33:
923:. A carbon tax is considered easier to enforce on a broad-base scale than cap-and-trade programs. The simplicity and immediacy of a carbon tax has been proven effective in British Columbia, Canada – enacted and implemented in five months. A hybrid cap-and-trade program puts a limit on price increases and, in some cases, sets a floor price as well. The upper limit is set by adding more allowances to the market at a set price while the floor price is maintained by not allowing sales into the market at a price below the floor. The
4483:
897:
6042:
6030:
679:
6066:
6054:
703:
691:
4497:
1642:
935:
climate change. A declining cap gives allowance for firm reduction targets and a system for measuring when targets are met. It also allows for flexibility, unlike rigid taxes. Providing emission permits (also called allowances) under emissions trading is preferred in situations where a more accurate target level of emissions certainty is needed.
997:
1010:
consume less energy compared to wealthier parts of the population. The higher the high carbon price the greater the relief. Looking at individual situations though, the compensation would not apply to commuters in rural areas or people living in houses with poor insulation. They neither have liquidity to invest into solutions using less
2783:
2515:
under the Kyoto
Protocol. These credits can be traded to other facilities where they can be used for compliance with a cap-and-trade program. Unfortunately the concept of additionality is difficult to define and monitor, with the result that some companies purposefully increased emissions in order to
2355:
could be significant for developing countries. In 2010, World Bank commented that introducing border tariffs could lead to a proliferation of trade measures where the competitive playing field is viewed as being uneven. Tariffs could also be a burden on low-income countries that have contributed very
2930:
Döbbeling-Hildebrandt, Niklas; Miersch, Klaas; Khanna, Tarun M.; Bachelet, Marion; Bruns, Stephan B.; Callaghan, Max; Edenhofer, Ottmar; Flachsland, Christian; Forster, Piers M.; Kalkuhl, Matthias; Koch, Nicolas; Lamb, William F.; Ohlendorf, Nils; Steckel, Jan
Christoph; Minx, Jan C. (May 16, 2024).
2304:
Many economic properties of carbon pricing hold regardless of whether carbon is priced with a cap or a tax. However, there are a few important differences. Cap-based prices are more volatile and so they are riskier for investors, consumers and for governments that auction permits. Also, caps tend to
934:
Most cap and trade programs have a descending cap, usually a fixed percentage every year, which gives certainty to the market and guarantees that emissions will decline over time. With a tax, there can be estimates of reduction in carbon emissions, which may not be sufficient to change the course of
2396:
In order for such a business model to become attractive, the subsidies would therefore have to exceed this value. Here, a technology openness could be the best choice, as a reduction in costs due to technical progress can be expected. Already today, these costs of generating negative emissions are
2328:
Estimates of leakage rates for action under the Kyoto
Protocol ranged from 5% to 20% as a result of a loss in price competitiveness, but these leakage rates were considered very uncertain. For energy-intensive industries, the beneficial effects of Annex I actions through technological development
2324:
emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action, divided by the reduction in emissions of countries taking domestic mitigation action. Accordingly, a leakage rate greater than 100% means that actions to reduce emissions within countries had the effect of increasing emissions in
1009:
Unexpected spikes in natural gas prices and commodities such as oil and coal in 2021 caused a debate whether a carbon price increase should be postponed to avoid additional social burden. On the other hand, a redistribution on a per-capita-basis would even release poorer households which tend to
4249:
Global
Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to
2458:
The most efficient approach to slowing climate change is through market-based policies. In order for the world to achieve its climatic objectives at minimum cost, a cooperative approach among nations is required – such as an international emissions trading agreement. The United States and other
2510:
Besides cap and trade, emission trading can refer to project-based programs, also referred to as a credit or offset programs. Such programs can sell credits for emission reductions provided by approved projects. Generally there is an additionality requirement that states that they must reduce
2436:, a leading climate economist at Harvard, published a theoretical study arguing that such a regime would make it far easier to reach an international agreement, while a focus on national targets would continue to make it nearly impossible. Nordhaus also makes this argument, but less formally.
930:
However, industries may successfully lobby to exempt themselves from a carbon tax. It is therefore argued that with emissions trading, polluters have an incentive to cut emissions, but if they are exempted from a carbon tax, they have no incentive to cut emissions. On the other hand, freely
2519:
Cap-and-trade programs often allow "banking" of permits. This means that permits can be saved and can be used in the future. This allows an entity to over-comply in early periods in anticipation of higher carbon prices in subsequent years. This helps to stabilize the price of permits.
2463:
This statement argues that carbon pricing is a "market mechanism" in contrast to renewable subsidies or direct regulation of individual sources of carbon emissions and hence is the way that the "United States and other nations can most efficiently implement their climate policies."
2401:
of $ 220 per ton, which means that a state-subsidized business model for creating negative emissions already makes economic sense today. In sum, while a carbon price has the potential to reduce future emissions, a carbon subsidy has the potential to reduce past emissions.
2747:
1039:. In many EU member states like France or Germany, there is a coexistence of two systems: The EU-ETS covers power generation and large industry emissions while national ETS or taxes put a different price on petrol, natural gas and oil for private consumption.
951:
This can compensate the risk of rising energy prices reaching high levels as long as cheap wind and solar power is not available yet. Rich people who tend to have a larger carbon footprint would pay more while poorer people can even benefit from such a
756:
of the unpriced external costs of carbon emissions at its source. It is regarded as more efficient than renewable energy subsidies given to individual firms, because the difficulties of determining the value of emissions to each firm makes
2507:, while carbon taxes do not. Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions.
3706:
2316:
is the effect that regulation of emissions in one country/sector has on the emissions in other countries/sectors that are not subject to the same regulation. There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term carbon leakage.
4466:
772:
design, the government establishes an emissions cap and allocates to firms emission allowances, which can thereafter be privately traded. Emitters without the required allowances face a penalty more than the price of permits.
1026:
In the relevant countries with ETS and taxes, about 40% to 80% of emissions are covered. The schemes differ much in detail. They include or exclude fuels, transport, heating, agriculture or other greenhouse gases apart from
3258:
105:(ETS) that requires firms to purchase allowances to emit. The method is widely agreed to be an efficient policy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon pricing seeks to address the economic problem that emissions of
751:
way to reduce emissions, taking into account the costs of both efficiency measures and the inconvenience of lesser fossil fuels. By pricing the externalities of carbon emissions, efficiency comes about by eliminating the
3008:
792:
Evaluations of 21 carbon pricing schemes, show that at least 17 of these have caused reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. The achieved emissions reductions range between 5% and 21% for the studied schemes.
4126:
3857:
5766:
2495:
is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade. Both prices are efficient; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned. However, some economists argue that
2454:
The "Economists' Statement on
Climate Change" was signed by over 2500 economists including nine Nobel Laureates in 1997. This statement summarizes the economic case for carbon pricing as follows:
3699:
2842:
5942:
976:. The removal past emissions – 1,700 Gt in total – can theoretically be addressed by auctioning allowances starting with a price that exceeds the removal costs of the proposed emissions.
5610:
3944:
3671:
Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social
Dimensions of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
919:
works by setting a quantitative limit on the emissions produced by emitters. As a result, the price automatically adjusts to this target. This is the main advantage compared to a fixed
193:
A carbon tax is generally favoured on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability, while cap-and-trade theoretically offers the possibility to limit allowances to the remaining
989:, the majority is below $ 40. One exception is the steep incline in the EU-ETS reaching $ 60 in September 2021. Sweden and Switzerland are the only countries with more than $ 100/tCO
3220:
2481:
emission target. The "assembly of governments" would issue permits in the amount of the global target and all upstream fossil-fuel providers would be forced to buy these permits.
908:
provisions with floor and ceiling limits. Such designs are often referred to as hybrid designs. To the extent the price is controlled by these limits, it can be considered a tax.
5783:
1195:
The final consumer price for fuels and electric energy depends on individual tax regulations and conditions in each country. Though carbon pricing is playing an increasing role,
517:
3437:
5219:
5045:
734:
1014:
and would be dependent on credits or subsidies. On the other hand, a carbon price still helps to provide an incentive to use more effective fossil fuel technologies such as
5214:
3001:
5082:
2285:
2724:
3732:
5019:
3069:
Beinecke, Frances; Sachs, Jeffrey D.; Krupp, Fred; Pielke Jr., Roger A.; Stavins, Robert N.; Komanoff, Charles; Claussen, Eileen; Fischhoff, Baruch (May 7, 2009).
178:
growth rates, while policy recommendations range from about $ 50 to $ 200. Many carbon pricing schemes including the ETS in China remain below $ 10 per ton of CO
4728:
4116:
3861:
163:
4961:
4845:
3888:
2443:
and have previously appeared in a number of papers. The price-commitment view appears to have gained major support from independent positions taken by the
5104:
5062:
3104:
781:
uses this method. In practice, it has resulted in a fairly strong carbon price from 2005 to 2009, but that was later undermined by an oversupply and the
3467:
2329:
were considered possibly substantial. However, this beneficial effect had not been reliably quantified. On the empirical evidence they assessed, Barker
2428:, which culminates in a description of an international "carbon price regime". Such a regime would require national commitments to a carbon price, but
5983:
5099:
4684:
4419:
2380:. By contrast, if a cap-and-trade system has a binding cap (sufficiently stringent to affect emission-related decisions), then other policies such as
155:
4431:
5314:
5035:
4753:
4530:
3138:
2849:
231:
3636:
Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of
Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
5670:
5459:
2459:
nations can most efficiently implement their climate policies through market mechanisms, such as carbon taxes or the auction of emissions permits.
