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quality examination. Providing an age-appropriate explanation of the procedure to the child in advance will increase the likelihood of a successful study. After proper safety screening, parents can be allowed into the MRI scanner room to help their child complete the examination. Some centers allow children to listen to music or watch movies through a specialized MRI-compatible audiovisual system to reduce anxiety and improve cooperation. However, the presence of a calm, encouraging, supportive parent generally produces better results in terms of pediatric cooperation than any distraction or entertainment strategy short of sedation. If the child cannot cooperate sufficiently, sedation with intravenous medications or general anesthesia may be necessary. In very young babies, it may be possible to perform the examination while they are in a natural sleep. New image capture techniques such as 4D flow require a shorter scan and can lead to reduced needs for sedation.
727:. This difference forms the physical basis of the image contrast between cells and extracellular fluid. In 1973, the first simple NMR image was published and the first medical imaging in 1977, entering the clinical arena in the early 1980s. In 1984, NMR medical imaging was renamed MRI. Initial attempts to image the heart were confounded by respiratory and cardiac motion, solved by using cardiac ECG gating, faster scan techniques and breath hold imaging. Increasingly sophisticated techniques were developed including cine imaging and techniques to characterise
613:(cardiac ultrasound) cannot provide sufficient diagnostic information, (2) as an alternative to diagnostic cardiac catheterization which involve risks including x-ray radiation exposure, (3) to obtain diagnostic information for which CMR offers unique advantages such as blood flow measurement or identification of cardiac masses, and (4) when clinical assessment and other diagnostic tests are inconsistent. Examples of conditions in which CMR is often used include
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while acquiring saturation recovery images of the heart with a high temporal resolution readout. A positive result is evident from an inducible myocardial perfusion defect. Cost and availability mean that its use is often confined to patients with intermediate pre-test probability, but it has been shown to reduce unnecessary angiography compared with guidelines-directed care.
574:
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320:(bSSFP) which has good temporal resolution and intrinsic image contrast. T1-weighted sequences are used to visualize anatomy and detect the presence of intra-myocardial fat. T1 mapping has also been developed to quantify diffuse myocardial fibrosis. T2-weighted imaging is mainly used to detect myocardial edema which may develop in acute
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384:
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CMR examinations in children typically last 15 to 60 minutes. In order to avoid blurry images the child must remain very still during the examination. Different institutions have different protocols for pediatric CMR, but most children 7 years of age and older can cooperate sufficiently for a good
503:
receptor, to increase the difference in perfusion between myocardial territories supplied by normal and stenosed coronary arteries. A continuous intravenous infusion is administered for a few minutes until there are hemodynamic signs of vasodilatation, then a bolus of contrast medium is administered
357:
cine sequences. These are usually retrospectively-gated and have intrinsically high contrast in cardiac imaging due to the relatively high T2:T1 ratio of blood compared to myocardium. Images are typically planned sequentially to achieve the standard cardiac planes used for assessment. Turbulent flow
344:
A CMR study typically comprises a set of sequences in a protocol tailored to the specific indication for the exam. A study begins with localisers to assist with image planning, and then a set of retrospectively-gated cine sequences to assess biventricular function in standard orientations. Contrast
1817:
Greenwood, John P.; Ripley, David P.; Berry, Colin; McCann, Gerry P.; Plein, Sven; Bucciarelli-Ducci, Chiara; Dall’Armellina, Erica; Prasad, Abhiram; Bijsterveld, Petra; Foley, James R.; Mangion, Kenneth; Sculpher, Mark; Walker, Simon; Everett, Colin C.; Cairns, David A.; Sharples, Linda D.; Brown,
441:
are administered intravenously and delayed imaging is performed at least 10 minutes later to achieve optimum contrast between normal and infarcted myocardium. An inversion recovery (IR) sequence is used to null the signal from normal myocardium. Myocardial viability can be assessed by the degree of
693:
ratio which can be traded for improved temporal or spatial resolution – which is of greatest utility in first-pass perfusion studies. However, greater capital costs and effects of off-resonance artefact on image quality mean that many studies are routinely performed at 1.5T. Imaging at 7T field
605:
are the most common type of major birth defect. Accurate diagnosis is essential for the development of appropriate treatment plans. CMR can provide comprehensive information about the nature of congenital hearts defects in a safe fashion without using x-rays or entering the body. It is rarely
1877:
Dyverfeldt, Petter; Bissell, Malenka; Barker, Alex J.; Bolger, Ann F.; Carlhäll, Carl-Johan; Ebbers, Tino; Francios, Christopher J.; Frydrychowicz, Alex; Geiger, Julia; Giese, Daniel; Hope, Michael D.; Kilner, Philip J.; Kozerke, Sebastian; Myerson, Saul; Neubauer, Stefan; Wieben, Oliver; Markl,
817:
Lee, Daniel C.; Markl, Michael; Dall’Armellina, Erica; Han, Yuchi; Kozerke, Sebastian; Kuehne, Titus; Nielles-Vallespin, Sonia; Messroghli, Daniel; Patel, Amit; Schaeffter, Tobias; Simonetti, Orlando; Valente, Anne Marie; Weinsaft, Jonathan W.; Wright, Graham; Zimmerman, Stefan; Schulz-Menger,
1448:
Critchley, William R; Reid, Anna; Morris, Julie; Naish, Josephine H; Stone, John P; Ball, Alexandra L; Major, Triin; Clark, David; Waldron, Nick; Fortune, Christien; Lagan, Jakub; Lewis, Gavin A; Ainslie, Mark; Schelbert, Erik B; Davis, Daniel M; Schmitt, Matthias; Fildes, James E; Miller,
1006:
Petersen, Steffen E.; Aung, Nay; Sanghvi, Mihir M.; Zemrak, Filip; Fung, Kenneth; Paiva, Jose Miguel; Francis, Jane M.; Khanji, Mohammed Y.; Lukaschuk, Elena; Lee, Aaron M.; Carapella, Valentina; Kim, Young Jin; Leeson, Paul; Piechnik, Stefan K.; Neubauer, Stefan (December 2017).
