555:
510:. Legal wrangling over who met the property requirements to vote was important in many campaigns, and canvassing was used to add supporters to the rolls, while investigating the claims of opponents. The growing list of supporters would also be essential to an election day operation. In early elections all voters had to travel to a central town, often some distance from their home, and polling could last several days. During this time voters would be away from their work and their fields. As an example of the challenges, one losing candidate had identified 639 supporters in Kent for the
526:
109:
474:, elections began to be openly contested. Canvassing was a controversial strategy. In both 1604 and 1626 canvassing for votes was banned. It was seen as a violation to free elections, as votes would be won by persuasion rather than a voter making up his own mind. Despite this, by the late 17th century, canvassing was standard practice in English elections. Rival campaigns would attempt a full canvass of all voters, which even in the largest districts would only be a few thousand people.
52:
662:
294:
777:. This study revived interest in the subject. Since then Gerber, Green, and other political scientists have conducted a program that verified those results, and tested what techniques are most effective. Foot canvassing is the most effective contact method, increasing turnout by about 7 percentage points, while phoning boosts it by 2.6 points. Other contact techniques such as
845:. I'm calling to find out your views on the Labour government's priorities. Which of the following do you think are the three most important priorities for the government? Let me tell you what Labour is doing in these areas and what the Tories would do if they were re-elected . Now can I ask you which party you think you will vote for at the next general election?
70:
503:
Part of the concern would be financial. Campaigning was expensive in an era when voters expected to be plied with food and drink. In this period the candidates had to cover the costs of the election itself. If candidates did not find enough votes during their canvass they would drop out before wasting more money on a losing campaign.
350:. Canvassing can be done for many reasons: political campaigning, grassroots fundraising, community awareness, membership drives, and more. Campaigners knock on doors to contact people personally. Canvassing is used by political parties and issue groups to identify supporters, persuade the undecided, and add voters to the
719:, pulled together canvassing data, consumer information, and demographic profiles to allow precise targeting of voters. No longer would campaigns knock on all the doors in a district, rather voters who would most be persuaded to support the candidate or come out to vote could be targeted. Large campaigns incorporated
628:
of voter behaviour became the accepted wisdom. It argued that voters had deep-set partisan loyalties, and that changes in such loyalties take years to develop. A simple knock on the door will do nothing to change a voter's opinion. Parties thus switched their canvassing resources away from persuading
462:
elections were rarely contested. Losing an election was considered a dishonor to oneself, and to friends and family. Campaigning thus involved quiet sounding out of the small pool of voters. Only once this process had convinced a candidate that he had enough votes to win would he declare his interest
412:
During the canvass, the results will be entered into the voter database. This will update the campaign's list of voters, removing those who have moved or are deceased and adding new residents who may have been found. The data on the questions will be used for further contact, a supporter may be added
893:
Freedom to distribute information to every citizen wherever he desires to receive it is so clearly vital to the preservation of a free society that ... it must be fully preserved. To require a censorship through license which makes impossible the free and unhampered distribution of pamphlets strikes
739:
In
Scandinavia door-to-door canvassing was an accepted part of election campaigning in the first half of the 20th century, but has since faded. It still exists, but an activist knocking on someone's door is considered somewhat unseemly. More widespread workplace canvasses have been organized, either
584:
attacked corruption and expanded the franchise. This, combined with the growing strength of the national parties, transformed canvassing. There were no lists of who was eligible to vote under the new law, and it was up to individual voters to register themselves. The parties launched mass canvasses
550:
In the first elections held in the United States, canvassing was rare. Most elections were uncontested, and even in races with multiple candidates it was considered improper for a candidate to campaign on his own behalf. As the party system developed in the early 19th century, elections became more
404:
The canvasser will try to contact each of the households on their list, and deliver a script containing questions and persuasive messaging provided by the campaign. Almost all election canvassing includes asking how a person plans to vote. Supporters may then be asked themselves to volunteer, or to
735:
Door-to-door canvassing has been little known in most other countries. It has been used in several Latin
American countries, including Brazil and Chile. By utilizing newer technological resources like WhatsApp, voter turnout has increased among younger voters in Brazil. After the highly publicized
692:
campaign of 2000 was credited with gaining several points on election day in the 2000 election, enough to win the popular vote despite being down several points in the polls the day before. Subsequently, the
Republicans launched their 72 Hour Program of get out the vote efforts over the last three
502:
There were many reasons why candidates invested much time and money in canvassing. As in the previous tradition of sounding out supporters before announcing, many candidates would use the canvass to determine their level of support, and would drop out before election day if it proved insufficient.