562:
183:
4627:
3809:
4156:
5319:
5282:
5136:
5121:
5040:
4689:
4633:
3937:
2299:
778:
372:
124:
2624:
2564:
5978:
5116:
4351:
3683:
3203:
3178:
2278:
6000:
4956:
4951:
3631:
2813:
965:
4201:
5481:
5259:
5077:
5009:
4999:
4982:
4889:
4696:
367:
314:
4183:
5910:
5771:
5728:
5224:
3967:
3840:
2199:
1857:
924:
720:
392:
209:
3445:
3041:
803:
depends on climate and economic feedback effects and remains to some degree uncertain. Latest calculations show an increasing trend:
5837:
5713:
5530:
4733:
4392:
3389:
279:
3322:
3194:
Tamiotti, Ludivine; Teh, Robert; Kulaçoğlu, Vesile; Olhoff, Anne; Simmons, Benjamin; UNEP; World Trade
Organization, eds. (2009).
6070:
5708:
5688:
5635:
5587:
4649:
2694:
2271:
1625:
707:
4227:
5827:
5778:
5204:
5166:
5111:
4581:
2343:
A general perception among developing countries is that discussion of climate change in trade negotiations could lead to green
600:
140:
3070:
2432:
to a specific policy. Carbon taxes, caps, and hybrid schemes could all be used to satisfy such a commitment. At the same time
5895:
5179:
4936:
4001:
2716:
2028:
758:
727:
645:
4061:
4031:
2325:
other countries to a greater extent, i.e., domestic mitigation action had actually led to an increase in global emissions.
6005:
5540:
5072:
3739:
3349:
2878:
2421:
2053:
1976:
1752:
1203:, utility expenses and other components are still the main cause for completely different price levels between countries.
630:
2333:(2007) concluded that the competitive losses of then-current mitigation actions, e.g., the EU-ETS, were not significant.
785:. Recent policy changes have led to a steep increase of the carbon price since 2018, exceeding 100€ ($ 118) per ton of CO
5988:
5660:
5189:
5184:
5089:
4966:
4523:
4287:
Kikstra, Jarmo S; Waidelich, Paul; Rising, James; Yumashev, Dmitry; Hope, Chris; Brierley, Chris M (September 6, 2021).
4247:
2227:
2043:
4371:
5199:
5052:
5014:
2512:
2448:
1996:
1981:
1862:
635:
397:
148:
4266:
3415:
777:, the market for permits will automatically adjust the carbon price to a level that ensures that the cap is met. The
123:
21.7% of global GHG emissions are covered by carbon pricing in 2021, a major increase due to the introduction of the
3127:
6107:
6058:
5822:
5625:
5582:
5355:
5277:
5131:
2904:
2720:
2365:
1966:
1961:
1946:
1015:
695:
417:
337:
254:
32:
2477:
A new quantity commitment approach, suggested by
Mutsuyoshi Nishimura, is for all countries to commit to the same
5927:
5602:
5577:
5550:
5512:
5429:
5247:
5094:
5057:
4807:
4576:
4571:
4566:
2098:
1991:
1729:
615:
557:
507:
487:
217:
82:
3884:
5937:
5932:
5863:
5703:
5209:
5174:
5067:
4994:
4835:
4664:
4600:
4561:
3196:
Trade and climate change: a report by the United
Nations Environment Programme and the World Trade Organization
2504:
2393:
According to a 2020 study carbon prices have not harmed economic growth in wealthy industrialized democracies.
2169:
2068:
2001:
1847:
1837:
1812:
1767:
1376:
605:
512:
464:
382:
236:
102:
86:
5922:
3914:
3096:
3460:
6092:
6046:
5968:
5878:
5620:
5592:
5272:
4909:
4516:
4460:
3662:
2411:
2242:
2093:
2048:
2033:
2018:
2013:
1956:
1879:
1696:
1666:
1661:
1633:
916:
442:
62:
42:
5645:
5465:
5407:
5324:
5309:
5194:
4840:
4786:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4438:
4372:"Technical Update of the Social Cost of Carbon for Regulatory Impact Analysis Under Executive Order 12866"
2602:
2179:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2023:
1884:
1867:
567:
542:
452:
432:
402:
357:
284:
269:
6097:
6034:
5680:
5557:
5365:
4825:
4748:
4488:
2237:
2184:
2113:
1852:
1706:
1111:
797:
683:
502:
457:
274:
167:
3466:. German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) / adelphi.
2376:
A carbon tax can have an additive environmental effect to policies such as subsidies for the supply of
3805:
5873:
5751:
5442:
5412:
4987:
4914:
4300:
4149:
3293:
2759:
2485:
2340:
is used to determine the volumes of free allocation of emission permits to industrial installations.
2337:
2232:
2103:
1842:
1822:
1807:
1802:
547:
447:
387:
3675:
3669:
2305:
short-out the effect of non-price policies such as renewables subsidies, while carbon taxes do not.
5890:
5665:
4899:
4894:
3160:
2933:"Systematic review and meta-analysis of ex-post evaluations on the effectiveness of carbon pricing"
2556:
2164:
2108:
2063:
1832:
1827:
748:
660:
625:
620:
332:
6102:
5718:
5650:
5567:
5417:
5382:
5339:
5334:
5329:
4904:
4357:
4318:
3250:
2775:
2204:
2189:
2088:
2058:
2038:
655:
595:
552:
427:
304:
247:
4482:
4404:
3639:
2806:
2511:
emissions more than is required by pre-existing regulation. An example of such a program is the
4289:"The social cost of carbon dioxide under climate-economy feedbacks and temperature variability"
927:, for example, sets an upper limit on allowance prices through its cost containment provision.
5952:
5615:
5360:
5126:
4919:
4882:
4669:
4623:
4347:
3836:
3787:
3679:
3199:
3174:
2970:
2952:
2159:
2148:
1971:
1899:
1691:
1686:
1220:
1036:
959:
377:
264:
3282:"Biogeochemical potential of biomass pyrolysis systems for limiting global warming to 1.5 °C"
5995:
5562:
5545:
5486:
5377:
5141:
4865:
4738:
4674:
4502:
4339:
4308:
4180:
4096:
3858:"Can Negotiating a Uniform Carbon Price Help to Internalize the Global Warming Externality?"
3777:
3301:
3240:
3232:
3166:
2960:
2944:
2767:
2500:
2417:
2377:
2153:
1951:
1889:
1757:
1724:
650:
422:
294:
3971:
5947:
5868:
5832:
5761:
5735:
5723:
5640:
5572:
5447:
5304:
4926:
4877:
4855:
4187:
3034:
2470:
for individuals and businesses may also be purchased through carbon offset retailers like
2440:
2433:
2120:
1919:
1874:
1762:
1289:/km, Domestic flight NZ, A320, 173 seats, all occupied, with radiative forcing multiplier
905:
869:
858:
782:
774:
497:
492:
482:
352:
4333:
3385:
4304:
4246:(2018). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.; et al. (eds.).
3297:
2965:
2763:
5900:
5756:
5698:
5693:
5535:
5424:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5004:
4941:
4679:
4659:
4618:
4539:
3221:"Carbon Dividend – An Instrument for a Socially Just Environmental and Climate Policy?"
2471:
2313:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2222:
2174:
2130:
2008:
1986:
1929:
1894:
1792:
1782:
1671:
753:
640:
590:
437:
407:
362:
259:
226:
113:
106:
94:
6086:
5973:
5905:
5630:
5452:
5437:
5372:
5267:
4361:
4322:
3254:
2932:
2779:
2690:
2467:
2344:
1939:
1934:
1924:
1904:
1817:
1797:
1777:
1676:
1656:
769:
610:
572:
289:
194:
2364:
Cap-and-trade and carbon taxes interact differently with non-price policies such as
896:
5858:
5655:
5299:
4946:
4830:
4743:
4121:
3074:
2194:
1909:
1787:
1701:
1215:
or 100 units of any other currency accordingly. Food calculation is all based on CO
1011:
948:
530:
347:
3993:
2351:
on imports ("virtual carbon") consistent with a carbon price of $ 50 per ton of CO
4053:
4023:
5885:
5402:
5394:
4654:
537:
299:
117:
90:
4377:. Interagency Working Group on Social Cost of Greenhouse Gases (US govt.). 2016
4313:
4288:
4117:"Tax carbon, not people: UN chief issues climate plea from Pacific 'frontline'"
3806:"Estimated social cost of climate change not accurate, Stanford scientists say"
3306:
3281:
2948:
197:. Current implementations are only designed to meet certain reduction targets.
5917:
5294:
4931:
4478:
4343:
3236:
3170:
2771:
2444:
2348:
1734:
1681:
1196:
920:
765:
412:
342:
309:
98:
52:
17:
3791:
3782:
3765:
3323:"More than half of all CO2 emissions since 1751 emitted in the last 30 years"
2956:
972:, the cost for generating negative emissions is about $ 150–165 per ton of CO
4872:
2125:
1914:
158:, a price level of $ 135–$ 5500 in 2030 and $ 245–$ 13,000 per metric ton CO
144:
2974:
1641:
996:
931:
distributing emission permits could potentially lead to corrupt behaviour.