1371:
Simi S, Ballardin M, Casella M, De Marchi D, Hartwig V, Giovannetti G, Vanello N, Gabbriellini S, Landini L, Lombardi M (2008). "Is the genotoxic effect of magnetic resonance negligible? Low persistence of micronucleus frequency in lymphocytes of individuals after cardiac scan".
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to be visualised using specialist software. Applications are in complex congenital heart disease and for research into cardiovascular flow characteristics - however it is not in routine clinical use due to the complexity of post-processing and relatively long acquisition times.
266:
and skilled clinicians, relatively high costs, and competing diagnostic modalities. Some organizations are working on solutions to reduce these obstacles so that more clinics can adopt CMR into their practices. These solutions are often software platforms that provide
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medium is given intravenously to assess myocardial perfusion and LGE. Phase contrast imaging may be used to quantify valvular regurgitant fraction and shunt volume. Additional sequences may include T1 and T2-weighted imaging and MR angiography. Examples are below:
375:
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Conventional phase contrast imaging can be extended by applying flow-sensitive gradients in 3 orthogonal planes within a 3D volume throughout the cardiac cycle. Such 4D imaging encodes the velocity of flowing blood at each voxel in the volume enabling
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Certification of competency in CMR can be obtained at three levels, with different requirements for each. Level 3 requires 50 hours of approved courses, at least 300 studies performed, sitting a written examination and recommendation by a supervisor.
29:
1959:"Rationale and design of the Clinical Evaluation of Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Coronary heart disease 2 trial (CE-MARC 2): A prospective, multicenter, randomized trial of diagnostic strategies in suspected coronary heart disease"
297:
effects of cardiac MRI have been reported in vivo and in vitro, but these findings have not been replicated by more recent studies, and are unlikely to produce the complex DNA damage associated with ionizing radiation.
2178:
Petersen, S. E.; Almeida, A. G.; Alpendurada, F.; Boubertakh, R.; Bucciarelli-Ducci, C.; Cosyns, B.; Greil, G. F.; Karamitsos, T. D.; Lancellotti, P.; Stefanidis, A. S.; Tann, O.; Westwood, M.; Plein, S. (1 July 2014).
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Imaging in the 4-chamber plane. Left: Inversion recovery LGE sequence. Right: Corresponding cine sequence. This shows a chronic infarction with akinetic apex and transmural scar. Mitral regurgitation is also
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CMR is increasingly recognized as a quantitative imaging modality for evaluation of the heart. The reporting of CMR exams involves manual work and visual assessment. In recent years, with the development of
1647:
Kramer, Christopher M; Barkhausen, Jörg; Flamm, Scott D; Kim, Raymond J; Nagel, Eike; Society for
Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Board of Trustees Task Force on Standardized, Protocols. (December 2013).
293:, predominantly using linear compounds in patients with renal disease. More recently evidence of intra-cranial deposition of gadolinium has been shown - although no neurological effects have been reported.
422:
In sequence: a coronal localiser, 2 chamber cine, 4 chamber cine, left ventricular short axis cine, and tagged image. Additional cines of the left ventricular outflow tract and aortic valve may also be
1820:"Effect of Care Guided by Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance, Myocardial Perfusion Scintigraphy, or NICE Guidelines on Subsequent Unnecessary Angiography Rates: The CE-MARC 2 Randomized Clinical Trial"
316:
techniques. Imaging of the cardiovascular system is usually performed with cardiac gating using an adaptation of conventional ECG techniques. Cine sequences of the heart are acquired using balanced
609:
Rather, it is typically used in concert with other diagnostic techniques. In general, the clinical reasons for a CMR examination fall into one or more of the following categories: (1) when
358:
causes dephasing and signal loss allowing valvular disease to be qualitatively appreciated. The left ventricular short axis cines are acquired from base to apex and are used for quantifying
188:
gating and high temporal resolution protocols. The development of cardiac MRI is an active field of research and continues to see a rapid expansion of new and emerging techniques.
