690:" (For all times, to all peoples); and this deed consisted in the approval and distribution, among the governments of the states supporting the Metre Convention, of prototype standards of hitherto unknown precision intended to propagate the metric unit throughout the whole world. These prototypes were made of a platinum-iridium alloy which combined all the qualities of hardness, permanence, and resistance to chemical agents which rendered it suitable for making into standards required to last for centuries. Yet their high price excluded them from the ordinary field of science. For metrology the matter of expansibility was fundamental; as a matter of fact the temperature measuring error related to the length measurement in proportion to the expansibility of the standard and the constantly renewed efforts of metrologists to protect their measuring instruments against the interfering influence of temperature revealed clearly the importance they attached to the expansion-induced errors. It was common knowledge, for instance, that effective measurements were possible only inside a building, the rooms of which were well protected against the changes in outside temperature, and the very presence of the observer created an interference against which it was often necessary to take strict precautions. Thus, the Contracting States also received a collection of thermometers which accuracy made it possible to ensure that of length measurements.
798:
French astronomers
Delambre and Méchain, whose works are the basis of all yours. I am sure to be your interpreter, paying them supreme tribute on this day. Who does not remember with emotion the dangers to which Méchain so generously exposed his life? General Morin, who has been your worthy colleague for so long, wrote a few lines on this subject that you will be proud to hear: "To brave dangers similar to those which Méchain ran with the necessary calm, it is not enough to be devoted to science and to its duties; you must have an empire over your senses which will protect you from this kind of vertigo, in the shelter of which the most intrepid soldiers are not always. Someone who, without flinching, has faced the bullets a hundred times is, on the contrary, surprised by this insurmountable weakness in the presence of the emptiness that space offers him." It is a soldier speaking, Gentlemen; please listen to him again when he adds: "Science therefore also has its heroes who, happier than those of war, leave behind only works useful to humanity and not ruins and vengeful hatred."
892:. The distinction between systematic and random errors is far from being as sharp as one might think at first glance. In reality, there are no or very few random errors. As science progresses, the causes of certain errors are sought out, studied, their laws discovered. These errors pass from the class of random errors into that of systematic errors. The ability of the observer consists in discovering the greatest possible number of systematic errors to be able, once he has become acquainted with their laws, to free his results from them using a method or appropriate corrections. It is the experimental study of a cause of error that has led to most of the great astronomical discoveries (
31:
262:. These comparisons were essential, because of the expansibility of solid materials with raise in temperature. Indeed, one fact had constantly dominated all the fluctuations of ideas on the measurement of geodesic bases: it was the constant concern to accurately assess the temperature of standards in the field; and the determination of this variable, on which depended the length of the instrument of measurement, had always been considered by geodesists as so difficult and so important that one could almost say that the history of measuring instruments is almost identical with that of the precautions taken to avoid temperature errors.
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observations that they impinge. It was thus crucial to compare at controlled temperatures with great precision and to the same unit all the standards for measuring geodesic bases, and all the pendulum rods. Only when this series of metrological comparisons would be finished with a probable error of a thousandth of a millimetre would geodesy be able to link the works of the different nations with one another, and then proclaim the result of the measurement of the Globe. In 1901,
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824:, Ken Alder recalls some errors that crept into the measurement of the two French scientists and that Méchain had even noticed an inaccuracy which he had not dared to admit. By measuring the latitude of two stations in Barcelona, Méchain had found that the difference between these latitudes was greater than predicted by direct measurement of distance by triangulation. Indeed, clearance in the central axis of the
231:, and which consisted of using a single standard with lines marked on the bar and microscopic measurements. Regarding the two methods by which the effect of temperature was taken into account, Ibáñez used both the bimetallic rulers, in platinum and brass, which he first employed for the central base of Spain, and the simple iron ruler with inlaid mercury thermometers which was used in Switzerland.
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geodesist, had invented a method of measuring geodetic bases, based on the use of taut wires under a constant effort. However, before the discovery of invar, this process was much less precise than the classic method. Charles-Édouard
Guillaume demonstrated the effectiveness of Jäderin's method, improved by the use of invar's threads. He measured a base in the
1403:
471:) held in Berlin, the question of an international standard unit of length was discussed to combine the measurements made in different countries to determine the size and shape of the Earth. The Conference recommended the adoption of the metre and the creation of an international metre commission, according to a preliminary discussion between
2448:"Exposé de l'état des Travaux géodésiques poursuivis en Espagne, communiqué a la Commission permanente de la Conférence internationale, par le Colonel Ibañez, membre de l'Académie Royale des sciences et délégué du Gouvernement espagnol. in General-Bericht über die mitteleuropäische Gradmessung für das Jahr 1865. :: Publications IASS"
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LE GENERAL IBANEZ NOTICE NECROLOGIQUE LUE AU COMITE INTERNATIONAL DES POIDS ET MESURE, LE 12 SEPTEMBRE ET DANS LA CONFERENCE GEODESIQUE DE FLORENCE, LE 8 OCTOBRE 1891, Neuchâtel, IMPRIMERIE ATTINGER FRERES, 1891, in COMITÉ INTERNATIONAL DES POIDS ET MESURES, PROCÈS-VERBAUX DES SÉANCES DE 1891, Paris,
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Your task, so useful, so beneficial to mankind, has been traversed by many vicissitudes for a hundred years. Like all the great things in this world, it has cost many pains, efforts, sacrifices, not to mention the difficulties, dangers, fatigue, tribulations of all kinds, which endured the two great
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in the spring of 1875 to proceed to Europe for the purpose of making pendulum experiments to chief initial stations for operations of this sort, to bring the determinations of gravitational acceleration in
America into communication with those of other parts of the world; and also for the purpose of
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and the
English Standards Commission were in agreement with the recommendation. In November 1869 the French government issued invitations to join the International Metre Commission. Spain accepted and Ibáñez took part in the Committee of preparatory research from the first meeting of this commission
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France adopted the time of the international meridian of
Greenwich with the law of 9 March 1911. However, the text of law did not refer to the meridian of Greenwich, but to the "average time of Paris delayed by 9 minutes and 21 seconds". From a technical and scientific point of view, at this time,
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y González del Río. As his parents' surnames were so similar he was often referred as Ibáñez or Ibáñez de Ibero or as
Marquis of Mulhacén. When he died in Nice (France), he was still enrolled in the Engineer Corps of the Spanish Army. As he died around midnight, the date of his death is ambiguous,
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to attach forever the memory of this famous scientific achievement to the name of Ibáñez, by conferring on him the title of 1st
Marquis of Mulhacén, granted, as it is said in the royal decree, " in recognition of the brilliant services which he rendered during his long career, directing with rare
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Since the metre was originally defined, each time a new measurement is made, with more accurate instruments, methods or techniques, it is said that the metre is based on some error, from calculations or measurements. When Ibáñez took part to the measurement of the West Europe-Africa
Meridian-arc,
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In 1889, Ibáñez had a stroke and resigned from the management of the
Institute of Geography and Statistics, which he had directed for 19 years. His decision seemed to have been precipitated by the publication of a decree which took away economic control of the Institute and handed it over to the
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Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero was married in 1861 to a
Frenchwoman, Jeanne Baboulène Thénié. A daughter was born from this marriage. He remarried in 1878 to a Swiss woman, Cécilia Grandchamp. Carlos Ibáñez de Ibero Grandchamp was born from this second union. After the death of Carlos Ibáñez e
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decided the creation of an international geodetic standard at the General Conference held in Paris in 1875. Thus, the Commission resolved to acquire, at common expense, a measuring instrument which was to be used either to measure new bases in countries which did not have their own device or to
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in 1920. In 1900, the International Committee for Weights and Measures responded to a request from the International Association of geodesy and included in the work program of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures the study of measurements by invar's wires. Edvard Jäderin, a Swedish
1978:
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Géodésie. – Sur les travaux géodésiques exécutés en Espagne, à propos de la publication d'une traduction de l'ouvrage intitulé: Base centrale de la triangulation géodésique de
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method. Constant or systematic errors on the contrary must be carefully avoided, because they arise from one or more causes which constantly act in the same way, and have the effect of always altering the result of the experiment in the same direction. They therefore deprive of any value the
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for the measurement of gravitational acceleration in six stations of the Swiss geodetic network. Following the example set by this country and under the patronage of the International Geodetic Association, Austria, Bavaria, Prussia, Russia and Saxony undertook gravity determinations on their
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As Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero stated, the International prototype metre would form the basis of the new international system of units, but it would no longer have any relation to the dimensions of the Earth that geodesists were trying to determine. It would be no more than the material
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is not a surface of revolution and none of its meridians is identical to another, in other words, the theoretical definition of the metre was inaccessible and misleading at the time of Delambre and Mechain arc measurement, as the geoid is a ball, which on the whole can be assimilated to an
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to approve the creation of a large-scale map of Spain in 1852. The following year Ibáñez was appointed to undertake this task. As all the scientific and technical equipment for a vast undertaking of this kind had to be created, Ibáñez, in collaboration with his comrade, Captain
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Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Géodésie. – Appareil construit pour les opérations au moyen desquelles on prolongera dans toute l'étendue de l'Espagne le réseau trigonométrique qui couvre la
246:'s double-toise N°1 which was the main reference for measuring all geodetic bases in France and whose length was by definition 3.8980732 metres at a specified temperature. The four-metre-long Spanish measuring instrument, which became known as the Spanish Standard (French:
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Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Géodésie. – Sur les opérations en cours d'exécution pour la carte d'Espagne, d'après les renseignements donnés à l'académie de Madrid par M. le colonel
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Carlos Ibáñez de Ibero Grandchamp, engineer and doctor of philosophy and letters from the University of Paris founded in 1913 the Institute of Hispanic Studies (current Training and Research Unit of Iberian and Latin American Studies of the Faculty of Letters of
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Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Géodésie. – Jonction géodésique de l'Algérie avec l'Espagne, opération internationale exécutée sous la direction de MM. le général Ibañez et F.