4496:
3411:
4265:
de Coninck, H.; Revi, A.; Babiker, M.; Bertoldi, P.; et al. (2018).
1772:
3245:
2908:
958:
research, public transport, car sharing and other policies that promote
4850:
4206:
3128:"Environmentally Related Taxes and Tradable Permit Systems in Practice"
3002:
Methodological Convention 3.0 for the Assessment of Environmental Costs
1032:
964:
subsidies for negative emissions: Depending on the technology, such as
5853:
4101:
4084:
3280:
Werner, C.; Schmidt, H-P; Gerten, D.; Lucht, W.; Kammann, C. (2018).
768:
model, a tax is imposed on carbon emissions produced by a firm. In a
136:
128:
3910:
3733:"IPCC 2014: Summary for Policymakers: Mitigation of Climate Change"
3350:"Don't let high gas prices stop the EU ETS from doing its real job"
4860:
995:
969:
132:
127:. Regions with carbon pricing include most European countries and
31:
4508:
4243:
3134:
2496:
2369:
162:
in 2050 would be needed to drive carbon emissions to stay below
5804:
5509:
5245:
4805:
4717:
4598:
4550:
4512:
4267:"Chapter 4: Strengthening and Implementing the Global Response"
3700:"World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change"
747:
Carbon pricing is considered by many economists to be the most
120:– a detrimental product that is not charged for by any market.
3938:"Carbon Pricing Becomes a Cause for the World Bank and I.M.F."
2879:"A U.S. Cap-and-Trade System to Address Global Climate Change"
1200:
175:
5767:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
3162:
World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change
4472:
4258:
2746:
Hagman, David; Ho, Emily; Loewenstein, George (June 2019).
843:
High impact value for 2050 / 3% discount / 95th percentile
3071:"Putting a Price on Carbon: An Emissions Cap or a Tax? by"
1304:/km, Domestic flight NZ, less than 50 seats, all occupied
36:
Emission trading and carbon taxes around the world (2021)
5943:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
4455:
2382:
RE subsidies have no further impact on reducing emissions
955:
subsidies accelerating the transition to renewable energy
3911:"A Compete Collection of Carbon-Price-Commitment Papers"
3367:
3365:
3363:
2807:"Smart Taxes: An Open Invitation to Join the Pigou Club"
4089:
Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment
2836:
2834:
143:
and many US states have not introduced carbon pricing.
151:. In 2020, carbon pricing generated $ 53B in revenue.
5784:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
4202:"Firms abusing Kyoto carbon trading scheme: watchdog"
4085:"A new market-based solution achieving 2C and equity"
943:
Standard proposals for using carbon revenues include
4405:"Specific Carbon Dioxide Emissions of Various Fuels"
4190:. Clean Air Market Programs. Retrieved July 8, 2012.
3000:
Matthey, Astrid; Bünger, Björn (February 11, 2019).
2557:"What is Carbon Pricing? | Carbon Pricing Dashboard"
1044:
Carbon pricing schemes with more than $ 2 bn revenue
174:
as a result of economy feedbacks and falling global
5961:
5846:
5815:
5744:
5679:
5601:
5523:
5474:
5391:
5348:
5258:
5165:
5028:
4975:
4818:
4642:
4611:
2843:"Social, Economic and Ethical Concepts and Methods"
985:
About one third of the systems stays below $ 10/tCO
170:
calculate a damage of more than $ 300 per ton of CO
4475:— US focused effort for carbon-pricing commitments
4398:. Ministry for the environment, New Zealand. 2020.
4150:"Additionality in the Clean Development Mechanism"
4024:"For Businesses - Offset Your Corporate Footprint"
1309:5000 km jet aircraft, economy class, per seat
900:Carbon emission trade – allowance prices from 2008
186:(EU-ETS) which exceeded €100 ($ 108) per ton of CO
3770:Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World
2320:The leakage rate is defined as the increase in CO
5984:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
4393:"Measuring Emissions: A Guide for Organisations"
3994:"For Individuals - Offset Your Carbon Footprint"
3444:(in German). ARD. August 2, 2021. Archived from
3007:(Report). German Environment Agency. p. 8.
2717:"What is a carbon price and why do we need one?"
2492:
2439:Similar views have previously been discussed by
1324:5000 km jet aircraft, first class, per seat
89:. This is done to encourage polluters to reduce
3064:
3062:
1463:$ 33.50 with land-use in tropical rain forests
3632:"Mitigation from a cross-sectoral perspective"
3035:"Factsheet: Climate, Environment, and the IMF"
2671:
2669:
835:Central estimate for 3% discount rate in 2020
4729:History of climate change policy and politics
4524:
2660:
2384:within the time period that the cap applies .
2279:
728:
97:. A carbon price usually takes the form of a
8:
4256:. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
3438:"Bund erwartet Rekorderlöse aus CO2-Rechten"
2872:
2870:
4846:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
2596:
2594:
2536:ignoring the riskiness of prices under caps
2360:Interactions with renewable energy policies
1181:transport, buildings, industry, agriculture
1151:$ 8.75 bn (€7.4 bn) expected, launch 2021
6065:
6053:
5812:
5801:
5520:
5506:
5255:
5242:
4815:
4802:
4714:
4608:
4595:
4547:
4531:
4517:
4509:
3536:
3371:
3335:
2648:
2585:
2286:
2272:
1620:
1041:
949:return to the public on a per-capita basis
826:Interagency Working Group (US government)
735:
721:
702:
690:
204:
5611:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
4754:United Nations Climate Change conferences
4312:
4274:
4228:Cap and trade programs for greenhouse gas
4100:
3968:"Economists' Statement on Climate Change"
3781:
3766:"Do Carbon Prices Limit Economic Growth?"
3625:
3623:
3305:
3244:
2964:
2625:"State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2023"
2356:little to the problem of climate change.
1219:equivalents including the high impact of
156:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
85:, in which a monetary cost is applied to
5315:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
4437:(in German). WWF Germany. Archived from
3598:
3596:
3594:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3560:
3558:
3556:
3139:Centre for Tax Policy and Administration
1423:
1387:
1339:
1253:
1225:
1076:industry, electricity, intra-EU aviation
895:
805:
5671:National Adaptation Programme of Action
5460:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
4335:State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2021
4155:. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies.
3663:"Introduction: scope of the assessment"
3547:
3524:
3520:
3518:
3509:
3505:
3503:
3494:
3392:from the original on September 13, 2021
3321:Stainforth, Thorfinn (April 29, 2020).
3107:from the original on September 24, 2019
2697:from the original on September 15, 2021
2675:
2603:"China's National ETS Launches Trading"
2548:
2529:
1632:
1114:, additional taxes and ETS in provinces
563:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
216:
184:European Union Emissions Trading System
149:carbon pricing scheme from 2012 to 2014
131:. On the other hand, top emitters like
5320:Economics of climate change mitigation
5283:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
4634:Scientific consensus on climate change
4456:Our Climate Put A Price On It campaign
3073:. Yale Environment 360. Archived from
3014:from the original on November 10, 2021
2748:"Nudging out support for a carbon tax"
2601:Davies, Paul A.; Westgate, R. Andrew.
2300:Economics of climate change mitigation
373:Economics of climate change mitigation
125:Chinese national carbon trading scheme
5979:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
4469:— Lists national commitments for 2020
3970:. Redefining Progress. Archived from
3668:. In J.P. Bruce; et al. (eds.).
3490:
3488:
2786:from the original on January 28, 2020
7:
6001:Representative Concentration Pathway
4952:Tipping points in the climate system
4628:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
4425:. Environmental Working Group. 2011.
4162:from the original on August 10, 2014
3917:from the original on August 11, 2014
3891:from the original on August 12, 2014
3661:Goldemberg, J.; et al. (1996).
3418:from the original on August 31, 2021
3348:Elkerbout, Milan (October 7, 2021).
3198:. Geneva: World Trade Organization.
2819:from the original on August 16, 2014
2685:
2683:
2561:carbonpricingdashboard.worldbank.org
5772:Nationally determined contributions
5482:Individual action on climate change
4697:World energy supply and consumption
3947:from the original on April 24, 2016
3936:Davenport, Coral (April 23, 2016).
3885:"Overcoming the Copenhagen Failure"
3614:
3602:
3586:
3574:
3473:from the original on April 13, 2021
3047:from the original on August 8, 2014
2987:
2905:"Cap and Trade: Frequent Questions"
2567:from the original on March 11, 2021
1294:500 km small aircraft per seat
1268:500 km car travel, 1 passenger
1018:in contrast to high-emission coal.
798:social cost caused by a tonne of CO
368:Economic analysis of climate change
315:World energy supply and consumption
5911:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
4064:from the original on July 21, 2021
4034:from the original on July 21, 2021
4004:from the original on July 16, 2021
3812:from the original on June 24, 2019
3712:from the original on March 4, 2016
3634:. In B. Metz; et al. (eds.).