585:
Intra- and extracardiac flow is visualised in a time-resolved 4D volume encompassing the heart and great vessels. Left: Flow velocity. Centre: Streamlines. Right: Flow vectors.
1236:
Gulani, Vikas; Calamante, Fernando; Shellock, Frank G; Kanal, Emanuel; Reeder, Scott B (2017). "Gadolinium deposition in the brain: summary of evidence and recommendations".
228:. It is the reference standard for the assessment of cardiac structure and function, and is valuable for diagnosis and surgical planning in complex congenital heart disease.
820:"The growth and evolution of cardiovascular magnetic resonance: a 20-year history of the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance (SCMR) annual scientific sessions"
2090:
Hazlewood, C. F.; Chang, D. C.; Nichols, B. L.; Rorschach, H. E. (March 1971). "Interaction of water molecules with macromolecular structures in cardiac muscle".
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Ripley, David P.; Brown, Julia M.; Everett, Colin C.; Bijsterveld, Petra; Walker, Simon; Sculpher, Mark; McCann, Gerry P.; Berry, Colin; Plein, Sven (2015).
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2181:"Update of the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI) Core Syllabus for the European Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Certification Exam"
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723:. In 1971, there was the first report of the difference of the relaxation times for water in myocardium and pure water in spin-echo NMR by Hazlewood and
1009:"Reference ranges for cardiac structure and function using cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) in Caucasians from the UK Biobank population cohort"
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volumes, as well as myocardial mass. Tagging sequences excite a grid pattern that deforms with cardiac contraction allowing strain to be assessed.
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746:' from cardiac ultrasound, the term 'cardiovascular magnetic resonance' (CMR) was proposed and has gained acceptance as the name for the field.
67:
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Lee JW, Kim MS, Kim YJ, Choi YJ, Lee Y, Chung HW (2011). "Genotoxic effects of 3 T magnetic resonance imaging in cultured human lymphocytes".
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208:. The technique has a key role in evidence-based diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular disease. Its applications include assessment of
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may be performed with or without contrast medium and is used to assess congenital or acquired abnormalities of the coronary arteries and
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transmural enhancement. Cardiomyopathic, inflammatory and infiltrative diseases may also have distinctive patterns of non-ischemic LGE.
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2006:
Rajiah, Prabhakar; Bolen, Michael A. (October 2014). "Cardiovascular MR Imaging at 3 T: Opportunities, Challenges, and
Solutions".
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715:(NMR) was first described in molecular beams (1938) and bulk matter (1946), work later acknowledged by the award of a joint
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Tao, Qian; Lelieveldt, Boudewijn P. F.; van der Geest, Rob J. (March 2020). "Deep
Learning for Quantitative Cardiac MRI".
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Haaf, Philip; Garg, Pankaj; Messroghli, Daniel R.; Broadbent, David A.; Greenwood, John P.; Plein, Sven (January 2017).
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Nacif, Marcelo Souto; Zavodni, Anna; Kawel, Nadine; Choi, Eui-Young; Lima, JoĂŁo A. C.; Bluemke, David A. (August 2012).
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Babu-Narayan, Sonya V.; Giannakoulas, George; Valente, Anne Marie; Li, Wei; Gatzoulis, Michael A. (14 April 2016).
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techniques, the reporting and analysis of cardiac MRI are expected to be more efficient, facilitated by automatic
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Niendorf, Thoralf; Sodickson, Daniel K.; Krombach, Gabriele A.; Schulz-Menger, Jeanette (December 2010).
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muscle as normal or abnormal (fat infiltration, oedematous, iron loaded, acutely infarcted or fibrosed).
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stress, it has a role in detecting and characterizing myocardial ischemia due to disease affecting the
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Current manufacturers of cardiac-capable MRI scanners include
Philips, Siemens, Hitachi, Toshiba, GE.
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As MRI became more complex and application to cardiovascular imaging became more sophisticated, the
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Suzuki, Y; Ikehata, M; Nakamura, K; Nishioka, M; Asanuma, K; Koana, T; Shimizu, H (November 2001).
957:"Role of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in the guidelines of the European Society of Cardiology"
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Enlarged right ventricle with poor function in a patient with repaired tetralogy of Fallot by CMR
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1598:"Cardiac T1 Mapping and Extracellular Volume (ECV) in clinical practice: a comprehensive review"
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von
Knobelsdorff-Brenkenhoff, Florian; Pilz, Guenter; Schulz-Menger, Jeanette (December 2017).
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Doltra, Adelina; Amundsen, Brage Hoyem; Gebker, Rolf; Fleck, Eckart; Kelle, Sebastian (2013).
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in 1952. Further investigation laid out the principles of relaxation times leading to nuclear
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2043:"Toward cardiovascular MRI at 7 T: clinical needs, technical solutions and research promises"
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2015:
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Kim, Soo Jung; Kim, Kyung Ah (2017). "Safety issues and updates under MR environments".
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Cardiac MRI does not pose any specific risks compared to other indications for imaging.