920:" which allowed to compare experimental data tainted with measurement errors to a mathematical model. This method minimized the impact of measurement inaccuracies. The Earth measurements thus underscored the importance of the scientific method at a time when
637:. If precision metrology had needed the help of geodesy, it could not continue to prosper without the help of metrology. It was then necessary to define a single unit to express all the measurements of terrestrial arcs, and all determinations of the
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Clarke Alexander Ross; James Henry (January 1, 1867). "X. Abstract of the results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, France, Belgium, Prussia, Russia, India, Australia, made at the ordnance Survey Office, Southampton".
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extending from the Shetland Islands, through Great Britain, France and Spain to El Aghuat in Algeria, whose parameters were calculated from surveys carried out in the mid to late 19th century. Greenwich meridian is depicted rather than Paris
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Jonction géodésique et astronomique de l'Algérie avec l'Espagne, exécutée en commun en 1879, par ordre des gouvernements d'Espagne et de France, sous la direction de M. le général Ibañez,... pour l'Espagne, M. le colonel Perrier,... pour la
215:, drew up the project of a new apparatus for measuring bases. He recognized that the end standards with which the most perfect devices of the eighteenth century and those of the first half of the nineteenth century were still equipped, that
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work of the International Geodetic Association. He found 1/298,3 for the flattening of the Earth. This was remarkably close to reality compared to the value of 1/344 which had been used to compute the length of the metre a century earlier.
273:. The experiment, in which the results of two methods were compared, was a landmark in the controversy between French and German geodesists about the length of geodesic triangulation bases, and empirically validated the method of General
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Among the many reasons why Ibáñez could claim recognition from his country and from science, the geodetic junction of Spain and Algeria has been one of the most remarkable. Therefore, the Spanish government chose the name of the peak of
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Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Métrologie. – Notes sur la première session de la Commission internationale du mètre, tenue à Paris du 8 au 13 août
1092:(UTC) by deciding whether to insert a leap second so that it is kept in line with the rotation of the Earth which is subject to irregular variations. The Coordinated Universal Time is the current international time scale since 1965.
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and Pierre Méchain had made errors in the triangulation of the meridian arc, which had been used for determining the length of the metre. This is why Antoine Yvon Villarceau verified the geodetic operations at eight points of the
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by the mean of pendulum. Metrology had to create a common unit, adopted and respected by all civilized nations. Moreover, at that time, statisticians knew that scientific observations are marred by two distinct types of errors,
349:. Copies of the Spanish standard were also made for France and Germany. These standards would be used for the most important operations of European geodesy. Indeed, the southward extension of Paris meridian's triangulation by
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which he then directed until 1889. At the time it was the world's biggest geographic institute. It encompassed geodesy, general topography, leveling, cartography, statistics and the general service of weights and measures.
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Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero's eldest daughter, Elena Ibáñez de Ibero, married a Swiss lawyer and politician, Jacques Louis Willemin. The title of Marquis of Mulhacén passed to their son, then to their grandson.
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and was published until 1966 by the International Time Bureau. In 1936, irregularities in the speed of Earth's rotation due to the unpredictable movement of air and water masses were discovered through the use of
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Base du système métrique décimal, ou Mesure de l'arc du méridien compris entre les parallèles de Dunkerque et Barcelone. T. 3 /, exécutée en 1792 et années suivantes, par MM. Méchain et Delambre, rédigée par M.
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repeat previous measurements. The comparisons of the new results with those provided by the old national standards would make it possible to obtain their equation. The apparatus would to be calibrated at the
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Dictionnaire des inventions et découvertes anciennes et modernes, dans les sciences, les arts et l'industrie.... 2. H-Z / recueillis et mis en ordre par M. le marquis de Jouffroy; publié par l'abbé Migne,...
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According to the calculations made at the central bureau of the International Geodetic Association, the net does not follow the meridian exactly, but deviates both to the west and to the east; actually, the
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1036:, the International Convention was never ratified. In 1919, the existence of the International Time Bureau was formalized under the authority of an International Time Commission, under the aegis of the
165:, he played a leading role in the worldwide dissemination of the metric system. His activities resulted in the distribution of a platinum and iridium prototype of the metre to all States parties to the
1724:"Results of the Comparisons of the Standards of Length of England, Austria, Spain, United States, Cape of Good Hope, and of a Second Russian Standard, Made at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton"
2864:"Resumen de los trabajos preparatorios de la Comisión Internacional para la realización de los prototipos internacionales y la creación de la Oficina Internacional de Pesas y Medidas. 1871 – 1872"
667:, taking into account the contributions of gravimetry, research between 1910 and 1950 remained practically limited to large continental triangulations. The most significant work would be that by
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made his famous measurements, the determination of gravity by means of devices of various kinds employed in different countries, to compare them and thus to have the equation of their scales.
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864:, but which in detail differs from it so as to prohibit any generalization and any extrapolation from the measurement of a single meridian arc. Moreover, it was necessary to assume an
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was making the necessary measurements to compare the Standards of length used in the World. Finally, this second version of the appliance, called the Ibáñez apparatus, was used in
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Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels. Notice sur le général Ibañez, correspondant de l'Académie
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journalist Antonio de Valbuena. The reappearance of the general's first wife after his death in 1891 further discredited him and led to the annulment of his second marriage.
686:, the seat of the International Bureau. It performed the first great deed dictated by the motto inscribed in the pediment of the splendid edifice that is the metric system: "
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allowing the use of the metre in the United States, probably also played a role in the choice of the metre as international scientific unit of length and the proposal by the
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Le système métrique des poids et mesures; son établissement et sa propagation graduelle, avec l'histoire des opérations qui ont servi à déterminer le mètre et le kilogramme
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which would become part of the longest meridian arc of the Old World. In 1954, the connection of the southerly extension of the Struve Arc with an arc running north from
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153:, 1st Marquis of Mulhacén, (14 April 1825 – 28 or 29 January 1891) was a Spanish divisional general and geodesist. He represented Spain at the 1875 Conference of the
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Torge, Wolfgang (2015). "From a Regional Project to an International Organization: The "Baeyer-Helmert-Era" of the International Association of Geodesy 1862–1916".