2389:Carbon pricing and economic growth
2200:Renewable energy commercialization
1005:Market price surge in fossil fuels
925:Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative
904:Cap-and-trade systems can include
393:Environmental full-cost accounting
25:
5838:Satellite temperature measurement
5443:forestry for carbon sequestration
4734:History of climate change science
4129:from the original on May 15, 2019
3764:Driscoll, Daniel (January 2020).
3705:. World Bank. 2010. p. 251.
3261:from the original on May 12, 2021
2727:from the original on May 15, 2019
2488:asked governments to tax carbon.
1279:500 km jet aircraft per seat
912:Carbon tax versus emissions trade
796:The exact monetary damage of the
81:) is a method for governments to
65:or carbon tax under consideration
6064:
6052:
6041:
6040:
6028:
5689:Climate Change Performance Index
4495:
4481:
4200:Szabo, Michael (June 14, 2010).
3630:Barker, T.; et al. (2007).
1640:
1191:Other taxes and price components
701:
689:
677:
5828:Instrumental temperature record
5779:Sustainable Development Goal 13
3459:Ackva, Johannes; Hoppe, Janna.
3159:World Bank (November 6, 2009).
3040:. International Monetary Fund.
2497:caps prevent non-price policies
601:Corporate social responsibility
93:combustion, the main driver of
5896:Climate variability and change
4937:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
4293:Environmental Research Letters
3286:Environmental Research Letters
2338:Carbon Leakage Exposure Factor
1148:non EU-ETS: transport, heating
759:command and control regulation
1:
6006:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
5541:Climate emergency declaration
4083:Mutsuyoshi Nishimura (2014).
3966:Nine Nobel Laureates (1997).
3386:"Carbon Taxes in Europe 2020"
3101:Union of Concerned Scientists
2422:American Economic Association
1977:Socially responsible business
1753:Bright green environmentalism
1093:electricity, district heating
885:Including economic feedbacks
761:less likely to be efficient.
631:Socially responsible business
5989:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
5215:Middle East and North Africa
4432:"Klimawandel auf dem Teller"
3860:. World Bank. Archived from
3831:William D. Nordhaus (2013).
2812:. Eastern Economic Journal.
2516:get paid to eliminate them.
2406:Advantages and disadvantages
2228:Environmental pricing reform
848:German Environmental Agency
4467:UN Climate Change Framework
4463:— Defines Kyoto commitments
3137:, Environment Directorate,
3126:Smith, S. (June 11, 2008).
2513:Clean Development Mechanism
2493:economics of carbon pricing
2449:International Monetary Fund
1982:Social return on investment
1274:7 L petrol per 100 km
1213:for a carbon price of $ 100
1000:Carbon prices (USD) in 2021
636:Sustainability organization
398:Environmental impact design
6124:
5823:Global surface temperature
5714:Popular culture depictions
5626:Ecosystem-based adaptation
5356:Carbon capture and storage
5278:Carbon offsets and credits
4259:Global Warming of 1.5 °C —
3461:"The carbon tax in Sweden"
2949:10.1038/s41467-024-48512-w
2877:Robert N. Stavins (2007).
2805:N. Gregory Mankiw (2009).
2721:London School of Economics
2409:
2366:renewable energy subsidies
2297:
1967:Pollution haven hypothesis
1962:Natural resource economics
1947:High-performance buildings
815:Carbon price per ton of CO
775:Assuming all else is equal
418:High-performance buildings
338:Carbon offsets and credits
255:Carbon capture and storage
6035:Climate change portal
6022:
5928:Extreme event attribution
5811:
5800:
5551:School Strike for Climate
5519:
5505:
5430:Climate-smart agriculture
5254:
5241:
4814:
4801:
4724:
4713:
4607:
4594:
4577:Climate change adaptation
4572:Climate change mitigation
4567:Effects of climate change
4557:
4546:
4473:Pricing Carbon Initiative
4430:Noleppa, Steffen (2012).
4344:10.1596/978-1-4648-1728-1
4186:October 25, 2012, at the
3835:. Yale University Press.
3237:10.1007/s10273-019-2395-y
3227:(in German and English).
3171:10.1596/978-0-8213-7987-5
2772:10.1038/s41558-019-0474-0
2472:Carbonfund.org Foundation
2372:explains this as follows:
2347:by high-income countries
1730:Climate change mitigation
1407:1 KWh from light fuel oil
1211:The table gives examples
850:
847:
828:
825:
616:Effects of climate change
558:Climate-smart agriculture
508:Sustainability accounting
488:Climate change litigation
232:Co-benefits of mitigation
218:Climate change mitigation
5938:Global warming potential
5745:International agreements
5392:Preserving and enhancing
4836:Arctic methane emissions
4758:Years in climate change
4665:Greenhouse gas emissions
4562:Causes of climate change
4314:10.1088/1748-9326/ac1d0b
4054:"Carbon Offset Retailer"
3883:Joseph Stiglitz (2010).
3856:Martin Weitzman (2013).
3783:10.1177/2378023119898326
3307:10.1088/1748-9326/aabb0e
2170:Environmental technology
1813:Ecological modernization
1768:Corporate sustainability
917:Carbon emissions trading
606:Corporate sustainability
513:Sustainability reporting
465:Verified Carbon Standard
383:Environmental accounting
237:Greenhouse gas emissions
103:emissions trading scheme
87:greenhouse gas emissions
55:implemented or scheduled
45:implemented or scheduled
5969:Climate change scenario
5621:Disaster risk reduction
5273:Carbon emission trading
5083:U.S. insurance industry
5063:Civilizational collapse
4910:sea surface temperature
3219:Held, Benjamin (2019).
2412:Carbon emission trading
2336:Under the EU ETS rules
2243:Green industrial policy
1957:Marginal abatement cost
1880:Fiscal environmentalism
1697:Personal carbon trading
1667:Carbon fee and dividend
1662:Carbon emission trading
1634:Environmental economics
1207:Impact on retail prices
477:Frameworks and treaties
182:. One exception is the
166:. Latest models of the
83:mitigate climate change
63:Carbon emission trading
43:Carbon emission trading
5962:Research and modelling
5646:Nature-based solutions
5466:Nature-based solutions
5408:Carbon dioxide removal
5325:Fossil fuel divestment
5310:Climate risk insurance
5220:Small island countries
4841:Arctic sea ice decline
4148:Benito Müller (2009).
3638:. IPCC. Archived from
2884:. The Hamilton Project
2605:. Latham & Watkins
2461:
2386:
2180:Fossil fuel divestment
1433:life cycle assessment
1399:1 KWh from natural gas
1334:/km, >3700 km
1319:/km, >3700 km
1001:
901:
749:economically efficient
568:Nature-based solutions
543:Carbon dioxide removal
433:Public interest design
403:Fossil fuel divestment
358:Climate risk insurance
285:Low-carbon electricity
270:Fossil fuel divestment
67:
5923:Earth's energy budget
5806:Background and theory
5694:Climate crisis (term)
5366:Fossil fuel phase-out
5260:Economics and finance
5225:by individual country
5167:By country and region
5142:Security and conflict
5137:Psychological impacts
4826:Abrupt climate change
4749:Charles David Keeling
4582:By country and region
4489:Global Warming portal
3887:. Project Syndicate.
2937:Nature Communications
2752:Nature Climate Change
2691:"Carbon Price Viewer"
2456:
2397:below the costs of CO
2374:
2238:Free public transport
2185:Fossil fuel phase-out
1707:Social cost of carbon
1542:salmon / canned tuna
999:
899:
503:Social responsibility
275:Fossil fuel phase-out
168:social cost of carbon
35:
5752:Glasgow Climate Pact
5413:Carbon sequestration
4988:Mass mortality event
4444:on November 1, 2020.
4420:"Meat Eater's Guide"
4403:Quaschning, Volker.
4332:Bank, World (2021).
3808:. January 12, 2015.
3738:. UN. Archived from
3097:"Carbon Pricing 101"
2911:on November 13, 2014
2848:. UN. Archived from
2499:, such as renewable
2486:UN Secretary General
2233:Environmental tariff
1858:full-cost accounting
1823:Efficient energy use
1808:Ecological footprint
1803:Ecological economics
548:Carbon sequestration
388:Environmental design
280:Fossil fuel vehicles
118:negative externality
5891:Climate sensitivity
5666:The Adaptation Fund
5122:Infectious diseases
5029:Social and economic
4305:2021ERL....16i4037K
4278:. pp. 313–443.
3864:on October 20, 2014
3776:: 237802311989832.
3448:on August 17, 2021.
3298:2018ERL....13d4036W
2764:2019NatCC...9..484H
2420:, president of the
2165:Carbon-neutral fuel
1828:Energy conservation
1375:1 kWh natural gas (
1046:
626:Ethical consumerism
621:Energy conservation
333:Building insulation
27:CO2 Emission Market
5462:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
5434:Forest management
5418:Direct air capture
5383:Sustainable energy
5340:Net zero emissions
5335:Low-carbon economy
5330:Green Climate Fund
5117:Indigenous peoples
5020:Plant biodiversity
4808:Effects and issues
4338:. The World Bank.
3941:The New York Times
3833:The Climate Casino
3388:. Tax Foundation.
3165:. The World Bank.