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1549:"Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and its electrocardiographs (ECG): tips and tricks"
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The majority of CMR is performed on conventional superconducting MRI systems at either
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uses bipolar gradients to encode velocity in a given direction and is used to assess
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if there are some implanted metal or electronic devices such as some intracerebral
41:
33:
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906:"Representation of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in the AHA / ACC guidelines"
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3150:
3119:
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2730:
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2374:
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1930:"Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Equipment, Operations and Planning in the NHS"
1451:"The effect of 1.5 T cardiac magnetic resonance on human circulating leucocytes"
1281:"Impact of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging on human lymphocyte DNA integrity"
1214:
955:
von
Knobelsdorff-Brenkenhoff, Florian; Schulz-Menger, Jeanette (December 2015).
716:
641:
374:
321:
217:
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Obstacles to its wider application include limited access to scanners, lack of
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1974:
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to be identified for characterizing cardiomyopathy and assessing viability.
83:
79:
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3218:
2265:
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1819:
1666:
1650:"Standardized cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) protocols 2013 update"
1279:
Fiechter M, Stehli J, Fuchs TA, Dougoud S, Gaemperli O, Kaufmann PA (2013).
489:
294:
2209:
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1992:
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Eijgenraam, Tim R.; Silljé, Herman H.W.; de Boer, Rudolf A. (August 2020).
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Captur, Gabriella; Manisty, Charlotte; Moon, James C (15 September 2016).
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2019:
248:
196:
Cardiovascular MRI is complementary to other imaging techniques, such as
2147:
1792:
625:, single ventricle heart disease, abnormalities of the pulmonary veins,
606:
used as the first or sole diagnostic test for congenital heart disease.
92:
3881:
3284:
74:
28:
1341:
125:
used for non-invasive assessment of the function and structure of the
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strength is a growing area of research, but is not widely available.
2275:
1409:"Induction of micronuclei in mice exposed to static magnetic fields"
410:
3903:
3114:
3075:
2995:
2825:
2656:
2501:
2316:
1701:"Emerging Concepts for Myocardial Late Gadolinium Enhancement MRI"
728:
142:
637:, abnormal origins of the coronary arteries, and cardiac tumors.
653:
648:
Atrial septal defect with dilation of the right ventricle by CMR
3079:
2284:
1880:"4D flow cardiovascular magnetic resonance consensus statement"
1750:"Current understanding of fibrosis in genetic cardiomyopathies"
401:
383:
313:
876:. In Feather, Adam; Randall, David; Waterhouse, Mona (eds.).
1156:
Magnetic
Resonance Angiography: Principles and Applications
742:(JCMR) in 1999. In a move analogous to the development of '
243:. Late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) and T1 mapping allow
2243:
An Atlas of normal cardiac structure and function by CMR
353:
Functional and structural information is acquired using
289:
is frequently used in CMR and has been associated with
2225:
1793:"Chest pain of recent onset: assessment and diagnosis"
872:
Bunce, Nicholas H.; Ray, Robin; Patel, Hitesh (2020).
689:
or 3T. Imaging at 3T field strength offers greater
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3010:
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2722:
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1553:
784:"Case of the Week Number 06-01. Left Atrial Myxoma"
738:(SCMR) was set up (1996) with an academic journal,
73:
61:
49:
21:
660:Partial Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Drainage by CMR
2238:The Journal for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
2226:The Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
1797:National Institute for Care and Health Excellence
524:Inducible perfusion defect in the inferior wall.
2188:European Heart Journal - Cardiovascular Imaging
1060:"Imaging of congenital heart disease in adults"
880:(10th ed.). Elsevier. pp. 1042–1044.
1109:"Cardiac MRI evaluation of myocardial disease"
271:and improve the efficiency of the procedures.
129:. Conditions in which it is performed include
3091:
2296:
789:Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
736:Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
8:
2092:Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology
1884:Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
1654:Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
1602:Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
1154:Carr, James C.; Carroll, Timothy J. (2016).
1013:Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
961:Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
910:Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
824:Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
740:Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
485:Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging perfusion
312:CMR uses the same basic principles as other
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2338:Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures
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1374:Mutat. Res. Fundam. Mol. Mech. Mutagenesis
27:
2434:Transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement
2199:
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1982:
1905:
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1847:1983/ee0583b3-a505-41f8-be9b-15c6e9ec44a2
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1024:
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537:Phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging
184:are adapted for cardiac imaging by using
3934:Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging
2477:shunt from heart chamber to blood vessel
2577:shunt from blood vessel to blood vessel
775:
681:Different cardiac-capable magnet types
18:
2707:Valve-sparing aortic root replacement
2446:enlargement of existing septal defect
2261:Cardiac MRI, Technical Aspects Primer
899:
897:
707:History of magnetic resonance imaging
629:, connective tissue diseases such as
592:Children and congenital heart disease
308:Physics of magnetic resonance imaging
7:
2441:production of septal defect in heart
281:Safety of magnetic resonance imaging
878:Kumar and Clark's Clinical Medicine
619:transposition of the great arteries
88:
3741:Sestamibi parathyroid scintigraphy
2538:transposition of the great vessels
2463:creation of septal defect in heart
1500:"Cardiac MR imaging genotoxicity?"
103:Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging
22:Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging
14:
2838:Cardiac resynchronization therapy
2127:American Journal of Roentgenology
1757:Trends in Cardiovascular Medicine
1449:Christopher A (21 January 2018).
349:Heart function using cine imaging
210:myocardial ischemia and viability
161:. It can also be used to look at
3996:
3995:
3062:
3061:
1498:Hill, Mark A (21 January 2018).
668:
652:
640:
572:
563:
554:
511:
458:
449:
409:
400:
391:
382:
373:
287:Gadolinium based contrast medium
3498:Cholangiopancreatography (MRCP)
2845:Left atrial appendage occlusion
3746:Radioactive iodine uptake test
1818:Julia M. (13 September 2016).
253:Magnetic resonance angiography
1:
3726:Radionuclide ventriculography
3200:Lower gastrointestinal series
3192:Upper gastrointestinal series
2967:Radionuclide ventriculography
1937:Royal College of Radiologists
1250:10.1016/s1474-4422(17)30158-8
1203:European Journal of Radiology
291:nephrogenic systemic fibrosis
16:Biomedical imaging technology
3917:Optical coherence tomography
3839:Myocardial perfusion imaging
3427:Dental panoramic radiography
2952:Myocardial perfusion imaging
2104:10.1016/0022-2828(71)90078-2
1717:10.2174/1573403x113099990030
1386:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2008.08.011
1125:10.1136/heartjnl-2015-309077
792:. 2016-10-21. Archived from
318:steady state free precession
1215:10.1016/j.ejrad.2017.01.010
430:Late gadolinium enhancement
4043:
4027:Magnetic resonance imaging
3721:Ventilation/perfusion scan
3196:Small-bowel follow-through
2559:for univentricular defect
1705:Current Cardiology Reviews
818:Jeanette (December 2018).
713:nuclear magnetic resonance
704:
595:
534:
482:
305:
278:
119:magnetic resonance imaging
3991:
3962:Dynamic angiothermography
3706:
3630:Abdominal ultrasonography
3136:
3059:
2899:Implantable loop recorder
2543:Arterial switch operation
2333:Interventional cardiology
2323:
2059:10.1007/s00330-010-1902-8
1975:10.1016/j.ahj.2014.10.008
1897:10.1186/s12968-015-0174-5
1878:Michael (December 2015).
1770:10.1016/j.tcm.2019.09.003
1615:10.1186/s12968-016-0308-4
1565:10.1007/s10554-011-9957-4
1026:10.1186/s12968-017-0327-9
974:10.1186/s12968-016-0225-6
923:10.1186/s12968-017-0385-z
837:10.1186/s12968-018-0429-z
269:clinical decision support
224:, vascular diseases, and
89:
26:
3952:Non-contact thermography
3731:Radionuclide angiography
3583:Doppler echocardiography
2978:Coronary catheterization
2468:Blalock–Hanlon procedure
2429:Mitral valve replacement
2412:Aortic valve replacement
1516:10.1093/eurheartj/ehx719
1467:10.1093/eurheartj/ehx646
1297:10.1093/eurheartj/eht184
1076:10.1093/eurheartj/ehv519
623:coarctation of the aorta
603:Congenital heart defects
226:congenital heart disease
131:congenital heart disease
3736:Radioisotope renography
2974:Cardiac catheterization
2916:Electrophysiology study
2816:Radiofrequency ablation
2781:Alcohol septal ablation
1837:10.1001/jama.2016.12680
1667:10.1186/1532-429X-15-91
1426:10.1093/mutage/16.6.499
752:artificial intelligence
598:Congenital heart defect
3771:Gastric emptying study
3020:Impedance cardiography
2642:Coronary artery bypass
1963:American Heart Journal
1504:European Heart Journal
1455:European Heart Journal
1285:European Heart Journal
1064:European Heart Journal
469:Myocardial infarction.
326:Phase-contrast imaging
159:coronary heart disease
139:valvular heart disease
3432:X-ray motion analysis
3315:X-ray microtomography
3234:Hysterosalpingography
3141:Pneumoencephalography
3051:Transcutaneous pacing
2855:Heart transplantation
2776:Ventricular reduction
2592:Blalock–Taussig shunt
1188:"Cohesic cardioDI MR"
1158:. Springer New York.
127:cardiovascular system
3957:Contact thermography
3667:Emergency ultrasound
3605:Transcranial Doppler
3356:Abdominal and pelvis
3025:Ballistocardiography
2582:systemic circulation
2201:10.1093/ehjci/jeu076
2139:10.2214/AJR.19.21927
2020:10.1148/rg.346140048
1238:The Lancet Neurology
627:atrial septal defect
3924:Confocal microscopy
3802:Indium-111 WBC scan
3625:Echoencephalography
3361:Virtual colonoscopy
2904:Cardiac stress test
2882:Electrocardiography
2821:Pacemaker insertion
2568:Kawashima procedure
2532:compound procedures
2407:Aortic valve repair
2380:Mitral valve repair
1330:Bioelectromagnetics
615:tetralogy of Fallot
420:Example CMR images.