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570:, took part, the association decided in favor of the reversion pendulum, which was used in Switzerland, and it was resolved to redo in Berlin, in the station where
2550:"Über einen Fehler in der Berechnung der französischen Gradmessung und seineh Einfluß auf die Bestimmung der Figur der Erde. Von Herrn Geh. Rath und Ritter Bessel"
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747:). Although it has been argued that the title of Marquis of Mulhacén was granted to him as a reward for the founding of the Institute of Hispanic Studies of the
269:(Toledo) with exceptional precision for the time thanks to the Spanish Standard. Ibáñez and his colleagues wrote a monograph which was translated into French by
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771:(BIPM) and given to the United States, which served as the standard for American cartography from 1890 replacing the Committee Meter, an authentic copy of the
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in 1870. He was elected president of the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission in 1872. He represented Spain at the 1875 conference of the
1068:. They implied that the Earth's rotation was an imprecise way of determining time. As a result, the definition of the second, first seen as a fraction of the
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Martina Schiavon. La geodesia y la investigación científica en la Francia del siglo XIX : la medida del arco de meridiano franco-argelino (1870-1895).
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614:. Under Ibáñez's presidency, the International Geodetic Association acquired a global dimension with the accession of the United States, Mexico, Chile,
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talent the Geographical and Statistical Institute of Spain, and contributing to the prestige of Spain among the other nations of Europe and America ".
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in 1905. The accuracy of the measurements was equal to that of the old methods, while the speed and ease of the measurements were incomparably higher.
223:
simply joined measuring the intervals by means of screw tabs or glass wedges, would be replaced advantageously for accuracy by the system, designed by
3064:"Report from Charles S. Peirce on his second European trip for the Anual Report of the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey, New York, 18.05.1877"
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551:(BIPM), using the prototype metre. The system with a microscope and bimetallic rulers, which had given such brilliant results in Spain, was proposed.
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Struve Geodetic Arc, 2006 International Conference, The Struve Arc and Extensions in Space and Time, Haparanda and Pajala, Sweden, 13–15 August 2006
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Bericht über die Verhandlungen der vom 30. September bis 7. October 1867 zu BERLIN abgehaltenen allgemeinen Conferenz der Europäischen Gradmessung
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3340:. Madrid: UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID FACULTAD DE GEOGRAFÍA E HISTORIA DEPARTAMENTO DE HISTORIA CONTEMPORÁNEA. pp. cap 7, "El Hombre".
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Soler, T. (February 1, 1997). "A profile of General Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero: first president of the International Geodetic Association".
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Procès-verbaux de la Conférence géodésique internationale pour la mesure des degrés en Europe, réunie à Berlin du 30 septembre au 7 octobre 1867
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Expériences faites avec l'appareil à mesurer les bases appartenant à la commission de la carte d'Espagne /: ouvrage publié par ordre de la reine
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of weights and measures. But it was not without difficulty: Méchain made a mistake which would almost cause him to lose his mind. In his book,
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Torge, W. (April 1, 2005). "The International Association of Geodesy 1862 to 1922: from a regional project to an international organization".
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443:. The radius of curvature of this arc is not uniform, being, in the mean, about 600 metres greater in the northern than in the southern part.
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Recherche des coefficients de dilatation et étalonnage de l'appareil à mesurer les bases géodésiques appartenant au gouvernement égyptien
416:. This connection was a remarkable enterprise where triangles with a maximum length of 270 km were observed from mountain stations (
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Discursos leidos ante la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas Fisicas y Naturales en la recepcion pública de Don Joaquin Barraquer y Rovira
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The 1875 Conference of the International Association of Geodesy also dealt with the best instrument to be used for the determination of
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4099:, (inauguration d'un monument élevé à sa mémoire), Madrid, Institut de France Académie des Sciences – Notices et discours., 1957, 7
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President of the Permanent Commission of the European Arc Measurement from 1874 to 1886, Ibáñez became the first president of the
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1961:. Translated by Laussedat, Aimé. Madrid: impr. de M. Rivadeneyra. pp. Appendice N.° 9 p. CXCIII, Appendice N.° 11 p. CCLI.
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Until 1929, the International Time Bureau used exclusively the astronomical determination of Universal Time (or Greenwich mean
1084:(TAI). Currently, it is established from more than 400 atomic clocks distributed in more than 80 national laboratories by the
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He was born in Barcelona. According to Spanish tradition, his surname was a combination of his father's first surname, Martín
2807:"Carlos IBAÑEZ DE IBERO (14 avril 1825 – 29 janvier 1891), par Albert Pérard (inauguration d'un monument élevé à sa mémoire)"
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of the Earth in order to calculate the length of the metre from the meridian arc measured by Delambre and Méchain. In 1901,
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292:. For this work, he devised a new instrument, which allowed much faster measurements. In 1869, Ibáñez brought it along to
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1644:"El general Ibáñez. Su personalidad militar y humana", Conmemoración del centenario del general Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero
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2983:"Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels"
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2166:"Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels"
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1265:"Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales – Académicos – Excmo. Sr. D. CARLOS IBÁÑEZ E IBÁÑEZ DE IBERO"
2248:"Les officiers géodésiens du Service géographique de l'armée et la mesure de l'arc de méridien de Quito (1901–1906)"
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and a metre "too short" compared to a more general definition taken from the average of a large number of arcs. The
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Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels
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1163:, cd). Since 2019, the magnitudes of all SI units have been defined by declaring exact numerical values for seven
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Levallois, J.J. (July 1991). "La méridienne de Dunkerque à Barcelone et la déterminiation du mètre (1792–1799)".
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were implemented in geodesy. As a leading scientist of his time, Ibáñez was one of the 81 initial members of the
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of a measuring instrument calibrated against the metre which they had devised and which they later compared with
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Delambre, Jean-Baptiste (1749–1822) Auteur du texte; Méchain, Pierre (1744–1804) Auteur du texte (1806–1810).
1589:(1 ed.). ES: Centro Nacional de Información Geográfica (Mnisterio de Fomento). pp. 147, 7, 148–149.
3827:"Astronomie au fil du temps – Observatoire de Paris – PSL Centre de recherche en astronomie et astrophysique"
928:(ISI) and delegate of Spain to the first ISI session (now called World Statistic Congress) in Rome in 1887.
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Manuel théorique et pratique de l'application de la méthode des moindres carrés: au calcul des observations
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2928:"Compte rendu des séances de la première conférence générale des poids et mesures, réunie à Paris en 1889"
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Repeating circle used for the survey of the meridian arc from Dunkirk to Barcelona by Delambre and Méchain
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Thanks to the determination and skill of Delambre and Méchain, the Enlightenment of science overcame the
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making a careful study of the methods of pursuing these researches in the different countries of Europe.
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arc from 1861 to 1866. Some of the errors in the operations of Delambre and Méchain were then corrected.
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International scientific collaboration in geodesy and calls for an international standard unit of length
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Minister of Public Works. Indeed, this resignation took effect during a smear campaign orchestrated by
671:, which relied mainly on the North American national network. His ellipsoid was adopted in 1924 by the
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4189:
4089:
3252:"LOS TRABAJOS CARTOGRÁFICOS DE FINALES DEL SIGLO XIX ANTE LA CRÍTICA MORDAZ DE ANTONIO DE VALBUENA"
1152:
1069:
997:
973:
969:
889:
844:
748:
744:
664:
643:
630:
611:
591:
587:
578:
472:
274:
2321:
1088:. The International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service also plays a fundamental role in
523:, he was elected chairman of the committee, a position he held from 1875 to 1891. He received the
332:
4118:
3942:
3649:"Members of the International Statistical Institute a cumulative list for the period 1885 - 2002"
3573:
3542:
3482:
3445:
3389:
3117:
3037:
2423:
2046:
1792:
1535:
1463:
1241:
1201:
1160:
1005:
484:
358:
266:
2956:
751:, the invalidation of his parents' marriage prevented him from officially obtaining this title.
2501:. International Association of Geodesy Symposia. Vol. 143. Springer, Cham. pp. 3–18.
3808:
3765:
3530:
3520:
3379:
3171:
3161:
3109:
2826:
2577:
2510:
2269:
1864:
1745:
1678:
1646:(in Spanish). Madrid: Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales. pp. 41, 46.