2661:IPCC SR15 Ch4 2018
2630:. World Bank Group
2426:The Climate Casino
2205:Sustainable energy
2190:Low-carbon economy
2029:consumer behaviour
1601:1 kg potatoes
1436:source / remarks
1415:1 L light fuel oil
1059:coverage / remarks
1042:
1022:Scope and coverage
1002:
902:
789:in February 2023.
646:Consumer behaviour
596:Conscious business
553:Direct air capture
428:Low-carbon economy
305:Sustainable energy
190:in February 2023.
68:
6108:Environmental tax
6080:
6079:
6018:
6017:
6014:
6013:
5953:Radiative forcing
5796:
5795:
5792:
5791:
5616:Adaptive capacity
5501:
5500:
5497:
5496:
5361:Energy transition
5237:
5236:
5233:
5232:
4957:Tropical cyclones
4883:Urban heat island
4797:
4796:
4709:
4708:
4705:
4704:
4670:Carbon accounting
4624:Greenhouse effect
4590:
4589:
4353:978-1-4648-1728-1
4250:eradicate poverty
3685:978-0-521-56854-8
3225:Wirtschaftsdienst
3205:978-92-870-3522-6
3180:978-0-8213-7987-5
3077:on August 2, 2010
2296:
2295:
2160:Carbon neutrality
2149:2000-watt society
2143:Energy transition
2054:development goals
1972:Social accounting
1692:Environmental tax
1687:Emissions trading
1614:
1613:
1520:1 kg chicken
1422:
1421:
1386:
1385:
1367:1 kWh natural gas
1338:
1337:
1252:
1251:
1221:methane emissions
1188:
1187:
1112:pricing in Canada
1037:fluorinated gases
1016:CCGT gas turbines
960:carbon neutrality
889:
888:
745:
744:
378:Emissions trading
265:Energy transition
154:According to the
16:(Redirected from
6115:
6068:
6067:
6056:
6055:
6044:
6043:
6033:
6032:
6031:
5996:Paleoclimatology
5813:
5802:
5563:Ecological grief
5546:Climate movement
5521:
5507:
5487:Plant-based diet
5378:Renewable energy
5256:
5243:
5078:Economic impacts
5010:Invasive species
4866:Coastal flooding
4816:
4803:
4739:Svante Arrhenius
4715:
4685:from agriculture
4675:Carbon footprint
4660:Greenhouse gases
4609:
4596:
4548:
4533:
4526:
4519:
4510:
4505:
4503:Economics portal
4500:
4499:
4491:
4486:
4485:
4445:
4443:
4436:
4426:
4424:
4415:
4413:
4411:
4399:
4397:
4386:
4384:
4382:
4376:
4365:
4326:
4316:
4279:
4271:
4257:
4255:
4231:
4225:
4219:
4218:
4216:
4214:
4197:
4191:
4181:Types of Trading
4178:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4167:
4161:
4154:
4145:
4139:
4138:
4136:
4134:
4125:. May 15, 2019.
4113:
4107:
4106:
4104:
4102:10.1002/wene.131
4080:
4074:
4073:
4071:
4069:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4039:
4020:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4009:
3990:
3984:
3983:
3981:
3979:
3974:on March 4, 2016
3963:
3957:
3956:
3954:
3952:
3933:
3927:
3926:
3924:
3922:
3907:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3896:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3869:
3853:
3847:
3846:
3828:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3817:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3785:
3761:
3755:
3754:
3752:
3750:
3744:
3737:
3728:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3717:
3711:
3704:
3696:
3690:
3689:
3674:. IPCC. p.
3667:
3658:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3627:
3618:
3612:
3606:
3600:
3589:
3584:
3578:
3572:
3551:
3545:
3539:
3534:
3528:
3522:
3513:
3507:
3498:
3492:
3483:
3482:
3480:
3478:
3472:
3465:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3425:
3423:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3397:
3381:
3375:
3374:, pp. 29–30
3369:
3358:
3357:
3345:
3339:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3318:
3312:
3311:
3309:
3277:
3271:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3248:
3216:
3210:
3209:
3191:
3185:
3184:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3145:
3132:
3123:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3112:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3082:
3066:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3052:
3046:
3039:
3030:
3024:
3023:
3021:
3019:
3013:
3006:
2997:
2991:
2985:
2979:
2978:
2968:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2907:. Archived from
2900:
2894:
2893:
2891:
2889:
2883:
2874:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2855:on June 29, 2014
2854:
2847:
2838:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2824:
2818:
2811:
2802:
2796:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2732:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2687:
2678:
2673:
2664:
2658:
2652:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2629:
2621:
2615:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2598:
2589:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2553:
2537:
2534:
2505:carbon emissions
2503:, from reducing
2501:energy subsidies
2418:William Nordhaus
2288:
2281:
2274:
2154:Alternative fuel
2044:design standards
1952:Impact investing
1758:Circular economy
1725:Carbon footprint
1644:
1621:
1480:1 kg cheese
1468:1 kg butter
1424:
1388:
1340:
1254:
1226:
1050:country / region
1047:
939:Revenue policies
806:
737:
730:
723:
705:
704:
693:
692:
686:
682:
681:
680:
423:Impact investing
295:Renewable energy
205:
114:greenhouse gases
60:
50:
40:
21:
6123:
6122:
6118:
6117:
6116:
6114:
6113:
6112:
6083:
6082:
6081:
6076:
6029:
6027:
6010:
5957:
5948:Orbital forcing
5842:
5807:
5788:
5762:Paris Agreement
5740:
5736:Warming stripes
5675:
5641:Managed retreat
5636:Loss and damage
5597:
5531:Business action
5515:
5493:
5470:
5393:
5387:
5344:
5305:Climate finance
5250:
5229:
5161:
5024:
5000:Extinction risk
4976:Flora and fauna
4971:
4932:Permafrost thaw
4927:Ozone depletion
4856:Extreme weather
4810:
4793:
4720:
4701:
4638:
4603:
4586:
4553:
4542:
4537:
4501:
4494:
4487:
4480:
4452:
4441:
4434:
4429:
4422:
4418:
4409:
4407:
4402:
4395:
4391:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4354:
4331:
4286:
4269:
4264:
4253:
4242:
4239:
4234:
4226:
4222:
4212:
4210:
4199:
4198:
4194:
4188:Wayback Machine
4179:
4175:
4165:
4163:
4159:
4152:
4147:
4146:
4142:
4132:
4130:
4115:
4114:
4110:
4082:
4081:
4077:
4067:
4065:
4052:
4051:
4047:
4037:
4035:
4022:
4021:
4017:
4007:
4005:
3992:
3991:
3987:
3977:
3975:
3965:
3964:
3960:
3950:
3948:
3935:
3934:
3930:
3920:
3918:
3909:
3908:
3904:
3894:
3892:
3882:
3881:
3877:
3867:
3865:
3855:
3854:
3850:
3843:
3830:
3829:
3825:
3815:
3813:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3763:
3762:
3758:
3748:
3746:
3745:on July 2, 2014
3742:
3735:
3730:
3729:
3725:
3715:
3713:
3709:
3702:
3698:
3697:
3693:
3686:
3665:
3660:
3659:
3655:
3645:
3643:
3642:on June 8, 2011
3629:
3628:
3621:
3613:
3609:
3601:
3592:
3585:
3581:
3577:, p. 19,23
3573:
3554:
3546:
3542:
3537:Quaschning 2021
3535:
3531:
3523:
3516:
3508:
3501:
3493:
3486:
3476:
3474:
3470:
3463:
3458:
3457:
3453:
3436:
3435:
3431:
3421:
3419:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3395:
3393:
3383:
3382:
3378:
3372:World Bank 2021
3370:
3361:
3347:
3346:
3342:
3336:World Bank 2021
3334:
3330:
3320:
3319:
3315:
3279:
3278:
3274:
3264:
3262:
3218:
3217:
3213:
3206:
3193:
3192:
3188:
3181:
3158:
3157:
3153:
3143:
3141:
3130:
3125:
3124:
3120:
3110:
3108:
3095:
3094:
3090:
3080:
3078:
3068:
3067:
3060:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3037:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3017:
3015:
3011:
3004:
2999:
2998:
2994:
2986:
2982:
2929:
2928:
2924:
2914:
2912:
2902:
2901:
2897:
2887:
2885:
2881:
2876:
2875:
2868:
2858:
2856:
2852:
2845:
2840:
2839:
2832:
2822:
2820:
2816:
2809:
2804:
2803:
2799:
2789:
2787:
2745:
2744:
2740:
2730:
2728:
2715:
2714:
2710:
2700:
2698:
2689:
2688:
2681:
2674:
2667:
2659:
2655:
2649:World Bank 2021
2647:
2643:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2622:
2618:
2608:
2606:
2600:
2599:
2592:
2586:World Bank 2021
2584:
2580:
2570:
2568:
2555:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2540:
2535:
2531:
2526:
2441:Joseph Stiglitz
2434:Martin Weitzman
2414:
2408:
2400:
2391:
2362:
2354:
2323:
2311:
2302:
2292:
2263:
2262:
2218:
2210:
2209:
2144:
2136:
2135:
2121:Thermoeconomics
1875:Ethical banking
1763:Climate finance
1748:
1740:
1739:
1720:
1712:
1711:
1652:
1619:
1359:1 kWh hard coal
1333:
1330:0.585 kgCO
1318:
1315:0.153 kgCO
1303:
1300:0.659 kgCO
1288:
1285:0.134 kgCO
1218:
1209:
1193:
1030:
1024:
1007:
992:
988:
983:
975:
941:
914:
906:price stability
894:
876:Kikstra et al.