652:
argued that "constituency organizing counts for next to nothing in the television age." One political scientist wrote there was a belief that canvassing was an "elaborate ritual bringing some sense of gratification to the participants, but making no difference to election results." In more recent
546:
series of paintings. Most directly this would take the form of direct bribes to voters. This was the practice in only a minority of districts, but in some areas large bribes had become habitual. In areas without direct bribery, candidates were expected to provide food, drink and banquets. For the
731:
Originating in the United
Kingdom, canvassing is most widespread in those countries that have borrowed from the British political system. It is standard practice in elections in Ireland, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In India, despite the million or more voters in many
676:
In the United States, canvassing hit its all-time low during the 1996 election, with the lowest reported rates of political volunteering, and the lowest recorded voter turnout. Political scientists began to reassess the effects of canvassing. In
Britain new studies found that unlike in earlier
882:
Local governments in the United States have passed local laws to limit
Americans' ability to canvass. Many of these challenges escalated to the Supreme Court, which has ruled overwhelmingly on the side of the public's right to canvass as protected by the First Amendment. For example, in
908:
It is offensive, not only to the values protected by the First
Amendment, but to the very notion of a free society that in the context of everyday public discourse a citizen must first inform the government of her desire to speak to her neighbors and then obtain a permit to do
377:
Canvassing can also refer to a neighborhood canvass performed by law enforcement in the course of an investigation. This is a systematic approach to interviewing residents, merchants, and others who are in the immediate vicinity of a crime and may have useful information.
601:, which limited campaign spending. Thus the armies of paid canvassers were replaced with smaller volunteer efforts. Laws were also changed in the United Kingdom to make voter registration almost automatic, removing the need for the parties to expend efforts on it.
813:, they found some evidence that the effectiveness in European canvasing activities is far less compared to the United States, compiling several studies of canvassing in Denmark. However, the paper did not come to one conclusion on the cause of this discrepancy.
2017:
853:, asks whether the individual would consider displaying a poster in their window or deliver leaflets on their street and asks whether the individual would consider joining the party. The section for non-Labour voters asks the following questions:
373:
Organized political canvassing became a central tool of contested election campaigns in
Britain, and has remained a core practice performed by thousands of volunteers at each election there, and in many countries with similar political systems.
806:"did not affect turnout, but increased Hollande's vote share in the first round and accounted for one fourth of his victory margin in the second. Visits' impact persisted in later elections, suggesting a lasting persuasion effect."
653:
studies done in 2020, we see that phone calls and canvassing have really no effect on the overall voter turn out, even for those who are in areas of high numbers of undecided voters and voters who are considered to be persuadable.
2140:"WATCHTOWER BIBLE & TRACT SOCIETY OF NEW YORK, INC., et al. v. VILLAGE OF STRATTON et al. certiorari to the united states court of appeals for the sixth circuit. No. 00-1737. Argued February 26, 2002--Decided June 17, 2002"
551:
contested and voluntary associations developed to work on candidates' behalf. As in the United
Kingdom, canvassing became an important part of their operations, and they would attempt to visit each voter in a district.
693:
days of a campaign, and also found demonstrable proof that it gained them several points in key races. The Obama campaigns of 2008 and 2012 were especially noted for dedicating resources to a field program.
522:
A candidate would also make sure to knock on as many doors as possible to win over the voters. Speaking to as many voters as possible was seen as an essential tool to win the "wavering multitudes."