1527:
1455:
1218:
1208:
1194:
1041:
1009:
945:
885:
804:
786:
483:'s use of the metre in coastal survey, which had been an argument for the introduction of the
421:
354:
350:
289:
270:
1264:
1044:. The International Time Bureau was dissolved in 1987 and its tasks were divided between the
822:
The Measure of All Things: the seven year odyssey and hidden error that transformed the world
3917:
3251:
3101:
2906:
2703:
2569:
2502:
2391:
2259:
2038:
1856:
1735:
1590:
1519:
1447:
1168:
1136:
1073:
965:
825:
736:
582:
571:
512:
440:
285:
220:
166:
154:
3736:
3014:
459:
In 1866 Spain, represented by Ibáñez, joined the Central European Arc Measurement (German:
198:
4144:
4133:
3401:
2770:
1187:
873:
763:
4000:
2077:
3871:
3804:
3097:
2565:
2012:
1674:
1505:
1443:
467:. In 1867 at the second General Conference of the Central European Arc Measurement (see
4041:
3594:
1860:
1179:
1001:
941:
817:
715:
532:
476:
405:
393:
378:
365:
105:
2927:
2247:
2197:"19th Century French Scientific Instrument Makers – XI: The Brunners and Paul Gautier"
1059:) carried out at the Paris Observatory. This realization of Universal Time was called
4153:
4046:
4018:
3855:
3415:
3121:
2141:
2050:
1539:
1467:
1407:
1104:
1056:
917:
651:
528:
3788:
2549:
2196:
1423:
Drewes, Hermann; Kuglitsch, Franz; Adám, József; Rózsa, Szabolcs (October 1, 2016).
3789:"Quelle heure est-il ? Rappel des textes définissant l'heure légale en France"
3517:
From artefacts to atoms: the BIPM and the search for ultimate measurement standards
3353:"L'Archive du lundi n°32 – Le fabuleux destin de Carlos Ibáñez de Ibero Grandchamp"
2722:
2707:
2226:
1120:
1077:
1065:
1013:
985:
981:
977:
239:
3472:
3063:
2633:. Berlin: Central-Bureau der Europäischen Gradmessung. 1868. pp. 14, 123–134.
2531:
2230:
972:
by a decree of 27 July 1900, applicable from 1 January 1901. Moreover, it was the
464:
389:
2846:
2764:
1936:
1781:
392:, Ibáñez announced that Spain would collaborate in remeasuring and extending the
3563:
2413:
2264:
1148:
1033:
933:
650:
errors, on the other hand. The effects of random errors can be mitigated by the
417:
301:
293:
3595:"FROM OLD WEIGHTS AND MEASURES TO THE SI AS A NUMERICAL STANDARD FOR THE WORLD"
2982:
2349:
2165:
1956:
3105:
2848:
Procès-verbaux: Commission Internationale du Mètre. Réunions générales de 1872
2785:
2477:
1994:
1976:
1919:
1820:
1700:
1451:
921:
893:
877:
865:
660:
647:
626:
400:, then Jean-Antonin-Léon Bassot proceeded to a new survey. In 1879 Ibáñez and
313:
309:
4114:, Revue internationale de l'enseignement, Juillet-Août 1925, pp. 208–211
4055:. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 607–615.
4027:. Vol. 08 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 801–813.
4001:
Correspondencia europea de C. S. Peirce: creatividad y cooperación científica
3996:
3967:
3812:
3534:
3312:
3113:
2581:
2573:
2273:
2150:. Vol. 08 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 801–813.
1868:
1749:
1682:
1531:
1459:
1111:
with an official status in nearly every country in the world. It comprises a
948:
in 1879 would soon be forgotten due to the adoption of Greenwich meridian as
3175:
1167:
when expressed in terms of their SI units. These defining constants are the
848:
622:
615:
194:
From the Map Commission to the Geographic and Statistical Institute in Spain
47:
4012:
2135:
2042:
1740:
1723:
1032:
was created and installed in the premises of the Paris Observatory. Due to
683:
495:) to "establish a European international bureau for weights and measures".
439:= 6 377 935 metres, the ellipticity being assumed as 1/299.15 according to
1523:
701:
work led to the discovery of special alloys of iron-nickel, in particular
2910:
2506:
2395:
2063:
A. Hirsch et J. Dumur, Lausanne, Commission Géodésique Suisse, 1888, 116
1819:
J. Bertrand, Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du (January 1, 1891).
897:
861:
852:
409:
408:
and thus completed the measurement of a meridian arc which extended from
385:
206:
Spain adopted the metric system in 1849. The Government was urged by the
3691:
1594:
506:
in Paris drew the attention of the French government to this issue. The
1993:
Laussedat, Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du (January 1, 1864).
1975:
Laussedat, Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du (January 1, 1866).
1156:
989:
728:
638:
634:
388:
and France. In 1866 at the conference of the Association of Geodesy in
361:(1806–1809) had not been secured by any baseline measurement in Spain.
305:
265:
In 1858 Spain's central geodetic base of triangulation was measured in
3505:, 2004, Estudios sociales de la ciencia y la tecnologia, 23, pp.11-30.
3038:"Bulletin de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchâtel. Vol. 10"
3022:. Madrid: Imprenta de la Viuda e Hijo de D.E. Aguado. pp. 70, 78.
2981:
texte, Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du (July–December 1890).
2900:
1140:
1132:
1124:
829:
806:
Compte rendus de la première Conférence générale des poids et mesures
413:
259:
1844:
1658:
1123:, which are the second (the unit of time with the symbol s), metre (
767:
Closeup of National Prototype Meter Bar No. 27, made in 1889 by the
735:
Ibáñez de Ibero, his two children and Cécilia Grandchamp settled in
554:
2902:
ETH-Bibliothek / Documents diplomatiques de la conférence du mètre
2476:
Perrier, Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du (July 1, 1879).
1763:
Ibáñez e Ibáñe de Ibero, Carlos; Saavedra Menesès, Carlos (1860).
856:
834:
773:
762:
702:
553:
404:
completed the junction between the geodetic networks of Spain and
331:
251:
197:
3893:"Revivre notre histoire | Les 350 ans de l'Observatoire de Paris"
3860:
IAU Colloq. 178: Polar Motion: Historical and Scientific Problems
3766:"Espagne. Adoption du méridien de Greenwich. Projet d'irrigation"
3352:
1406:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
581:
built by the Repsold brothers was used in Switzerland in 1865 by
173:
in 1889. These prototypes defined the metre right up until 1960.
3338:
CIENCIA Y MILICIA EN EL XIX: EL GENERAL IBÁÑEZ E IBÁÑEZ DE IBERO
3313:"Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero (Grupo de Estudios Peirceanos)"
2784:
Morin, Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du (July 1, 1870).
2769:. University of Ottawa. Paris : Gauthier-Villars. pp.
1918:
texte, Académie des sciences (France) Auteur du (July 1, 1864).
1327:"Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero | Real Academia de la Historia"
1128:
957:
62:
2289:"Procès-verbaux des séances de la commission géodésique suisse"
2104:"150 aniversario del Instituto Geográfico Nacional (1870-2020)"
427:
This meridian arc was named West Europe-Africa Meridian-arc by
4040:
3471:
Jouffroy, Achille de (1785–1859) Auteur du texte (1852–1853).
916:
had developed new methods for processing data, including the "
384:
In 1865 the triangulation of Spain was connected with that of
2108:
150 aniversario del Instituto Geográfico Nacional (1870-2020)
2082:
Geoportal oficial del Instituto Geográfico Nacional de España
566:. After an in-depth discussion in which an American scholar,
2530:
Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Íbero, Carlos; Perrier, François (1886).
435:. It yielded a value for the equatorial radius of the earth
328:
Measurement of the Paris meridian over the Mediterranean Sea
258:
compared the Spanish Standard with the Egyptian Standard in
3160:. Encyclopedia Universalis. 1996. pp. Vol 10, p. 302.
345:
Jean Brunner displayed the Ibáñez-Brunner apparatus at the
4195:
Elected Members of the International Statistical Institute
4120:
GAUTHIER-VILLARS ET FILS, IMPRIMEURS-LIBRAIRES, 1892, 197
4039:
Clarke, Alexander Ross; Helmert, Friedrich Robert (1911).
4011:
Clarke, Alexander Ross; Helmert, Friedrich Robert (1911).
3684:"History of the International Statistical Institute | ISI"
2134:
Clarke, Alexander Ross; Helmert, Friedrich Robert (1911).