870:time preference
859:time preference
818:
801:
788:
783:Great Recession
741:
678:
676:
675:
668:
667:
586:
585:Related content
578:
577:
533:
523:
522:
498:Paris Agreement
493:Ethical banking
483:Business ethics
478:
470:
469:
353:Climate finance
328:
320:
319:
250:
203:
189:
181:
173:
164:the 1.5°C limit
161:
110:
78:
66:
58:
56:
48:
46:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6121:
6119:
6111:
6110:
6105:
6100:
6095:
6093:Carbon finance
6085:
6084:
6078:
6077:
6075:
6074:
6062:
6050:
6038:
6023:
6020:
6019:
6016:
6015:
6012:
6011:
6009:
6008:
6003:
5998:
5993:
5992:
5991:
5981:
5976:
5971:
5965:
5963:
5959:
5958:
5956:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5940:
5935:
5930:
5925:
5920:
5915:
5914:
5913:
5903:
5901:Cloud feedback
5898:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5882:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5866:
5856:
5850:
5848:
5844:
5843:
5841:
5840:
5835:
5830:
5825:
5819:
5817:
5809:
5808:
5805:
5798:
5797:
5794:
5793:
5790:
5789:
5787:
5786:
5781:
5776:
5775:
5774:
5769:
5759:
5757:Kyoto Protocol
5754:
5748:
5746:
5742:
5741:
5739:
5738:
5733:
5732:
5731:
5726:
5721:
5711:
5709:Media coverage
5706:
5701:
5699:Climate spiral
5696:
5691:
5685:
5683:
5677:
5676:
5674:
5673:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5653:
5648:
5643:
5638:
5633:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5613:
5607:
5605:
5599:
5598:
5596:
5595:
5590:
5588:Public opinion
5585:
5580:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5560:
5555:
5554:
5553:
5543:
5538:
5536:Climate action
5533:
5527:
5525:
5517:
5516:
5510:
5503:
5502:
5499:
5498:
5495:
5494:
5492:
5491:
5490:
5489:
5478:
5476:
5472:
5471:
5469:
5468:
5463:
5457:
5456:
5455:
5450:
5448:REDD and REDD+
5445:
5440:
5432:
5427:
5425:Carbon farming
5422:
5421:
5420:
5415:
5405:
5399:
5397:
5389:
5388:
5386:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5369:
5368:
5358:
5352:
5350:
5346:
5345:
5343:
5342:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5286:
5285:
5275:
5270:
5264:
5262:
5252:
5251:
5246:
5239:
5238:
5235:
5234:
5231:
5230:
5228:
5227:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5177:
5171:
5169:
5163:
5162:
5160:
5159:
5157:Water security
5154:
5152:Water scarcity
5149:
5147:Urban flooding
5144:
5139:
5134:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5108:
5107:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5086:
5085:
5075:
5070:
5065:
5060:
5055:
5050:
5049:
5048:
5043:
5032:
5030:
5026:
5025:
5023:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5005:Forest dieback
5002:
4997:
4992:
4991:
4990:
4979:
4977:
4973:
4972:
4970:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4942:Sea level rise
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4923:
4922:
4917:
4915:stratification
4912:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4887:
4886:
4885:
4880:
4870:
4869:
4868:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4822:
4820:
4812:
4811:
4806:
4799:
4798:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4791:
4790:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4725:
4722:
4721:
4718:
4711:
4710:
4707:
4706:
4703:
4702:
4700:
4699:
4694:
4693:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4680:Carbon leakage
4677:
4672:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4646:
4644:
4640:
4639:
4637:
4636:
4631:
4621:
4619:Climate system
4615:
4613:
4605:
4604:
4599:
4592:
4591:
4588:
4587:
4585:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4558:
4555:
4554:
4551:
4544:
4543:
4540:Climate change
4538:
4536:
4535:
4528:
4521:
4513:
4507:
4506:
4492:
4477:
4476:
4470:
4464:
4458:
4451:
4450:External links
4448:
4447:
4446:
4427:
4416:
4400:
4388:
4387:
4367:
4366:
4352:
4328:
4327:
4283:
4282:
4281:
4280:
4275:IPCC SR15 2018
4238:
4235:
4233:
4232:
4220:
4192:
4173:
4140:
4108:
4075:
4058:Carbonfund.org
4045:
4028:Carbonfund.org
4015:
3998:Carbonfund.org
3985:
3958:
3928:
3902:
3875:
3848:
3842:978-0300189773
3841:
3823:
3797:
3756:
3723:
3691:
3684:
3653:
3619:
3607:
3590:
3579:
3552:
3540:
3529:
3514:
3499:
3484:
3451:
3429:
3412:"ICAP ETS-Map"
3403:
3376:
3359:
3340:
3328:
3313:
3272:
3211:
3204:
3186:
3179:
3151:
3118:
3088:
3058:
3025:
2992:
2980:
2922:
2895:
2866:
2830:
2797:
2758:(6): 484–489.
2738:
2708:
2679:
2665:
2653:
2641:
2616:
2590:
2578:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2468:Carbon offsets
2416:In late 2013,
2407:
2404:
2398:
2390:
2387:
2361:
2358:
2352:
2321:
2314:Carbon leakage
2310:
2309:Carbon leakage
2307:
2294:
2293:
2291:
2290:
2283:
2276:
2268:
2265:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2258:Rail subsidies
2255:
2253:Green politics
2250:
2248:Green New Deal
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2223:Carbon leakage
2219:
2216:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2175:Feed-in tariff
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2131:Value of Earth
2128:
2123:
2118:
2117:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2006:
2005:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1987:Sustainability
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1871:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1793:Eco-innovation
1790:
1785:
1783:Eco-capitalism
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1742:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1721:
1719:Climate change
1718:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1672:Carbon finance
1669:
1664:
1659:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1646:
1645:
1637:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1610:Eastern Idaho
1608:
1605:
1602:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1588:1 kg tofu
1585:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1571:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1561:1 kg nuts
1558:
1557:
1556:100 g per egg
1554:
1551:
1548:
1547:1 kg eggs
1544:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1533:1 kg fish
1530:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1521:
1517:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1506:1 kg rice
1503:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1493:1 kg pork
1490:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1465:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1454:1 kg beef
1451:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1441:1 kg lamb
1438:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1420:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1411:
1408:
1404:
1403:
1400:
1396:
1395:
1392:
1384:
1383:
1380:
1372:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1363:
1360:
1356:
1355:
1352:
1348:
1347:
1344:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1321:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1310:
1306:
1305:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1291:
1290:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1276:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1265:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1250:
1249:
1246:
1242:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1233:
1230:
1216:
1208:
1205:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1169:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1153:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1098:
1097:
1096:launched 2021
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1081:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1064:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1028:
1023:
1020:
1006:
1003:
990:
986:
982:
979:
978:
977:
973:
962:
956:
953:
940:
937:
913:
910:
893:
892:Implementation
890:
887:
886:
883:
880:
877:
873:
872:
866:
865:$ 757 (640 €)
862:
861:
855:
854:$ 213 (180 €)
852:
849:
845:
844:
841:
837:
836:
833:
830:
827:
823:
822:
819:
816:
813:
810:
799:
786:
754:market failure
743:
742:
740:
739:
732:
725:
717:
714:
713:
712:
711:
699:
687:
670:
669:
666:
665:
664:
663:
658:
653:
648:
638:
633:
628:
623:
618:
613:
608:
603:
598:
593:
591:Climate action
587:
584:
583:
580:
579:
576:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
540:
534:
529:
528:
525:
524:
521:
520:
515:
510:
505:
500:
495:
490:
485:
479:
476:
475:
472:
471:
468:
467:
462:
461:
460:
455:
450:
445:
438:Sustainability
435:
430:
425:
420:
415:
410:
408:Green building
405:
400:
395:
390:
385:
380:
375:
370:
365:
363:Eco-capitalism
360:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
329:
326:
325:
322:
321:
318:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
260:Coal phase-out
257:
251:
246:
245:
242:
241:
240:
239:
234:
229:
227:Climate change
221:
220:
214:
213:
202:
199:
187:
179:
171:
159:
108:
95:climate change
76:
71:Carbon pricing
57:
47:
37:
26:
24:
18:Carbon pricing
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6120:
6109:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6090:
6088:
6073:
6072:
6063:
6061:
6060:
6051:
6049:
6048:
6039:
6037:
6036:
6025:
6024:
6021:
6007:
6004:
6002:
5999:
5997:
5994:
5990:
5987:
5986:
5985:
5982:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5974:Climate model
5972:
5970:
5967:
5966:
5964:
5960:
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5939:
5936:
5934:
5931:
5929:
5926:
5924:
5921:
5919:
5916:
5912:
5909:
5908:
5907:
5906:Cloud forcing
5904:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5867:
5865:
5862:
5861:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5851:
5849:
5845:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5831:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5821:
5820:
5818:
5814:
5810:
5803:
5799:
5785:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5764:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5753:
5750:
5749:
5747:
5743:
5737:
5734:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5716:
5715:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5705:
5702:
5700:
5697:
5695:
5692:
5690:
5687:
5686:
5684:
5682:
5681:Communication
5678:
5672:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5662:
5661:Vulnerability
5659:
5657:
5654:
5652:
5649:
5647:
5644:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5634:
5632:
5631:Flood control
5629:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5619:
5617:
5614:
5612:
5609:
5608:
5606:
5604:
5600:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5556:
5552:
5549:
5548:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5528:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5514:
5508:
5504:
5488:
5485:
5484:
5483:
5480:
5479:
5477:
5473:
5467:
5464:
5461:
5458:
5454:
5453:reforestation
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5438:afforestation
5436:
5435:
5433:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5410:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5400:
5398:
5396:
5390:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5373:Nuclear power
5371:
5367:
5364:
5363:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5353:
5351:
5347:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5284:
5281:
5280:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5268:Carbon budget
5266:
5265:
5263:
5261:
5257:
5253:
5249:
5244:
5240:
5226:
5223:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5181:
5178:
5176:
5173:
5172:
5170:
5168:
5164:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5106:
5105:Mental health
5103:
5102:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5084:
5081:
5080:
5079:
5076:
5074:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5061:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5051:
5047:
5046:United States
5044:
5042:
5039:
5038:
5037:
5034:
5033:
5031:
5027:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4989:
4986:
4985:
4984:
4981:
4980:
4978:
4974:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4900:deoxygenation
4898:
4896:
4895:acidification
4893:
4892:
4891:
4888:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4875:
4874:
4871:
4867:
4864:
4863:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4823:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4804:
4800:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4759:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4726:
4723:
4716:
4712:
4698:
4695:
4691:
4690:from wetlands
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4667:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4650:Deforestation
4648:
4647:
4645:
4641:
4635:
4632:
4629:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4616:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4597:
4593:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4559:
4556:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4534:
4529:
4527:
4522:
4520:
4515:
4514:
4511:
4504:
4498:
4493:
4490:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4471:
4468:
4465:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4449:
4440:
4433:
4428:
4421:
4417:
4410:September 23,
4406:
4401:
4394:
4390:
4389:
4381:September 12,
4373:
4369:
4368:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4336:
4330:
4329:
4324:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4299:(9): 094037.