609:
As corruption faded, parties returned to using canvassing to win votes through persuasion and get-out-the-vote (GOTV) efforts. This was especially true of the new socialist parties such as the
1720:
743:
In
Pakistan, it has been found that canvassing is effective in increasing voter turnout and in facilitating political conversation when catered towards the men and women in the household.
536:
By the 18th century canvassing was standard practice, but this was also an era of gross electoral corruption, and canvassing was used to bribe and threaten voters, as famously depicted in
773:
In 1999, Gerber and Green published their first paper presenting a rigorously controlled experiment that produced a substantial turnout boost from canvassing in a municipal election in
1688:
1036:
480:
I got sixty eight promises in Oundle and its neighbourhood today, and only one refusal. Some doubtful, but most not at home, with who I left printed cards requesting their votes.
2147:
2117:
849:
The script then divides into two sections based on whether the voter intends to support Labour or another party. The section for Labour supporters encourages the use of
598:
547:
priciest campaigns, these various costs added up to sums equivalent to several million pounds in today's money, causing financial hardship even for wealthy candidates.
1016:
322:
789:
have small to undetectable effects. Other studies have found that canvassing can do more to boost turnout, and also win new votes at the door through persuasion.
381:
In the United States, the compilation of election returns and validation of the outcome that forms the basis of the official results is also called canvassing.
1081:
685:
launched a series of controlled experiments, and demonstrated that foot canvassing was one of the most effective tools available to boost voter turnout.
900:
1710:
629:
voters, focusing only on identifying their supporters and making sure they voted. The British Labour Party adopted the Reading System developed by
2110:"MARTIN v. STRUTHERS, 319 U.S. 141 (1943), 319 U.S. 141, MARTIN v. CITY OF STRUTHERS, OHIO. No. 238. Argued March 11, 1943. Decided May 3, 1943"
554:
637:
constituency in 1945. It was based on concentrating exclusively on pro-Labour areas and boosting their turnout, while ignoring non-supporters.
1678:
1946:
1609:
1577:
1532:
1505:
1477:
1452:
1424:
1336:
1283:
1253:
1105:
1033:
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in his Nuffield Model of UK elections found that during the 1950s and 1960s, local campaigns had no effect on the results. With the rise of
1783:
634:
614:
590:
494:
409:. Those who are wavering or undecided may be given a message of persuasion. If foot canvassing, the canvasser may also distribute flyers.
315:
1966:
389:
A modern election canvass may be conducted by a candidate, volunteers, and/or paid canvassers. The canvassers are given lists known as
2139:
2109:
803:
1837:
713:
434:
430:
The origin of the term is an older spelling of "canvas", to sift by shaking in a sheet of canvas, hence to discuss thoroughly.
573:, and direct bribery was also common; one study estimated that 20% of New York voters were compensated for their votes during
486:
308:
1615:
1538:
770:
created a consensus that canvassing had a small effect on turnout, and no observable persuasive effect on whom to vote for.
1743:
2174:
968:
1005:
794:
670:
60:
1163:
Smith, Robert Worthington (1969). "Political Organization and Canvassing: Yorkshire Elections Before the Reform Bill".
641:
624:
saw a general decline in canvassing. Political scientists began to question the utility of traditional campaigns. The
525:
27:
898:
In 2002, the Supreme Court reconfirmed its conviction that canvassing is protected by U.S. First Amendment rights in
746:
Canvassing for votes is forbidden in Japan due to fear of leftist control. This has been the case since the original
443:
648:, resources were shifted from the ground to mass market advertising, with canvassing seen as a relic of the past.
451:
who had been trained to memorize the names of all the voters, so that the candidate could greet them all by name.
140:
809:
There are some studies that suggest that canvassing is less in certain European nations. In a article from the
705:
280:
212:
1058:
The Political Campaign Desk Reference: A Guide for Campaign Managers and Candidates Running for Elected Office
732:
constituencies, parties have made the effort to have canvassers visit the door of each house in each village.
448:
38:
514:
election of 1640, but only 174 voted, most going home after finding out the polling would take three days.