1050:
International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service
2031:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
1838:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1728:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
202:
Swiss baseline measurement with Ibáñez apparatus in 1880.
185:
Spaniards retained 28th, and other Europeans 29 January.
4097:
Carlos IBAÑEZ DE IBERO (14 avril 1825 – 29 janvier 1891)
4083:
El General Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, Marqués de Mulhacén
1016:
within a radius of 5 000 km. Following a report by
888:
was calculated, vertical deflections were considered as
2415:
Histoire abrégée de l'astronomie / par Ernest Lebon,...
1769:(in French). Translated by Laussedat, Aimé. J. Dumaine.
1026:
Conférence internationale de l'heure radiotélégraphique
4185:
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
4064:
3623:"Mesure du 1er mètre: une erreur qui changea le monde"
2017:. Harvard University. Madrid, Impr. de M. Rivadeneyra.
1958:
Base centrale de la triangulation géodésique d'Espagne
1884:"Notice nécrologique de F. DA PAULA ARRILLAGA Y GARRO"
832:
measurements contained significant systematic errors.
4085:, e-medida Revista Española de Metrología, June 2013.
4076:
Real Academia de Ciecias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales
3562:
Perrier, Georges (1872–1946) Auteur du texte (1933).
3446:"Mesurer le monde de Ken Alder – Editions Flammarion"
2873:(in Spanish and English). pp. 310–311, 409–410.
180:
y de Prado and of his mother's first surname, Carmen
4081:
Emilio Prieto Esteban, Rosé Ángel Robles Carbonell,
1615:"Militares y marinos en la Real Sociedad Geográfica"
3737:"Ministerio de Gracia y Justicia – Reales Decretos"
558:
Gravimeter with variant of Repsold-Bessel pendulum.
126:
118:
101:
89:
81:
70:
55:
40:
35:
Portrait of Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero in 1881
21:
16:
Spanish marquis, general, and geodesist (1825–1891)
4075:
3565:Cours de géodésie et d'astronomie / par G. Perrier
3250:Valladares Reguero, Aurelio (July–December 1998).
2724:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
2412:Lebon, Ernest (1846–1922) Auteur du texte (1899).
1659:"Swiss Geodesy and the United States Coast Survey"
785:In 1889, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs,
527:in recognition of his efforts to disseminate the
284:From 1865 to 1868 Ibáñez added the survey of the
161:. As a forerunner geodesist and president of the
2831:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
980:through Egypt would bring the course of a major
521:International Committee for Weights and Measures
159:International Committee for Weights and Measures
95:International Committee for Weights and Measures
2851:(in French). Imprim. Nation. 1872. p. 155.
1722:Clarke, A. R.; James, Henry (January 1, 1873).
2548:Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm (December 1, 1841).
1982:. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 1007–1010.
1076:. Finally, in 1967, the second was defined by
705:, for which its director, the Swiss physicist
535:for his scientific contribution to metrology.
3735:Canalejas y Méndez, José (February 8, 1889).
2204:Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society
1298:"CARLOS IBANEZ DE IBERO, MARQUIS DE MULHACEN"
673:International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
238:went to Paris to supervise the production by
8:
3141:(in French). Mallet-Bachelier. pp. 7–8.
2813:. Archived from the original on May 21, 2017
2791:. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 381–383.
2739:"Metric Act of 1866 – US Metric Association"
2595:Viik, T (2006). "F. W. BESSEL AND GEODESY".
2483:. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 885–889.
1825:. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 266–269.
1706:. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 150–152.
1086:International Bureau of Weights and Measures
1046:International Bureau of Weights and Measures
769:International Bureau of Weights and Measures
549:International Bureau of Weights and Measures
4180:Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
3997:Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero (1825–1891)
3578:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
3487:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
3259:Boletín del Instituto de Estudios Gienneses
2428:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2014:Descripcion geodesica de las islas Baleares
1797:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
539:representation of the unity of the system.
4138:Don Carlos IBANEZ (1825–1891), 1892, 12 p.
3714:"Le centenaire du général Ibañez de Ibéro"
3547:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3378:Delgado de Orellana, José Antonio (1968).
2384:Vermessung, Photogrammetrie, Kulturtechnik
2000:. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 70–72.
1849:Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée
847:which gave an inaccurate determination of
791:General Conference on Weights and Measures
680:General Conference on Weights and Measures
517:General Conference on Weights and Measures
420:, Tetica, Filahoussen, M'Sabiha) over the
171:General Conference on Weights and Measures
122:Geodesy, Geography, Metrology, Statistics.
29:
18:
4170:Members of the French Academy of Sciences
4112:LE CENTENAIRE DU GÉNÉRAL IBANEZ DE IBERO
3279:Información, Huelva (December 19, 2020).
3013:Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, Carlos (1881).
2935:Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
2862:Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, Carlos (1872).
2604:
2446:Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, Carlos (1866).
2263:
2210:: 3–5 – via Universidad de Navarra.
2011:Ibañez é Ibañez de Ibero, Carlos (1871).
1955:Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Íbero, Carlos (1865).
1739:
1513:
1389:Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
1169:hyperfine transition frequency of caesium
960:which was confirmed the next year at the
781:had brought to the United States in 1805.
463:) at the Permanent Commission meeting in
250:), was replicated in order to be used in
4200:Fellows of the Royal Statistical Society
2811:Institut de France Académie des Sciences
1845:"La mesure rapide des bases géodésiques"
4175:Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium
3216:"Charles-Edouard GUILLAUME (1861–1938)"
2650:"BIPM – International Metre Commission"
2360:from the original on September 14, 2006
1924:. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. p. 623.
1253:
1072:, evolved and became a fraction of the
1012:sent the time to sea daily through the
451:is nearer the mean than that of Paris.
4072:Sr. D. CARLOS IBÁÑEZ E IBÁÑEZ DE IBERO
3849:
3847:
3718:Revue internationale de l'enseignement
3571:
3540:
3480:
3452:(in French). pp. 195–200, 449–463
3439:
3437:
3397:
3387:
3274:
3272:
3187:
3185:
3152:
3150:
3148:
3031:
3029:
3008:
3006:
3004:
2922:
2920:
2824:
2492:
2490:
2441:
2439:
2421:
2407:
2405:
2377:
2375:
2343:
2341:
2322:"c à Paris; vitesse de la lumière ..."
2316:
2314:
2246:Schiavon, Martina (December 1, 2006).
2221:
2219:
2217:
2176:from the original on February 22, 2007
2159:
2157:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
1950:
1948:
1790:
1694:
1692:
1000:hinted at the possibility of unifying
531:among all nations and was awarded the
4092:, Madrid, El País, February 15, 2014.
3306:
3304:
3302:
2905:. Imprimerie Nationale. pp. 8.
2800:
2798:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2620:
2618:
2616:
2471:
2469:
1970:
1968:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1613:Núñez de las Cuevas, Rodolfo (2005).
1608:
1606:
1604:
1580:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1418:
1416:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1321:
1319:
1292:
1290:
1259:
1257:
1024:organized at the Paris Observatory a
968:, and because of Spain's adoption of
843:Nevertheless, it was an infavourable
590:could be inferred from variations of
519:in 1889. At the first meeting of the
479:and Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero.
131:Instituto Geográfico Nacional (Spain)
7:
3158:Géodésie in Encyclopedia Universalis
1487:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1391:. pp. 9, 4, 8, 5, 10, 7, 8–9, 9
1365:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1347:
940:Unfortunately, the extension of the
688:A tous les temps, à tous les peuples
469:International Association of Geodesy
279:International Association of Geodesy
135:International Association of Geodesy
3192:Guillaume, Charles-Édouard (1920).
3073:– via Universidad de Navarra.
2880:from the original on April 12, 2021
2702:. Neuchâtel. 1867. pp. 21–22.
1882:Guillaume, Charles-Édouard (1920).
1585:Martín López, José (June 1, 2017).
926:International Statistical Institute
319:In 1870 Ibáñez founded the Spanish
157:and was the first president of the
139:International Statistical Institute
3384:(in Spanish). Ediciones Hidalguia.
2721:Hassler, Ferdinand Rudolf (1825).
2675:"A Note on the History of the IAG"
2299:from the original on July 29, 2021
1699:Brunner, Jean (January 26, 1857).
