Stopping down
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3123:Rephotography
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3058:Long-exposure
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2750:Architectural
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2709:Shutter speed
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2683:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2662:Metering mode
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2575:Color balance
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2540:Angle of view
2538:
2536:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2526:
2520:
2517:
2513:
2510:
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2080:. May 8, 2018
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690:photodetector
687:
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582:
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569:amplification
566:
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547:
546:semiconductor
543:
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481:sensor arrays
478:
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473:gamma cameras
470:
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432:video editing
429:
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392:Bayer pattern
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345:Exposure time
339:
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130:optical mouse
127:
126:camera phones
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63:
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52:
47:
41:
37:
32:
19:
18:Camera sensor
3801:Polaroid art
3695:K-14 process
3690:Instant film
3685:Gum printing
3640:C-41 process
3625:Photographic
3526:Image sensor
3525:
3521:Film scanner
3175:Sun printing
3108:Print toning
2895:space selfie
2865:Pictorialism
2795:Ethnographic
2775:Conservation
2647:Guide number
2642:Focal length
2203:
2171:. Retrieved
2162:
2153:
2141:. Retrieved
2135:
2125:
2117:
2110:. Retrieved
2104:
2094:
2082:. Retrieved
2077:
2068:
2038:(5A): L323.
2035:
2031:
2025:
2013:. Retrieved
2006:the original
1991:
1975:
1962:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1907:
1900:
1888:|first=
1869:. Retrieved
1865:
1855:
1845:
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1806:
1802:
1792:
1780:. Retrieved
1772:
1763:
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1673:
1666:
1654:. Retrieved
1639:
1620:
1614:
1602:. Retrieved
1588:
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1518:
1485:
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1471:
1446:
1436:
1416:
1409:
1390:
1371:
1359:. Retrieved
1344:
1333:. Retrieved
1324:
1315:
1303:. Retrieved
1294:
1271:. Retrieved
1263:techhive.com
1262:
1253:
1237:(3): 33–43.
1234:
1230:
1159:
1155:
1127:. Retrieved
1109:
1096:
1073:
1063:
1051:. Retrieved
1045:
1035:
1016:
965:
900:Sensitometry
826:
822:IntelliMouse
793:
770:
728:
702:dark current
671:
639:
624:
581:p-n junction
562:
531:
520:
501:
493:thermography
462:
453:Orion Nebula
409:
401:
383:
378:
343:
323:
300:
291:
287:photo sensor
280:
276:
229:
193:vacuum tubes
162:
138:night vision
86:pass through
65:
62:image sensor
61:
59:
3806:Stereoscopy
3670:E-6 process
3665:Dye coupler
3598:color space
3511:Digiscoping
3504:camera back
3419:Philippines
3348:Visual arts
3338:Glass plate
3323:Heliography
3222:Composition
3197:Ultraviolet
3153:Stereoscopy
3148:Slow motion
3133:Scanography
3048:Kite aerial
2988:Contre-jour
2880:Post-mortem
2870:Pornography
2850:Neues Sehen
2785:Documentary
2719:Zone System
2694:Reciprocity
2620:Film format
2550:Backscatter
2528:Terminology
2398:beauty dish
2297:rangefinder
2262:light-field
2243:Photography
2078:IC Insights
1385:, home page
873:Fill factor
789:memory chip
674:shutter lag
596:multiplexer
589:transistors
538:Dawon Kahng
527:solid-state
396:demosaicing
314:Performance
136:equipment,
90:reflect off
78:attenuation
3851:Categories
3796:Lomography
3627:processing
3576:Print film
3492:comparison
3459:Uzbekistan
3409:Luxembourg
3369:Bangladesh
3318:Dufaycolor
3298:Box camera
3255:Simplicity
3212:Zoom burst
3207:Xerography
3202:Vignetting
3192:Time-lapse
3180:Tilt–shift
3073:Mordançage
3063:Luminogram
3028:Holography
3023:High-speed
3003:Fill flash
2983:Burst mode
2961:Techniques
2942:Vernacular
2937:Underwater
2932:Toy camera
2912:Still life
2840:Monochrome
2830:High-speed
2780:Cloudscape
2770:Conceptual
2672:Photograph
2657:Lens flare
2637:Film speed
2519:Zone plate
2465:wide-angle
2450:long-focus
1871:2022-06-25
1782:August 31,
1335:2017-04-27
1273:2017-04-27
938:References
515:See also:
491:arrays in
479:and other
436:chroma key
318:See also:
250:(CMOS) or
244:fabricated
189:amplifiers
106:electronic
3746:Norwegian
3710:Stop bath
3655:Developer
3283:Ambrotype
3245:Lead room
3168:Slit-scan
3103:Photogram
3098:Panoramic
3008:Fireworks
2993:Cyanotype
2835:Landscape
2480:telephoto
2428:reflector
2423:monolight
2418:lens hood
2403:cucoloris
2339:safelight
2250:Equipment
2143:9 October
2084:6 October
2060:108450116
2015:8 October
1880:cite news
1831:123351913
1745:CRC Press
1679:CRC Press
1376:scmos.com
1172:CiteSeerX
1129:6 October
1078:CRC Press
1053:9 October
711:and then
658:fabricate
585:capacitor
560:sensor).