20:
2018:"Is Door-to-Door Canvassing Effective in Europe? Evidence from a Meta-study across Six European Countries"
774:
751:
542:
127:
108:
762:
There has been a long history of studying the effectiveness of canvassing beginning with a 1927 study by
1388:
939:
570:
688:
The years since 2000 have seen a widespread revival of election canvassing. An intensive effort by the
569:
developed in the large cities of the eastern US. Winning candidates would reward their supporters with
2042:
1898:
944:
934:
799:
763:
747:
617:
in Canada who had little money but enthusiastic volunteer bases who could be deployed to door steps.
558:
225:
172:
152:
1985:"Will a Five-Minute Discussion Change Your Mind? A Countrywide Experiment on Voter Choice in France"
1373:"Evaluating the Effectiveness of Relational Organizing The Buttigieg 2020 Campaign in New Hampshire"
885:
207:
147:
1943:
1328:
1829:
1683:
1180:
767:
736:
canvassing tactics of the Obama campaign, similar tactics have been tried in France and Germany.
594:
581:
459:
355:
347:
165:
100:
78:
2084:
2016:
Bhatti, Yosef; Dahlgaard, Jens Olav; Hansen, Jonas Hedegaard; Hansen, Kasper M. (January 2019).
1569:
585:
with the goal of adding all of the party's supporters to the electoral roll. As an example, in
2070:
2047:
1926:
1765:
1744:"Canvassing the Gatekeepers: A Field Experiment to Increase Women Voters' Turnout in Pakistan"
1660:
1605:
1573:
1528:
1501:
1473:
1448:
1420:
1332:
1279:
1249:
1101:
822:
610:
252:
93:
51:
2037:
2029:
1996:
1963:
1916:
1906:
1821:
1755:
1650:
1376:
1324:
1316:
1172:
929:
924:
661:
621:
566:
511:
490:
414:
359:
275:
192:
187:
120:
1970:
1950:
1401:
1040:
919:
677:
decades, a strong field campaign was having an effect on the result. In the United States
537:
529:
471:
467:
298:
197:
182:
1902:
346:, is the systematic initiation of direct contact with individuals, commonly used during
1715:
1562:
1199:
The Representative of the People?: Voters and Voting in England Under the Early Stuarts
1138:
The Representative of the People?: Voters and Voting in England Under the Early Stuarts
1075:
625:
398:
247:
293:
26:
This article is about the systematic intiation of direct contact. For other uses, see
2168:
1921:
1886:
1809:
1070:
237:
437:. In those campaigns candidates would shake the hands of all eligible voters in the
1359:
Electing Our Masters : The Hustings in British Politics from Hogarth to Blair.
709:
697:
682:
45:
1639:"WhatsApp in Brazil: mobilising voters through door-to-door and personal messages"
1276:
Modern Constituency Electioneering: Local Campaigning in the 1992 General Election
704:
been the most common canvassing technique, canvassing can also be done via phone,
666:
401:. Some campaigns today have replaced paper sheets with tablet or smartphone apps.
1599:
1522:
506:
Building the list of voters was also important, as only some districts kept full
1742:
Cheema, Ali; Khan, Sarah; Liaqat, Asad; Mohmand, Shandana Khan (February 2023).
850:
778:
720:
678:
630:
438:
351:
964:
2033:
1760:
649:
645:
574:
74:
2051:
1911:
1871:
Jerome H. Black. "Revisiting the Effects of Canvassing on Voting Behaviour."
1769:
1664:
1521:
Alex Marland; Thierry Giasson; Jennifer Lees-Marshment (February 15, 2012).
561:'s positive portrayal of a candidate canvassing in the United States in 1852
507:
417:
or fundraising, while a hostile voter might be dropped from future contact.
406:
270:
242:
232:
202:
82:
1930:
454:
Modern canvassing can be traced back to the rise of contested elections in
696:
New technologies changed how canvassing was conducted. While door-to-door
2001:
1984:
782:
701:
1655:
362:
operations. It is the core element of what political campaigns call the
1833:
1380:
1184:
716:
689:
586:
455:
69:
56:
723:
into their canvassing, to further hone and improve its effectiveness.