4298:
4294:
4290:
4285:
4284:
4277:
4276:
4268:
4263:
4262:
4260:
4252:
4251:
4245:
4241:
4240:
4236:
4230:. iasplus.com
4229:
4224:
4221:
4209:
4208:
4203:
4196:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4182:
4177:
4174:
4158:
4151:
4144:
4141:
4128:
4124:
4123:
4118:
4112:
4109:
4103:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4079:
4076:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4049:
4046:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4019:
4016:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3989:
3986:
3973:
3969:
3962:
3959:
3946:
3942:
3939:
3932:
3929:
3916:
3912:
3906:
3903:
3890:
3886:
3879:
3876:
3863:
3859:
3852:
3849:
3844:
3838:
3834:
3827:
3824:
3811:
3807:
3801:
3798:
3793:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3760:
3757:
3741:
3734:
3731:IPCC (2014).
3727:
3724:
3708:
3701:
3695:
3692:
3687:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3672:
3664:
3657:
3654:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3626:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3611:
3608:
3604:
3599:
3597:
3595:
3591:
3588:
3583:
3580:
3576:
3571:
3569:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3561:
3559:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3544:
3541:
3538:
3533:
3530:
3526:
3521:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3506:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3491:
3489:
3485:
3477:September 13,
3469:
3462:
3455:
3452:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3433:
3430:
3422:September 13,
3417:
3413:
3407:
3404:
3396:September 13,
3391:
3387:
3380:
3377:
3373:
3368:
3366:
3364:
3360:
3355:
3351:
3344:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3329:
3324:
3317:
3314:
3308:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3292:(4): 044036.
3291:
3287:
3283:
3276:
3273:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3215:
3212:
3207:
3201:
3197:
3190:
3187:
3182:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3163:
3155:
3152:
3140:
3136:
3129:
3122:
3119:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3092:
3089:
3076:
3072:
3065:
3063:
3059:
3043:
3036:
3029:
3026:
3018:September 13,
3010:
3003:
2996:
2993:
2989:
2984:
2981:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2926:
2923:
2910:
2906:
2899:
2896:
2880:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2851:
2844:
2841:IPCC (2014).
2837:
2835:
2831:
2815:
2808:
2801:
2798:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2742:
2739:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2712:
2709:
2696:
2692:
2686:
2684:
2680:
2677:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2663:, p. 374
2662:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2645:
2642:
2626:
2620:
2617:
2604:
2597:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2582:
2579:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2552:
2549:
2543:
2533:
2530:
2523:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2489:
2487:
2482:
2480:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2437:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2413:
2405:
2403:
2394:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2359:
2357:
2350:
2346:
2345:protectionism
2341:
2339:
2334:
2332:
2326:
2318:
2315:
2308:
2306:
2301:
2289:
2284:
2282:
2277:
2275:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2266:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2140:
2139:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2099:refurbishment
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1863:impact design
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1835:
1834:
1833:Environmental
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1818:Ecotechnology
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1798:Eco-investing
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1778:Disinvestment
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1677:Carbon offset
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1657:Carbon credit
1655:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1638:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1622:
1616:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1586:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1492:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1432:
1430:at farm gate
1429:
1426:
1425:
1417:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1381:
1378:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1358:
1357:
1353:
1351:1 kWh lignite
1350:
1349:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1307:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1247:
1244:
1243:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1214:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1190:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1170:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1062:revenue 2020
1061:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1045:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1004:
998:
994:
980:
971:
967:
963:
961:
957:
954:
950:
946:
945:
944:
938:
936:
932:
928:
926:
922:
918:
911:
909:
907:
898:
891:
884:
881:
878:
875:
874:
871:
867:
864:
863:
860:
856:
853:
846:
842:
839:
838:
834:
831:
824:
820:
814:
811:
808:
807:
804:
802:
794:
790:
784:
780:
776:
771:
770:cap-and-trade
767:
762:
760:
755:
750:
738:
733:
731:
726:
724:
719:
718:
716:
715:
710:
709:
700:
698:
697:
688:
685:
674:
673:
672:
671:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
643:
642:
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
611:Disinvestment
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
588:
582:
581:
574:
573:Reforestation
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
535:
532:
527:
526:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
480:
474:
473:
466:
463:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
440:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
330:
324:
323:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
290:Nuclear power
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
252:
249:
244:
243:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
224:
223:
222:
219:
215:
211:
207:
206:
200:
198:
196:
195:carbon budget
191:
185:
177:
169:
165:
157:
152:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
121:
119:
115:
111:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
72:
64:
54:
44:
34:
30:
19:
6098:Fossil fuels
6069:
6057:
6045:
6026:
5859:Carbon cycle
5816:Measurements
5511:Society and
5395:carbon sinks
5300:Climate debt
5290:Carbon price
5289:
5112:Human rights
4947:Season creep
4905:heat content
4831:Anoxic event
4744:James Hansen
4461:CDM Rulebook
4439:the original
4408:. Retrieved
4379:. Retrieved
4334:
4296:
4292:
4273:
4248:
4223:
4211:. Retrieved
4205:
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4143:
4131:. Retrieved
4122:The Guardian
4120:
4111:
4092:
4088:
4078:
4066:. Retrieved
4057:
4048:
4036:. Retrieved
4027:
4018:
4006:. Retrieved
3997:
3988:
3978:February 25,
3976:. Retrieved
3972:the original
3961:
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3940:
3931:
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3905:
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3878:
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3862:the original
3851:
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3740:the original
3726:
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3694:
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3644:. Retrieved
3640:the original
3635:
3617:, p. 46
3610:
3605:, p. 45
3582:
3550:, p. 20
3548:NZ Govt 2020
3543:
3532:
3527:, p. 64
3525:NZ Govt 2020
3512:, p. 60
3510:NZ Govt 2020
3497:, p. 22
3495:NZ Govt 2020
3475:. Retrieved
3454:
3446:the original
3441:
3432:
3420:. Retrieved
3406:
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3384:Asen, Elke.
3379:
3353:
3343:
3338:, p. 13
3331:
3316:
3289:
3285:
3275:
3263:. Retrieved
3246:10419/213707
3228:
3224:
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3142:. Retrieved
3121:
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3100:
3091:
3079:. Retrieved
3075:the original
3049:. Retrieved
3033:IMF (2014).
3028:
3016:. Retrieved
2995:
2983:
2940:
2936:
2925:
2913:. Retrieved
2909:the original
2903:EPA (2009).