1275:from the original on June 15, 2019
1080:. The resulting time scale is the
722:Late career, marriages and descent
608:International Geodetic Association
163:International Geodetic Association
14:
3357:Cent ans d'hispanisme en Sorbonne
3351:clairedeprekel (2 January 2017).
3196:. Nobel Foundation. pp. 1, 2
3194:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1920"
1935:Ismaïl-Effendi-Moustapha (1864).
1642:Paladini Cuadrado, Angel (1991).
1099:(SI, abbreviated from the French
962:International Meridian Conference
954:International Geodetic Conference
828:caused wear and consequently the
777:produced in 1799 in Paris, which
304:to measure the geodetic bases of
208:Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences
4030:Better formatted mathematics at
3503:Revista Colombiana de Sociología
2287:Zuerich, ETH-Bibliothek (1879).
2076:Nacional, Instituto Geográfico.
1861:10.1051/jphystap:019060050024200
1438:(10): 907–1205, Table 3 p. 914.
1401:
1101:Système international (d'unités)
1038:International Astronomical Union
169:during the first meeting of the
4061:Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero
3381:La sabiduría, fuente de nobleza
3336:Martinez Utesa, Carmen (1995).
2957:"BIPM – Presidents of the CIPM"
2078:"Instituto Geográfico Nacional"
1554:"BIPM – former Prototype Metre"
1425:"The Geodesist's Handbook 2016"
1382:"Don Carlos IBANEZ (1825–1891)"
610:(1887–1891) after the death of
586:respective territories. As the
338:West Europe-Africa Meridian-arc
151:Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero
23:Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero
3856:"2000ASPC..208..175G Page 175"
3787:Giret, A. (December 1, 1964).
2418:(in French). pp. 168–169.
347:Exposition Universelle of 1855
1:
2763:Bigourdan, Guillaume (1901).
1097:International System of Units
872:determined the values of his
739:, where the latter was from.
461:Mitteleuropäische Gradmessung
374:Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre
321:National Geographic Institute
4065:Real Academia de la Historia
4014:"Earth, Figure of the"
3764:Zimmermann, Maurice (1901).
2871:Centro Español de Metrología
2452:publications.iass-potsdam.de
2137:"Earth, Figure of the"
1103:) is the modern form of the
596:United States Coast Survey's
3311:Jacin Luna; Jaime Nubiola.
2265:10.4000/histoiremesure.1746
1500:(3): 176–188 pp. 178, 183.
4216:
3968:"BIPM – measurement units"
3831:observatoiredeparis.psl.eu
3593:Debarbat, Suzanne (2011).
1090:Coordinated Universal Time
564:gravitational acceleration
500:French Academy of Sciences
370:French Academy of Sciences
229:United States Coast Survey
4143:October 26, 2020, at the
4074:. Académicos Históricos.
3627:Techniques de l'Ingénieur
3416:"Willemin, Jacques Louis"
3106:10.1007/s00190-004-0423-0
2989:(in French). p. 1025
2554:Astronomische Nachrichten
2537:. Paris: Impr. nationale.
2295:(in French). p. 14.
1843:Guillaume, Ch-Ed (1906).
1452:10.1007/s00190-016-0948-z
1145:thermodynamic temperature
1082:International Atomic Time
1030:International Time Bureau
779:Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler
707:Charles-Édouard Guillaume
481:Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler
225:Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler
144:
111:
28:
3281:"El marqués de Mulhacén"
3036:Hirsch, Adolphe (1875).
2574:10.1002/asna.18420190702
2348:Puissant, Louis (1836).
1657:Cajori, Florian (1921).
1380:Hirsch, Adolphe (1891).
870:Friedrich Robert Helmert
803:Spuller, Eugène (1889),
657:Friedrich Robert Helmert
572:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel
544:European Arc Measurement
508:Academy of St Petersburg
489:European Arc Measurement
433:Friedrich Robert Helmert
396:arc. From 1870 to 1894,
368:declared in 1836 to the
221:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel
4059:Miguel Parrilla Nieto,
4052:Encyclopædia Britannica
4024:Encyclopædia Britannica
3450:editions.flammarion.com
2805:Pérard, Albert (1957).
2708:2027/mdp.39015079998129
2147:Encyclopædia Britannica
884:Furthermore, until the
862:ellipsoid of revolution
711:Nobel Prize for physics
629:through improvement of
625:combined with those of
493:Europäische Gradmessung
213:Frutos Saavedra Meneses
4005:Universidad de Navarra
3519:. Oxford. p. 13.
3225:. 1938. Archived from
2937:. 1890. pp. 5, 27
2195:Brenni, Paolo (1996).
2043:10.1098/rstl.1867.0010
1741:10.1098/rstl.1873.0014
1663:The Scientific Monthly
1622:Universidad de Navarra
874:ellipsoid of reference
840:
782:
600:Charles Sanders Peirce
568:Charles Sanders Peirce
559:
342:
256:Ismail Effendi Mustafa
254:. In 1863, Ibáñez and
203:
4090:Donde nacen los mapas
3770:Annales de géographie
3712:Appell, Paul (1925).
3602:ui.adsabs.harvard.edu
3515:Quinn, T. J. (2012).
3287:(in European Spanish)
3135:Ritter, Élie (1858).
2252:Histoire & mesure
2235:. pp. 25, 26–32.
2164:Wolf, Rudolf (1891).
2084:(in European Spanish)
1587:Cartógrafos españoles
1524:10.1007/s001900050086
1109:system of measurement
1061:heure demi-définitive
1022:Bureau des Longitudes
838:
789:introduced the first
766:
669:John Fillmore Hayford
646:on the one hand, and
598:direction instructed
557:
504:Bureau des Longitudes
449:meridian of Greenwich
429:Alexander Ross Clarke
335:
298:Alexander Ross Clarke
217:Jean-Charles de Borda
201:
59:28 or 29 January 1891
2911:10.3931/e-rara-75532
2507:10.1007/1345_2015_42
2396:10.5169/seals-234595
2356:. pp. 428–433.
2325:expositions.obspm.fr
2172:. pp. 370–371.
1237:History of the metre
1119:starting with seven
1117:units of measurement
918:least squares method
908:mathematicians like
876:taking into account
665:vertical deflections
633:led to a new era of
75:Cimetière du Château
3872:2000ASPC..208..175G
3854:Guinot, B. (2000).
3805:1964LAstr..78..465G
3098:2005JGeod..78..558T
3044:. pp. 255, 256
2566:1841AN.....19...97B
1675:1921SciMo..13..117C
1595:10.7419/162.02.2017
1506:1997JGeod..71..176S
1444:2016JGeod..90..907D
1153:amount of substance
1006:astronomical clocks
998:wireless telegraphy
996:the development of
984:back to land where
974:Struve Geodetic Arc
970:Greenwich Mean Time
845:vertical deflection
749:University of Paris
745:Sorbonne University
612:Johann Jacob Baeyer
592:gravitational field
588:figure of the Earth
579:reversible pendulum
473:Johann Jacob Baeyer
4132:2019-12-12 at the
3285:Huelva Información
3086:Journal of Geodesy
2232:Traité de géodésie
1941:. Paris: V. Goupy.
1787:pp. 139, 228.
1734:: 445–469, p. 16.
1494:Journal of Geodesy
1432:Journal of Geodesy
1242:History of geodesy
1202:Boltzmann constant
1165:defining constants
1161:luminous intensity
841:
793:with these words:
783:
774:Mètre des Archives
709:, was granted the
621:The progresses of
560:
485:Metric Act of 1866
359:Jean-Baptiste Biot
353:(1803–1804), then
343:
275:Johann Jacob Bayer
204:
3568:. pp. 17–18.
3526:978-0-19-990991-9
3477:pp. 419–420.