1638:
1098:
Roman Elections in the Age of Cicero: Society, Government, and Voting
34:
1825:
1372:
1176:
1321:
The British Labour Party and the German Social Democrats, 1900–1931
397:. These are a list of households to be contacted, generated from a
1944:
What Persuades Voters? A Field Experiment on Political Campaigning
786:
660:
553:
524:
50:
1860:
Getting-Out-The-Vote: An Experiment in the Stimulation of Voting.
532:'s 1754 depiction of the disreputable job of canvassing for votes
2085:"Essential Political Canvassing Laws For Your Election Campaign"
2073:, as published in How to Win an Election, Paul Richards, p.90-91
1964:
THE ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL PERSUASION: CONTENT, CHARISMA AND CUE
1034:
New mobile election apps mean pressure's on for local campaigns
825:
in the buildup to a general election for telephone canvassing:
593:
saw 3000 Liberal and 2000 Conservative paid workers engaged in
1470:
Ground Wars: Personalized Communication in Political Campaigns
1417:
Ground Wars: Personalized Communication in Political Campaigns
1074:
754:
on several occasions, but have been upheld as constitutional.
1711:"Washington Wisdom: SPD Adopts Obama's Door-to-Door Campaign"
44:"Door-knocking" redirects here. For the device activity, see
1887:"Does Canvassing Increase Voter Turnout? A Field Experiment"
1637:
Moura, Mauricio; Michelson, Melissa R. (December 31, 2017).
1601:
Electioneering: A Comparative Study of Continuity and Change
107:
1132:
1130:
1885:
Gerber, Alan S.; Green, Donald P. (September 14, 1999).
1498:
The Victory Lab: The Secret Science of Winning Campaigns
1227:
The growth of political stability in England: 1675-1725.
990:
Swanson, Charles R; Chamelin, Neil C; Territo, Leonard.
441:. Whispering into the ear of some candidates would be a
16:
Systematic initiation of direct contact with individuals
1201:
Cambridge University Press, September 15, 2005. pg. 117
1140:
Cambridge University Press, September 15, 2005. pg. 115
1443:
Donald P. Green; Alan S. Gerber (September 30, 2015).
1124:
Cambridge University Press, September 26, 1986, pg. 35
821:
The following is an excerpt from a script used by the
597:. The massive paid canvassing came to an end with the
565:
This system soon became a venue for gross corruption.
1962:
Torun Dewan, Macartan Humphreys and Daniel Rubenson.
766:. Through the 1980s, a series of both controlled and
712:. Expansive databases of the electorate, such as the
798:
found that door-to-door canvassing on behalf of the
1593:
1591:
1589:
894:
at the very heart of the constitutional guarantees.
864:, which party will you vote for at these elections?
750:of 1925. The restrictions have been brought to the
1784:"Notions of Rights in the United States and Japan"
1561:
1438:
1436:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1246:The Good Citizen: A History of American CIVIC Life
599:Corrupt and Illegal Practices Prevention Act 1883
433:An organized canvass can be seen as early as the
1491:
1489:
857:Which main political party do you identify with?
393:(or access to a canvassing app) or in the UK as
1891:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1445:Get Out the Vote: How to Increase Voter Turnout
1274:David Denver; Gordon Hands (October 23, 2013).
1239:
1237:
1235:
477:
470:, and expanding during the conflicts under the
1810:"Restrictions on Political Campaigns in Japan"
1679:"In France, Using Lessons From Obama Campaign"
1122:Cambridge University Press, September 26, 1986
867:How did you vote in the last general election?
33:"Canvass" redirects here. For the fabric, see
1297:
1295:
316:
8:
1323:, Oxford University Press, pp. 70–132,
1085:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
2043:10398/e5e90992-1d21-4681-b3a5-388699f5ecff
1468:Nielsen, Rasmus Kleis (February 5, 2012).
1415:Nielsen, Rasmus Kleis (February 5, 2012).
640:Even these approaches were found wanting.