3912:Optical tomography
3761:Dacryoscintigraphy
3756:Immunoscintigraphy
3395:Whole body imaging
3146:Dental radiography
2957:Cardiovascular MRI
2887:Vectorcardiography
2742:Pericardial window
2737:Pericardiocentesis
2678:Drug-eluting stent
2507:Rastelli procedure
2456:Balloon septostomy
2253:2021-02-27 at the
2231:2020-11-04 at the
2047:European Radiology
711:The phenomenon of
141:, diseases of the
115:cardiovascular MRI
4009:
4008:
3971:Target conditions
3894:
3893:
3890:
3889:
3810:
3809:
3751:Bone scintigraphy
3716:Scintimammography
3711:Cholescintigraphy
3556:contrast-enhanced
3450:
3449:
3410:
3409:
3400:Full-body CT scan
3300:General operation
3279:
3278:
3249:Angiocardiography
3073:
3072:
2930:Angiocardiography
2876:Electrophysiology
2863:
2862:
2806:Catheter ablation
2789:Conduction system
2714:LeCompte maneuver
2702:Bentall procedure
2563:Norwood procedure
2553:Senning procedure
2548:Mustard procedure
2451:Atrial septostomy
2402:Valve replacement
2271:the basics of MRI
2248:Having a CMR scan
2053:(12): 2806–2816.
1830:(10): 1051–1060.
1342:10.1002/bem.20664
1165:978-1-4939-4057-8
1119:(18): 1429–1435.
1070:(15): 1182–1195.
887:978-0-7020-7870-5
677:
661:
649:
113:), also known as
100:
99:
75:OPS-301 code
4034:
3999:
3998:
3822:
3704:
3694:
3578:Echocardiography
3437:Hounsfield scale
3290:
3209:Cholecystography
3134:
3125:
3100:
3093:
3086:
3077:
3065:
3064:
3030:Cardiotocography
2998:
2962:Ventriculography
2935:Echocardiography
2926:
2878:
2794:Maze procedure (
2791:
2757:
2733:
2686:
2685:Obstacle removal
2673:Bare-metal stent
2669:
2629:
2586:pulmonary artery
2578:
2533:
2518:pulmonary artery
2491:Fontan procedure
2486:pulmonary artery
2478:
2442:
2356:
2305:
2298:
2291:
2282:
2214:
2213:
2203:
2185:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2150:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2070:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2014:(6): 1612–1635.
2003:
1997:
1996:
1986:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1944:
1934:
1926:
1920:
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1909:
1899:
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1689:
1679:
1669:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1627:
1617:
1593:
1587:
1586:
1576:
1559:(6): 1465–1475.
1544:
1538:
1537:
1527:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1478:
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1439:
1438:
1428:
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997:
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952:
946:
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925:
901:
892:
891:
874:"30. Cardiology"
869:
860:
859:
849:
839:
814:
805:
804:
802:
801:
780:
744:echocardiography
675:
672:
659:
656:
647:
644:
611:echocardiography
576:
567:
558:
515:
514:
462:
453:
452:
413:
404:
395:
386:
377:
241:microvasculature
214:cardiomyopathies
206:nuclear medicine
198:echocardiography
135:cardiomyopathies
93:edit on Wikidata
31:
19:
4042:
4041:
4037:
4036:
4035:
4033:
4032:
4031:
4022:Cardiac imaging
4012:
4011:
4010:
4005:
3987:
3966:
3938:
3886:
3872:PET mammography
3843:
3806:
3792:Gallium-67 scan
3787:Octreotide scan
3775:
3683:
3534:
3446:
3406:
3329:
3310:High-resolution
3275:
3239:Skeletal survey
3205:Cholangiography
3118:
3109:
3107:Medical imaging
3104:
3074:
3069:
3055:
3034:
3006:
3002:Phonocardiogram
2994:
2924:Cardiac imaging
2922:
2874:
2859:
2787:
2771:Septal myectomy
2761:Cardiomyoplasty
2753:
2747:Pericardiectomy
2729:
2718:
2684:
2665:
2625:
2619:Cardiac vessels
2614:
2608:Glenn procedure
2576:
2531:
2514:right ventricle
2476:
2440:
2362:
2347:
2343:Cardiac imaging
2328:Cardiac surgery
2319:
2309:
2255:Wayback Machine
2233:Wayback Machine
2222:
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2005:
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1969:(1): 17–24.e1.
1956:
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1799:. 24 March 2010
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691:signal to noise
683:
631:Marfan syndrome
600:
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589:
588:
587:
586:
583:4D flow models.
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379:
378:
351:
342:
324:or infarction.
310:
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180:. Conventional
170:contraindicated
163:pulmonary veins
96:
45:
17:
12:
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3929:Endomicroscopy
3926:
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3012:Function tests
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2947:
2942:
2932:
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2919:
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2913:
2912:
2911:
2909:Bruce protocol
2901:
2896:
2894:Holter monitor
2891:
2890:
2889:
2879:
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2690:Endarterectomy
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2670:
2667:Coronary stent
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2498:left ventricle
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2417:Ross procedure
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2220:External links
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2194:(7): 728–729.