3167:978-2-85229-290-1
2516:978-3-319-24603-1
1302:academieroyale.be
1219:luminous efficacy
1209:Avogadro constant
1195:elementary charge
1107:. It is the only
1042:Benjamin Baillaud
1010:Paris Observatory
1004:. From 1910, the
946:Mediterranean Sea
886:Hayford ellipsoid
659:found, mainly by
515:and at the first
422:Mediterranean Sea
290:Iberian Peninsula
288:with that of the
277:, founder of the
189:Scientific career
148:
147:
113:Scientific career
93:President of the
4207:
4126:
4123:
4106:
4102:
4088:Rafael Fraguas,
4056:
4044:
4028:
4016:
3983:
3982:
3980:
3978:
3964:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3953:
3939:
3933:
3932:
3930:
3928:
3914:
3908:
3907:
3905:
3903:
3889:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3878:
3851:
3842:
3841:
3839:
3837:
3823:
3817:
3816:
3784:
3778:
3777:
3761:
3755:
3754:
3752:
3750:
3744:Gaceta de Madrid
3741:
3732:
3726:
3725:
3709:
3703:
3702:
3700:
3699:
3690:. Archived from
3680:
3674:
3673:
3671:
3670:
3664:
3658:. Archived from
3653:
3645:
3639:
3638:
3636:
3634:
3619:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3608:
3599:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3577:
3569:
3559:
3553:
3552:
3546:
3538:
3512:
3506:
3499:
3493:
3492:
3486:
3478:
3468:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3441:
3432:
3431:
3429:
3427:
3412:
3406:
3405:
3399:
3395:
3393:
3385:
3375:
3369:
3368:
3366:
3364:
3348:
3342:
3341:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3324:
3323:
3308:
3297:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3276:
3267:
3266:
3256:
3247:
3241:
3240:
3238:
3237:
3231:
3220:
3212:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3201:
3189:
3180:
3179:
3154:
3143:
3142:
3132:
3126:
3125:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3070:
3060:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3049:
3033:
3024:
3023:
3021:
3010:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2978:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2953:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2942:
2932:
2924:
2915:
2914:
2896:
2890:
2889:
2887:
2885:
2879:
2868:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2830:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2802:
2793:
2792:
2781:
2775:
2774:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2749:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2696:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2671:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2660:
2646:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2622:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2592:
2586:
2585:
2545:
2539:
2538:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2494:
2485:
2484:
2473:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2459:
2454:. pp. 56–58
2443:
2434:
2433:
2427:
2419:
2409:
2400:
2399:
2379:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2345:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2331:
2318:
2309:
2308:
2306:
2304:
2284:
2278:
2277:
2267:
2258:(XXI–2): 55–94.
2243:
2237:
2236:
2223:
2212:
2211:
2201:
2192:
2186:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2161:
2152:
2151:
2139:
2131:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2114:
2100:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2089:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1972:
1963:
1962:
1952:
1943:
1942:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1899:
1893:. Archived from
1888:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1840:
1827:
1826:
1816:
1803:
1802:
1796:
1788:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1743:
1719:
1708:
1707:
1696:
1687:
1686:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1619:
1610:
1599:
1598:
1582:
1569:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1517:
1489:
1472:
1471:
1429:
1420:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1386:
1377:
1342:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1323:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1294:
1285:
1284:
1282:
1280:
1261:
1137:electric current
1127:, m), kilogram (
1070:Earth's rotation
826:repeating circle
813:
811:
639:force of gravity
631:Kater's pendulum
583:Émile Plantamour
525:Légion d'Honneur
513:Metre Convention
441:Bessel ellipsoid
402:François Perrier
398:François Perrier
286:Balearic Islands
167:Metre Convention
155:Metre Convention
33:
19:
4215:
4214:
4210:
4209:
4208:
4206:
4205:
4204:
4150:
4149:
4145:Wayback Machine
4134:Wayback Machine
4124:
4121:
4104:
4100:
4095:Albert Pérard,
4042:"Geodesy"
4038:
4010:
3995:Jaime Nubiola,
3992:
3987:
3986:
3976:
3974:
3966:
3965:
3961:
3951:
3949:
3941:
3940:
3936:
3926:
3924:
3916:
3915:
3911:
3901:
3899:
3897:350ans.obspm.fr
3891:
3890:
3886:
3876:
3874:
3853:
3852:
3845:
3835:
3833:
3825:
3824:
3820:
3786:
3785:
3781:
3763:
3762:
3758:
3748:
3746:
3739:
3734:
3733:
3729:
3711:
3710:
3706:
3697:
3695:
3682:
3681:
3677:
3668:
3666:
3662:
3651:
3647:
3646:
3642:
3632:
3630:
3621:
3620:
3616:
3606:
3604:
3597:
3592:
3591:
3587:
3570:
3561:
3560:
3556:
3539:
3527:
3514:
3513:
3509:
3500:
3496:
3479:
3470:
3469:
3465:
3455:
3453:
3443:
3442:
3435:
3425:
3423:
3414:
3413:
3409:
3396:
3386:
3377:
3376:
3372:
3362:
3360:
3350:
3349:
3345:
3335:
3334:
3330:
3321:
3319:
3310:
3309:
3300:
3290:
3288:
3278:
3277:
3270:
3254:
3249:
3248:
3244:
3235:
3233:
3229:
3218:
3214:
3213:
3209:
3199:
3197:
3191:
3190:
3183:
3168:
3156:
3155:
3146:
3134:
3133:
3129:
3083:
3082:
3078:
3068:
3066:
3062:
3061:
3057:
3047:
3045:
3035:
3034:
3027:
3019:
3012:
3011:
3002:
2992:
2990:
2980:
2979:
2975:
2965:
2963:
2955:
2954:
2950:
2940:
2938:
2930:
2926:
2925:
2918:
2898:
2897:
2893:
2883:
2881:
2877:
2866:
2861:
2860:
2856:
2845:
2844:
2840:
2823:
2816:
2814:
2804:
2803:
2796:
2783:
2782:
2778:
2762:
2761:
2757:
2747:
2745:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2698:
2697:
2693:
2683:
2681:
2673:
2672:
2668:
2658:
2656:
2648:
2647:
2638:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2614:
2606:10.1.1.517.9501
2594:
2593:
2589:
2547:
2546:
2542:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2517:
2496:
2495:
2488:
2475:
2474:
2467:
2457:
2455:
2445:
2444:
2437:
2420:
2411:
2410:
2403:
2381:
2380:
2373:
2363:
2361:
2347:
2346:
2339:
2329:
2327:
2320:
2319:
2312:
2302:
2300:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2225:
2224:
2215:
2199:
2194:
2193:
2189:
2179:
2177:
2163:
2162:
2155:
2133:
2132:
2121:
2112:
2110:
2102:
2101:
2097:
2087:
2085:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2027:
2026:
2022:
2010:
2009:
2005:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1974:
1973:
1966:
1954:
1953:
1946:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1917:
1916:
1912:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1886:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1842:
1841:
1830:
1818:
1817:
1806:
1789:
1779:
1778:
1774:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1721:
1720:
1711:
1698:
1697:
1690:
1656:
1655:
1651:
1641:
1640:
1636:
1626:
1624:
1617:
1612:
1611:
1602:
1584:
1583:
1572:
1562:
1560:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1515:10.1.1.492.3967
1491:
1490:
1475:
1427:
1422:
1421:
1414:
1402:
1394:
1392:
1384:
1379:
1378:
1345:
1335:
1333:
1325:
1324:
1317:
1307:
1305:
1296:
1295:
1288:
1278:
1276:
1263:
1262:
1255:
1250:
1233:
1226:
1216:
1188:Planck constant
1177:
809:
802:
761:
724:
644:constant errors
457:
394:French meridian
330:
248:Règle espagnole
196:
191:
182:Ibáñez de Ibero
66:
60:
51:
45:
36:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4213:
4211:
4203:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4152:
4151:
4148:
4147:
4117:Adolf Hirsch,
4115:
4108:
4093:
4086:
4079:
4068:
4057:
4047:Chisholm, Hugh
4036:
4019:Chisholm, Hugh
4008:
3991:
3990:External links
3988:
3985:
3984:
3959:
3934:
3909:
3884:
3843:
3818:
3779:
3756:
3727:
3704:
3675:
3640:
3614:
3585:
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3525:
3507:
3494:
3463:
3433:
3420:hls-dhs-dss.ch
3407:
3370:
3343:
3328:
3298:
3268:
3242:
3207:
3181:
3166:
3144:
3127:
3092:(9): 558–568.