323:
309:
88:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2041:
2000:
1973:The Economic Journal, 124 (February 2–13)
1920:
1910:
1759:
1654:
1329:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205005.003.0003
901:Watchtower Society v. Village of Stratton
63:door-to-door canvassing for Obama in 2008
1303:International Encyclopedia of Elections.
68:
1875:Vol. 17, No. 2 (June 1984), pp. 351-374
1096:Vishnia, Rachel Feig (March 12, 2012).
1006:"CANVASSING AND CERTIFYING AN ELECTION"
955:
99:
19:For the Knowledge (XXG) guideline, see
2120:from the original on February 25, 2013
1723:from the original on November 17, 2015
1568:. Auckland University Press. pp.
1541:from the original on February 14, 2017
1397:
1386:
1213:Constituency electioneering in Britain
1153:. David and Charles Ltd. 1973. pg. 143
81:) canvassing with local councilors in
2150:from the original on October 18, 2012
1873:Canadian Journal of Political Science
1862:Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1840:from the original on November 7, 2019
1691:from the original on December 1, 2016
1244:Schudson, Michael (January 1, 2011).
1151:British and Irish Elections 1784-1881
7:
2022:British Journal of Political Science
1598:David Butler; Austin Ranney (1992).
1315:Berger, Stefan (December 15, 1994),
811:British Journal of Political Science
489:describing his day of canvassing in
1361:OUP Oxford, March 26, 2009, pg. 146
1022:from the original on April 9, 2022.
904:. Justice John Paul Stevens stated:
2083:Patel, Tanvi (February 21, 2024).
1560:R. G. Mulgan; Peter Aimer (2004).
740:by labour unions or by employers.
14:
1748:American Political Science Review
1371:Leighninger, Harrison J. (2020).
971:from the original on July 3, 2017
804:2012 French presidential election
458:. For the first centuries of the
1618:from the original on May 8, 2017
870:Who would be your second choice?
605:Voter identification and decline
292:
1447:. Brookings Institution Press.
878:United States constitutionality
843:(MP/parliamentary spokesperson)
613:in the United Kingdom, and the
435:elections in the Roman Republic
1472:. Princeton University Press.
1419:. Princeton University Press.
1165:The American Historical Review
1060:Outskirts Press, 2008. pg. 123
873:Do you vote at every election?
1:
2069:Telephone canvassing script,
1814:Law and Contemporary Problems
1788:Association for Asian Studies
1524:Political Marketing in Canada
1301:David Denver. "Canvassing".
889:, Justice Hugo Black stated:
1983:Pons, Vincent (June 2018).
992:Criminal Investigation, 8/e
860:There will be elections in
841:. I'm calling on behalf of
580:In the United Kingdom, the
28:Canvassing (disambiguation)
2191:
1969:December 22, 2015, at the
1949:December 22, 2015, at the
1305:CQ Press, February 2, 2000
1100:. Routledge. p. 112.
43:
32:
25:
21:Knowledge (XXG):Canvassing
18:
2034:10.1017/S0007123416000521
1761:10.1017/S0003055422000375
1527:. UBC Press. p. 77.
1496:Issenberg, Sasha (2012).
1211:Kavanagh, Dennis (1970).
518:Persuasion and corruption
77:(on the right with a red
1989:American Economic Review
1912:10.1073/pnas.96.19.10939
1858:Gosnell, Harold F.1927.
1808:Usaki, Masahiro (1990).
1229:London: Macmillan, 1967.
795:American Economic Review
1564:Politics in New Zealand
1082:Encyclopædia Britannica
963:James-Harvill, Jordan.
358:, and it is central to
39:Canvas (disambiguation)
1719:. September 13, 2013.
1643:Internet Policy Review
1396:Cite journal requires
911:
896:
829:Hello, can I speak to
817:British example script
775:New Haven, Connecticut
673:
671:2008 American election
571:patronage appointments
562:
543:Humours of an Election
533:
483:
128:Grassroots fundraising
112:
86:
64:
37:. For other uses, see
965:"What is Canvassing?"