542:Bell Labs
497:astronomy
455:taken by
144:devices,
132:devices,
84:(as they
80:of light
3825:Category
3531:CMOS APS
3429:Slovenia
3357:Regional
3303:Calotype
3240:Headroom
3118:Redscale
3033:Infrared
2978:Brenizer
2952:Wildlife
2875:Portrait
2820:Forensic
2810:Fine-art
2745:Aircraft
2735:Abstract
2615:F-number
2595:Exposure
2570:Clipping
2545:Aperture
2413:hot shoe
2334:enlarger
2329:Darkroom
2173:28 April
2167:Archived
2112:30 April
2106:Hackaday
2002:18831792
1983:(2007).
1866:BOL News
1650:Archived
1598:Archived
1463:35103154
1398:Archived
1379:Archived
1361:10 April
1355:Archived
1329:Archived
1305:28 April
1299:Archived
1267:Archived
1194:10556755
1011:(2014).
992:60722329
840:See also
700:and low
420:passband
320:EMVA1288
260:Live MOS
3867:MOSFETs
3836:Outline
3772:Related
3464:Vietnam
3449:Ukraine
3384:Denmark
3364:Albania
3343:Tintype
3270:History
3235:Framing
3128:Rollout
3093:Panning
3043:Kirlian
2947:Wedding
2825:Glamour
2805:Fashion
2790:Eclipse
2760:Banquet
2682:Albumen
2492:Monopod
2470:fisheye
2438:softbox
2287:pinhole
2277:instant
2267:digital
2163:npr.org
2040:Bibcode
1942:Bibcode
1811:Bibcode
1656:July 8,
1604:13 July
1537:Bibcode
1510:9008653
1490:Bibcode
1164:Bibcode
744:, with
738:Olympus
696:, high
593:on-chip
511:History
349:shutter
266:, with
114:digital
98:current
94:signals
3834:
3823:
3756:street
3751:Polish
3444:Turkey
3439:Taiwan
3424:Serbia
3414:Norway
3389:Greece
3374:Canada
2968:Afocal
2927:Street
2907:Sports
2890:Selfie
2845:Nature
2800:Erotic
2765:Candid
2740:Aerial
2728:Genres
2630:medium
2507:Tripod
2475:swivel
2388:Filter
2366:holder
2361:format
2257:Camera
2058:
2000:
1915:
1829:
1751:
1717:
1685:
1627:
1508:
1461:
1424:
1192:
1174:
1120:
1084:
1023:
990:
980:
834:photon
810:
775:, the
612:memory
573:MOSFET
485:x-rays
386:use a
272:MOSFET
252:N-type
213:webcam
185:MOSFET
110:analog
70:sensor
66:imager
3761:women
3719:Lists
3675:Fixer
3558:Pixel
3487:D-SLR
3434:Sudan
3404:Korea
3399:Japan
3394:India
3379:China
3163:Strip
3088:Night
3068:Macro
2973:Bokeh
2917:Stock
2885:Ruins
2625:large
2455:prime
2433:snoot
2393:Flash
2371:stock
2346:Drone
2307:still
2292:press
2282:phone
2272:field
2056:S2CID
2009:(PDF)
1998:S2CID
1988:(PDF)
1827:S2CID
1506:S2CID
1459:S2CID
1190:S2CID
988:S2CID
962:(PDF)
853:(CIS)
804:Xerox
694:noise
600:noise
424:4:4:4
303:sCMOS
254:MOS (
150:sonar
146:radar
82:waves
74:image
68:is a
3784:film
3499:MILC
2998:ETTR
2855:Nude
2815:Fire
2714:Sync
2512:head
2460:zoom
2445:Lens
2408:gobo
2356:base
2351:Film
2322:view
2175:2018
2145:2019
2114:2016
2086:2019
2017:2019
1913:ISBN
1892:help
1807:3360
1784:2019
1749:ISBN
1715:ISBN
1683:ISBN
1658:2014
1625:ISBN
1606:2016
1422:ISBN
1363:2015
1307:2018
1160:1900
1131:2019
1118:ISBN
1082:ISBN
1055:2019
1021:ISBN
978:ISBN
815:NMOS
785:DRAM
758:NASA
754:CMOS
731:NMOS
729:The
665:for
648:and
640:The
563:The
558:CMOS
536:and
483:for
434:and
411:3CCD
334:size
256:NMOS
173:CMOS
112:and
51:DRAM
3536:CCD
2317:toy
2312:TLR
2302:SLR
2048:doi
1950:doi
1819:doi
1576:doi
1545:doi
1498:doi
1451:doi
1239:doi
1182:doi
970:doi
802:at
781:RAM
686:NEC
622:".
604:bus
540:at
457:ESO
283:CCD
258:or
246:in
88:or
64:or
60:An
36:CCD
3853::
2202:.
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2103:.
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