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1763:(6): 353–361.
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596:Main article:
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544:fluid dynamics
535:Main article:
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231:Combined with
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178:claustrophobia
98:
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38:cardiac myxoma
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3859:
3857:
3854:
3850:
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3837:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3813:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3797:Ga-68-DOTATOC
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3784:
3782:
3778:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
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3749:
3747:
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3742:
3739:
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3729:
3727:
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3722:
3719:
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3702:
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3690:
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3673:
3670:
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3665:
3663:
3660:
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3655:
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3636:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3610:Intravascular
3608:
3606:
3603:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
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3581:
3580:
3579:
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3572:
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3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3548:
3546:
3545:
3543:
3541:
3537:
3531:
3530:Synthetic MRI
3528:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
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3482:
3479:
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3383:
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3339:
3338:
3336:
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3326:
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3321:
3320:Electron beam
3318:
3316:
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3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3297:
3295:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3282:
3272:
3271:Orbital x-ray
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3255:
3252:
3250:
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3242:
3240:
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3174:
3171:
3167:
3166:Bronchography
3164:
3163:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
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3046:Cardioversion
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2767:
2766:Dor procedure
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2601:to the right
2600:
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2483:
2480:
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2444:
2439:
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2423:
2422:Transcatheter
2420:
2418:
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2408:
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2400:
2396:
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2391:
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2387:
2386:
2385:Valvuloplasty
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2354:
2350:
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2263:
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2258:
2256:
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2241:
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2234:
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2227:
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2223:
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2207:
2202:
2197:
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2189:
2182:
2174:
2171:
2166:
2162:
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2128:
2121:
2118:
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2109:
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2101:
2097:
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2069:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
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2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2008:RadioGraphics
2002:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1953:
1950:
1938:
1931:
1925:
1922:
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1336:(7): 535–42.
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866:
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838:
833:
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807:
796:on 2009-01-16
795:
791:
790:
785:
779:
776:
770:
768:
761:
759:
757:
756:deep learning
753:
747:
745:
741:
737:
732:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
708:
700:
698:
695:
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688:
680:
678:
673:
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666:
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657:
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638:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
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604:
599:
591:
584:
575:
566:
557:
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545:
538:
530:
523:
505:
502:
495:
492:is used as a
491:
486:
478:
470:
461:
443:
440:
436:
429:
421:
412:
403:
394:
385:
376:
367:
365:
361:
360:end-diastolic
356:
348:
346:
339:
337:
335:
332:and quantify
331:
330:valve disease
327:
323:
319:
315:
309:
301:
299:
296:
292:
288:
282:
274:
272:
270:
265:
264:technologists
260:
258:
257:great vessels
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
229:
227:
223:
222:iron overload
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
191:
189:
187:
183:
182:MRI sequences
179:
175:
171:
166:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
94:
85:
81:
78:
76:
72:
69:
66:
64:
60:
57:
54:
52:
48:
43:
39:
35:
34:MRI sequences
30:
25:
20:
3978:Acute stroke
3944:Thermography
3699:scintigraphy
3689:Radionuclide
3677:pre-hospital
3523:Tractography
3480:
3442:Radiodensity
3344:calcium scan
3305:Quantitative
2956:
2834:implantation
2828:implantation
2811:Cryoablation
2652:Off-pump CAB
2462:
2445:
2370:Valve repair
2360:Heart valves
2259:
2191:
2187:
2173:
2148:1887/3184262
2130:
2126:
2120:
2098:(1): 51–53.