940:Political campaigning
906:
891:
664:
557:
528:
111:
101:Political campaigning
85:, Lancashire, in 2008
72:
54:
2175:Election campaigning
2002:10.1257/aer.20160524
1317:"Party Organization"
1120:Mark A. Kishlansky.
945:Political consulting
935:Leaflet distribution
792:A 2018 study in the
764:Harold Foote Gosnell
748:General Election Law
620:The years after the
559:George Caleb Bingham
226:Negative campaigning
1903:1999PNAS...9610939G
1897:(19): 10939–10942.
1656:10.14763/2017.4.775
1604:. Clarendon Press.
886:Martin v. Struthers
768:natural experiments
348:political campaigns
299:Politics portal
208:Post-truth politics
148:Opposition research
73:British politician
1687:. April 21, 2012.
1684:The New York Times
1056:Michael McNamara.
1039:2015-12-22 at the
700:has been prior to
674:
595:voter registration
582:Reform Act of 1832
563:
534:
460:English Parliament
356:voter registration
113:
87:
65:
1611:978-0-19-827375-2
1579:978-1-86940-318-8
1534:978-0-7748-2231-2
1507:978-0-307-95479-4
1479:978-0-691-15305-6
1454:978-0-8157-2569-5
1426:978-0-691-15305-6
1338:978-0-19-820500-5
1285:978-1-135-22162-1
1255:978-1-4516-3162-3
1107:978-1-136-47871-0
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802:campaign in the
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512:Short Parliament
498:
491:Northamptonshire
415:get out the vote
360:get out the vote
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325:
318:
311:
297:
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188:Election promise
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1041:Wayback Machine
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530:William Hogarth
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1716:Spiegel Online
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1248:. Free Press.
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1073:, ed. (1911).
1071:Chisholm, Hugh
1062:
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679:Alan S. Gerber
658:
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626:Michigan model
606:
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427:
424:
422:
419:
413:to a list for
399:voter database
391:canvass sheets
386:
383:
331:
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302:
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288:
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281:Campaign staff
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248:Smear campaign
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2143:
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2113:
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2088:
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2071:Labour Party
2025:
2021:
2011:
1992:
1988:
1978:
1958:
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1817:
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1727:November 12,
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1714:
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1693:. Retrieved
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1600:
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1523:
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1389:cite journal
1366:
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1226:
1225:J.H. Plumb.
1221:
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1150:
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851:postal votes
848:
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791:
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675:
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394:
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153:Consultation
92:Part of the
66:
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1754:(1): 1–21.
1622:October 17,
1545:October 17,
1381:10066/22744
1344:January 31,
1215:. Longmans.
837:my name is
779:direct mail
721:A/B testing
633:to win the
631:Ian Mikardo
577:elections.
444:nomenclator
364:ground game
352:voters list
173:Advertising
61:Bill George
2154:January 3,
2124:January 3,
951:References
714:Democrats'
650:Ivor Crewe
646:television
575:Gilded Age
508:poll books
336:Canvassing
265:Key people
203:Lawn signs
178:Canvassing
141:Management
75:Jack Straw
59:President
2094:March 16,
2052:0007-1234
1793:March 13,
1770:0003-0554
1665:2197-6775
1500:. Crown.
783:robocalls
407:lawn sign
271:Candidate
243:Push poll
233:Attack ad
83:Blackburn
2169:Category
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2118:Archived
1967:Archived
1947:Archived
1931:10485930
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975:June 30,
969:Archived
914:See also
702:COVID-19
385:Practice
354:through
2144:FindLaw
2114:FindLaw
2089:CallHub
1899:Bibcode
1844:July 7,
1834:1191847
1185:1841324
1013:EAC.gov
717:NGP VAN
706:texting
690:Al Gore
667:AFL–CIO
657:Revival
635:Reading
587:Norwich
493:in the
472:Stuarts
456:England
426:Origins
421:History
405:take a
166:Message
121:Finance
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439:Forum
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2126:2015
2096:2024
2048:ISSN
1927:PMID
1846:2019
1795:2024
1766:ISSN
1729:2015
1697:2017
1661:ISSN
1624:2016
1606:ISBN
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1529:ISBN
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