2898:
2886:. Retrieved
2857:. Retrieved
2850:the original
2821:. Retrieved
2800:
2790:September 3,
2788:. Retrieved
2755:
2751:
2741:
2729:. Retrieved
2711:
2701:September 7,
2699:. Retrieved
2676:Kikstra 2021
2656:
2651:, p. 14
2644:
2632:. Retrieved
2619:
2609:September 7,
2607:. Retrieved
2588:, p. 23
2581:
2569:. Retrieved
2560:
2551:
2532:
2518:
2509:
2490:
2484:In 2019 the
2483:
2478:
2476:
2466:
2462:
2457:
2453:
2438:
2429:
2425:
2424:, published
2415:
2395:
2392:
2381:
2375:
2363:
2342:
2335:
2330:
2327:
2319:
2312:
2303:
2195:Net metering
2069:food systems
1997:organization
1788:Eco commerce
1702:Pigovian tax
1651:Carbon price
1343:ELECTRICITY
1212:
1210:
1197:energy taxes
1194:
1043:
1025:
1012:fossil fuels
1008:
984:
981:Price levels
942:
933:
929:
915:
903:
829:2013 / 2016
795:
791:
763:
746:
706:
694:
531:Carbon sinks
348:Climate debt
192:
153:
122:
74:
70:
69:
29:
5886:Carbon sink
5864:atmospheric
5729:video games
5403:Blue carbon
5036:Agriculture
5015:Marine life
4962:Water cycle
4920:temperature
4655:Fossil fuel
4095:: 133–138.
3354:Energy Post
3111:October 11,
2990:, p. 4
2943:(1): 4147.
2349:Eco-tariffs
2094:procurement
2049:development
2034:consumption
2019:agriculture
2014:advertising
2009:Sustainable
1900:development
1515:white rice
952:regulation.
641:Sustainable
538:Blue carbon
443:Agriculture
300:Solar power
141:Gulf states
91:fossil fuel
6087:Categories
5918:Cryosphere
5879:permafrost
5651:Resilience
5603:Adaptation
5578:Litigation
5568:Governance
5513:adaptation
5295:Carbon tax
5248:Mitigation
5185:Antarctica
5073:Disability
3442:Tagesschau
2544:References
2445:World Bank
2410:See also:
2298:See also:
2084:management
2079:livelihood
2074:industries
2024:capitalism
1992:accounting
1890:accounting
1848:enterprise
1838:accounting
1735:Food miles
1682:Carbon tax
1257:TRANSPORT
1245:1 L diesel
1237:1 L petrol
1131:non EU-ETS
1079:$ 22.5 bn
921:carbon tax
766:carbon tax
453:Capitalism
413:Green home
343:Carbon tax
310:Wind power
112:and other
99:carbon tax
53:Carbon tax
6103:Subsidies
5933:Feedbacks
5704:Education
5205:Caribbean
5200:Australia
5127:Migration
5090:Fisheries
5041:Livestock
4967:Wildfires
4873:Heat wave
4362:242987579
4323:237427400
4213:August 5,
3951:April 25,
3921:August 4,
3868:August 1,
3792:2378-0231
3749:August 3,
3255:159287863
3231:: 53–60.
3144:April 26,
3081:August 6,
3051:August 2,
2957:2041-1723
2915:August 3,
2888:March 31,
2859:August 3,
2823:August 3,
2780:182663891
2693:. EMBER.
2571:March 14,
2126:Used good
2114:transport
2002:reporting
1920:marketing
1617:Economics
1184:$ 2.3 bn
1167:$ 2.4 bn
1134:$ 9.6 bn
1117:$ 3.4 bn
1110:National
458:Transport
327:Economics
145:Australia
6059:Glossary
6047:Category
5869:biologic
5583:Politics
5475:Personal
5180:Americas
5053:Children
4819:Physical
4612:Overview
4552:Overview
4184:Archived
4166:July 26,
4157:Archived
4127:Archived
4068:July 21,
4062:Archived
4038:July 21,
4032:Archived
4008:July 21,
4002:Archived
3945:Archived
3915:Archived
3895:July 26,
3889:Archived
3816:June 24,
3810:Archived
3716:April 6,
3707:Archived
3646:April 5,
3615:EWG 2011
3603:EWG 2011
3587:WWF 2012
3575:EWG 2011
3468:Archived
3416:Archived
3414:. ICAP.
3390:Archived
3259:Archived
3105:Archived
3042:Archived
3009:Archived
2988:IWG 2016
2975:38755167
2966:11099057
2814:Archived
2784:Archived
2725:Archived
2695:Archived
2565:Archived
2447:and the
2217:Policies
2104:sourcing
1930:recovery
1895:building
1868:planning
1773:Degrowth
1747:Concepts
1626:a series
1624:Part of
1574:1 L milk
1327:$ 292.50
1263:remarks
868:Without
857:With 1%
821:Remarks
696:Glossary
448:Business
210:a series
208:Part of
201:Overview
101:, or an
5874:oceanic
5724:fiction
5573:Justice
5524:Society
5132:Poverty
4851:Drought
4719:History
4643:Sources
4301:Bibcode
4237:Sources
4207:Reuters
4133:May 15,
3325:. IEEE.
3294:Bibcode
3265:May 11,
2760:Bibcode
2731:May 15,
2634:June 2,
2451:(IMF).
2109:tourism
2064:finance
1940:vehicle
1935:trading
1925:paradox
1905:economy
1853:finance
1583:2% fat
1418:$ 0.29
1410:$ 0.03
1402:$ 0.02
1394:impact
1382:$ 0.04
1370:$ 0.06
1362:$ 0.10
1354:$ 0.11
1346:impact
1312:$ 76.50
1297:$ 32.95
1260:impact
1248:$ 0.27
1240:$ 0.24
1232:impact
1139:Germany
1033:methane
882:$ 3372
809:Source
661:Tourism
79:pricing
5854:Albedo
5847:Theory
5558:Denial
5349:Energy
5210:Europe
5190:Arctic
5175:Africa
5100:Health
5095:Gender
5058:Cities
4983:Biomes
4890:Oceans
4878:Marine
4601:Causes
4360:
4350:
4321:
3839:
3790:
3682:
3253:
3202:
3177:
2973:
2963:
2955:
2778:
2479:global
2368:. The
2331:et al.
2089:market
2059:energy
2039:design
1910:growth
1843:design
1607:$ 0.29
1604:$ 0.03
1594:$ 0.20
1591:$ 0.07
1580:$ 0.19
1577:$ 0.11
1567:$ 0.23
1564:$ 0.13
1553:$ 0.41
1550:$ 0.20
1539:$ 0.61
1536:$ 0.41
1526:$ 0.69
1523:$ 0.23
1512:$ 0.27
1509:$ 0.24
1499:$ 1.21
1496:$ 0.46
1486:$ 1.35
1483:$ 0.98
1471:$ 1.47
1460:$ 2.70
1457:$ 1.52
1447:$ 3.92
1444:$ 2.04
1282:$ 6.70
1271:$ 8.40
1172:Sweden
1122:France
1101:Canada
840:$ 212
779:EU ETS
684:Portal
656:Living
518:UNFCCC
248:Energy
147:had a
139:, the
137:Russia
129:Canada
116:are a
61:
59:
51:
49:
41:
39:
6071:Index
5833:Proxy
5593:Women
5068:Crime
4995:Birds
4861:Flood
4442:(PDF)
4435:(PDF)
4423:(PDF)
4396:(PDF)
4375:(PDF)
4358:S2CID
4319:S2CID
4270:(PDF)
4254:(PDF)
4160:(PDF)
4153:(PDF)
3743:(PDF)
3736:(PDF)
3710:(PDF)
3703:(PDF)
3666:(PDF)
3471:(PDF)
3464:(PDF)
3251:S2CID
3131:(PDF)
3045:(PDF)
3038:(PDF)
3012:(PDF)
3005:(PDF)
2882:(PDF)
2853:(PDF)
2846:(PDF)
2817:(PDF)
2810:(PDF)
2776:S2CID
2628:(PDF)
2524:Notes
1885:Green
1628:about
1427:FOOD
1391:HEAT
1229:FUEL
1156:Japan
1084:China
1056:share
1031:like
970:BECCS
966:PyCCS
879:2021
851:2019
832:$ 42
812:Year
764:In a
708:Index
133:India
5656:Risk
5195:Asia
4787:2024
4782:2023
4777:2022
4772:2021
4767:2020
4762:2019
4412:2021
4383:2021
4348:ISBN
4244:IPCC
4215:2010
4168:2014
4135:2019
4070:2021
4040:2021
4010:2021
3980:2014
3953:2016
3923:2014
3897:2014
3870:2014
3837:ISBN
3818:2019
3788:ISSN
3751:2014
3718:2010
3680:ISBN
3648:2010
3479:2021
3424:2021
3398:2021
3267:2021
3200:ISBN
3175:ISBN
3146:2010
3135:OECD
3113:2019
3083:2010
3053:2014
3020:2021
2971:PMID
2953:ISSN
2917:2014
2890:2019
2861:2014
2825:2014
2792:2019
2733:2019
2703:2021
2636:2023
2611:2021
2573:2021
2491:The
2370:IPCC
1377:CCGT
1053:type
651:Diet
73:(or
5719:art
4340:doi
4309:doi
4097:doi
3778:doi
3302:doi
3241:hdl
3233:doi
3167:doi
2961:PMC
2945:doi
2768:doi
2430:not
1915:job
1201:VAT
1178:40%
1175:tax
1162:75%
1159:tax
1145:40%
1142:ETS
1128:35%
1125:tax
1107:22%
1104:tax
1090:40%
1087:ETS
1073:39%
1070:ETS
1035:or
968:or
176:GDP
6089::
4356:.
4346:.
4317:.
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