2095:
2091:
2085:
2050:
2046:
2036:
2011:
2007:
2001:
1966:
1962:
1952:
1941:. Retrieved
1939:. 2017-04-01
1936:
1924:
1887:
1883:
1872:
1827:
1823:
1812:
1801:. Retrieved
1796:
1787:
1760:
1756:
1743:
1708:
1704:
1694:
1657:
1653:
1642:
1605:
1601:
1591:
1556:
1552:
1542:
1507:
1503:
1493:
1458:
1454:
1443:
1416:
1412:
1402:
1377:
1373:
1366:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1288:
1284:
1274:
1241:
1237:
1231:
1206:
1202:
1196:
1182:
1155:
1149:
1116:
1112:
1102:
1067:
1063:
1053:
1016:
1012:
1001:
964:
960:
950:
913:
909:
877:
827:
823:
798:. Retrieved
794:the original
787:
778:
765:
748:
739:
733:
721:spectroscopy
710:
696:
684:
674:
667:
663:
658:
651:
646:
639:
608:
601:
582:
540:
521:
488:
468:
433:
419:
364:end-systolic
352:
343:
311:
284:
261:
239:vessels and
230:
195:
167:
114:
110:
106:
102:
101:
42:benign tumor
3867:Cardiac PET
3640:renal tract
3615:Gynecologic
3547:Techniques
3518:restriction
3493:Angiography
3476:Neurography
3422:Fluoroscopy
3368:Angiography
3349:angiography
3293:Techniques:
3254:Aortography
3244:Angiography
3224:Cystography
3214:Mammography
3156:Myelography
3151:Sialography
3120:radiography
2988:Cardiac PET
2731:Pericardium
2695:Atherectomy
2633:Angioplasty
2375:Valvulotomy
1413:Mutagenesis
717:Nobel prize
531:4D flow CMR
494:vasodilator
322:myocarditis
233:vasodilator
218:myocarditis
155:coarctation
107:cardiac MRI
4016:Categories
3780:Full body:
3566:endoscopic
3540:Ultrasound
3469:functional
3266:Lymphogram
3261:Venography
3229:Arthrogram
2983:Cardiac CT
2850:Cardiotomy
2755:Myocardium
2523:Sano shunt
2313:procedures
2311:Tests and
1943:2018-02-25
1803:2018-02-25
1174:1019592102
800:2016-12-02
771:References
496:, via the
435:Gadolinium
340:Techniques
245:infarction
237:epicardial
202:cardiac CT
147:dissection
123:technology
51:ICD-10-PCS
3983:Pregnancy
3862:Brain PET
3830:gamma ray
3766:DMSA scan
3620:Obstetric
3513:diffusion
3508:Sequences
3486:perfusion
3378:Pulmonary
3325:Cone beam
3219:Pyelogram
2363:and septa
2276:MRI tutor
2266:eMedicine
2165:204974611
1890:(1): 72.
1864:205073777
1660:(1): 91.
1608:(1): 89.
1358:205467617
1019:(1): 18.
916:(1): 70.
490:Adenosine
479:Perfusion
423:acquired.
295:Genotoxic
4001:Category
3853:positron
3373:Coronary
3067:Category
2800:minimaze
2796:Cox maze
2251:Archived
2229:Archived
2210:24855220
2157:31670597
2077:20676653
2028:25310420
1993:25497243
1916:26257141
1856:27570866
1779:31585768
1735:23909638
1686:24103764
1634:27899132
1583:22033762
1534:29281062
1485:29165554
1435:11682641
1394:18804118
1350:21412810
1315:23793096
1266:44818510
1258:28653648
1223:28267552
1209:: 7–13.
1141:23647168
1133:27354273
1094:26424866
1045:28178995
993:26800662
967:(1): 6.
942:28942735
856:29386064
830:(1): 8.
762:Training
472:present.
249:fibrosis
151:aneurysm
145:such as
63:ICD-9-CM
3900:Optical
3882:PET-MRI
3662:Carotid
3657:Scrotal
3551:doppler
3481:Cardiac
3390:Thyroid
3334:Targets
3285:CT scan
2352:Surgery
2112:5110317
2068:3044088
1984:4277294
1907:4530492
1726:3780343
1677:3851953
1625:5129251
1574:3476721
1525:5837318
1476:5837583
1306:3736059
1085:5841226
1036:5304550
984:4724113
933:5611635
847:5791345
758:tools.
701:History
437:-based
302:Physics
117:, is a
3877:PET-CT
3652:Breast
3647:Rectal
3571:duplex
3503:Breast
3340:Heart
3039:Pacing
2647:MIDCAB
2638:Bypass
2588:shunt
2482:atrium
2395:mitral
2390:aortic
2208:
2163:
2155:
2110:
2075:
2065:
2026:
1991:
1981:
1914:
1904:
1862:
1854:
1777:
1733:
1723:
1684:
1674:
1632:
1622:
1581:
1571:
1532:
1522:
1483:
1473:
1433:
1392:
1356:
1348:
1313:
1303:
1264:
1256:
1221:
1172:
1162:
1139:
1131:
1092:
1082:
1043:
1033:
991:
981:
940:
930:
884:
854:
844:
334:shunts
204:, and
168:It is
121:(MRI)
3904:Laser
3826:SPECT
3635:renal
3464:Brain
3415:Other
3115:X-ray
2996:sound
2868:Tests
2826:S-ICD
2723:Other
2657:TECAB
2502:aorta
2317:heart
2184:(PDF)
2161:S2CID
1933:(PDF)
1860:S2CID
1753:(PDF)
1354:S2CID
1262:S2CID
1137:S2CID
1113:Heart
729:heart
725:Chang
355:bSSFP
275:Risks
174:clips
143:aorta
91:[
84:3-824
80:3-803
68:88.92
36:of a
3672:FAST
3385:Head
2798:and
2536:for
2206:PMID
2153:PMID
2108:PMID
2073:PMID
2024:PMID
1989:PMID
1912:PMID
1852:PMID
1824:JAMA
1775:PMID
1731:PMID
1682:PMID
1630:PMID
1579:PMID
1530:PMID
1481:PMID
1431:PMID
1390:PMID
1346:PMID
1311:PMID
1254:PMID
1219:PMID
1170:OCLC
1160:ISBN
1129:PMID
1090:PMID
1041:PMID
989:PMID
938:PMID
882:ISBN
852:PMID
687:1.5T
362:and
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