3076:
3055:
3042:e-periodica.ch
3025:
3000:
2973:
2948:
2916:
2891:
2854:
2838:
2794:
2776:
2755:
2730:
2727:. p. 252.
2713:
2691:
2666:
2636:
2612:
2599:. p. 10.
2587:
2540:
2522:
2515:
2486:
2465:
2435:
2401:
2390:(7): 377–378.
2371:
2337:
2310:
2279:
2238:
2213:
2187:
2153:
2142:Chisholm, Hugh
2119:
2095:
2068:
2056:
2020:
2003:
1985:
1964:
1944:
1927:
1910:
1874:
1855:(1): 242–263.
1828:
1804:
1772:
1755:
1709:
1688:
1669:(2): 117–129.
1649:
1634:
1600:
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1343:
1315:
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1252:
1251:
1249:
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1244:
1239:
1232:
1229:
1224:
1214:
1180:speed of light
1175:
1018:Gustave Ferrié
1002:Universal Time
950:prime meridian
942:Paris meridian
818:Tower of Babel
787:Eugène Spuller
760:
757:
723:
720:
716:Simplon Tunnel
533:Poncelet Prize
477:Adolphe Hirsch
456:
453:
379:Paris meridian
366:Louis Puissant
355:François Arago
351:Pierre Méchain
329:
326:
271:Aimé Laussedat
195:
192:
190:
187:
146:
145:
142:
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128:
124:
123:
120:
116:
115:
109:
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106:Poncelet Prize
103:
99:
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90:Known for
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61:
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53:
52:
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4128:
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4110:Paul Appell,
4109:
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4080:
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4006:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3993:
3989:
3973:
3969:
3963:
3960:
3948:
3944:
3943:"BIPM – IERS"
3938:
3935:
3923:
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3913:
3910:
3898:
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3885:
3873:
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3844:
3832:
3828:
3822:
3819:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3783:
3780:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3760:
3757:
3745:
3738:
3731:
3728:
3724:(1): 208–211.
3723:
3719:
3715:
3708:
3705:
3694:on 2022-12-16
3693:
3689:
3685:
3679:
3676:
3665:on 2022-12-16
3661:
3657:
3650:
3644:
3641:
3628:
3624:
3618:
3615:
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3596:
3589:
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3532:
3528:
3522:
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3504:
3498:
3495:
3490:
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3476:
3475:
3467:
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3447:
3440:
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3434:
3421:
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3411:
3408:
3403:
3391:
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3382:
3374:
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3354:
3347:
3344:
3339:
3332:
3329:
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3314:
3307:
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3303:
3299:
3286:
3282:
3275:
3273:
3269:
3264:
3260:
3253:
3246:
3243:
3232:on 2021-01-09
3228:
3224:
3217:
3211:
3208:
3200:September 19,
3195:
3188:
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3182:
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3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
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3087:
3080:
3077:
3065:
3059:
3056:
3048:September 18,
3043:
3039:
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3026:
3018:
3017:
3009:
3007:
3005:
3001:
2988:
2984:
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2949:
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2923:
2921:
2917:
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2908:
2904:
2903:
2899:S.N. (1875).
2895:
2892:
2876:
2872:
2865:
2858:
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2849:
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2695:
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2563:
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2551:
2544:
2541:
2536:
2535:
2526:
2523:
2518:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2499:IAG 150 Years
2493:
2491:
2487:
2482:
2481:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2453:
2449:
2442:
2440:
2436:
2431:
2425:
2417:
2416:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2386:(in French).
2385:
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2372:
2359:
2355:
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2326:
2323:
2317:
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2311:
2298:
2294:
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2275:
2271:
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2261:
2257:
2254:(in French).
2253:
2249:
2242:
2239:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2227:Tardi, Pierre
2222:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2209:
2205:
2198:
2191:
2188:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2160:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2148:
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2109:
2105:
2099:
2096:
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2079:
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2069:
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2057:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2024:
2021:
2016:
2015:
2007:
2004:
1999:
1998:
1989:
1986:
1981:
1980:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1960:
1959:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1939:
1931:
1928:
1923:
1922:
1914:
1911:
1900:on 2017-04-22
1896:
1892:
1885:
1878:
1875:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1851:(in French).
1850:
1846:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1823:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
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1794:
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1768:
1767:
1759:
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1725:
1718:
1716:
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1705:
1704:
1695:
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1672:
1668:
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1660:
1653:
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1638:
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1623:
1616:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1601:
1596:
1592:
1588:
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1571:
1559:
1555:
1549:
1546:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1488:
1486:
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1482:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1426:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1408:public domain
1390:
1383:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1332:
1328:
1322:
1320:
1316:
1303:
1299:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1247:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1230:
1228:
1223:
1220:
1213:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1105:metric system
1102:
1098:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1078:atomic clocks
1075:
1074:Earth's orbit
1071:
1067:
1066:quartz clocks
1062:
1058:
1057:sidereal time
1053:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1040:, created by
1039:
1035:
1031:
1028:in 1912. The
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
993:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
944:arc over the
943:
938:
935:
929:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
905:
903:
899:
895:
891:
890:random errors
887:
882:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
858:
854:
850:
846:
837:
833:
831:
827:
823:
819:
814:
808:
807:
800:
799:
794:
792:
788:
780:
776:
775:
770:
765:
758:
756:
752:
750:
746:
740:
738:
732:
730:
721:
719:
717:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
691:
689:
685:
681:
676:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
653:
652:least squares
649:
645:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
619:
617:
613:
609:
604:
601:
597:
593:
589:
584:
580:
575:
573:
569:
565:
556:
552:
550:
545:
540:
536:
534:
530:
529:metric system
526:
522:
518:
514:
509:
505:
501:
496:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
454:
452:
450:
444:
442:
438:
434:
430:
425:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
382:
380:
375:
371:
367:
362:
360:
356:
352:
348:
339:
334:
327:
325:
322:
317:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
282:
280:
276:
272:
268:
263:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
232:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
209:
200:
193:
188:
186:
183:
179:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
143:
140:
137:
136:
132:
129:
125:
121:
117:
114:
110:
107:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
73:
71:Resting place
69:
64:
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54:
49:
44:14 April 1825
43:
39:
32:
27:
20:
4050:
4029:
4022:
3975:. Retrieved
3971:
3962:
3950:. Retrieved
3946:
3937:
3925:. Retrieved
3921:
3918:"BIPM – TAI"
3912:
3900:. Retrieved
3896:
3887:
3875:. Retrieved
3863:
3859:
3834:. Retrieved
3830:
3821:
3796:
3793:L'Astronomie
3792:
3782:
3773:
3769:
3759:
3747:. Retrieved
3743:
3730:
3721:
3717:
3707:
3696:. Retrieved
3692:the original
3687:
3678:
3667:. Retrieved
3660:the original
3655:
3643:
3633:December 30,
3631:. Retrieved
3626:
3617:
3607:December 30,
3605:. Retrieved
3601:
3588:
3564:
3557:
3516:
3510:
3502:
3497:
3473:
3466:
3456:December 30,
3454:. Retrieved
3449:
3444:Alder, Ken.
3426:December 23,
3424:. Retrieved
3419:
3410:
3380:
3373:
3363:December 23,
3361:. Retrieved
3356:
3346:
3337:
3331:
3320:. Retrieved
3316:
3289:. Retrieved
3284:
3262:
3258:
3245:
3234:. Retrieved
3227:the original
3222:
3210:
3198:. Retrieved
3157:
3137:
3130:
3089:
3085:
3079:
3067:. Retrieved
3058:
3046:. Retrieved
3041:
3015:
2991:. Retrieved
2986:
2976:
2964:. Retrieved
2960:
2951:
2939:. Retrieved
2934:
2901:
2894:
2882:. Retrieved
2870:
2857:
2847:
2841:
2815:. Retrieved
2810:
2786:
2779:
2765:
2758:
2748:December 24,
2746:. Retrieved
2742:
2733:
2723:
2716:
2699:
2694:
2682:. Retrieved
2679:IAG Homepage
2678:
2669:
2657:. Retrieved
2653:
2626:
2596:
2590:
2557:
2553:
2543:
2532:
2525:
2498:
2478:
2458:December 10,
2456:. Retrieved
2451:
2414:
2387:
2383:
2362:. Retrieved
2353:
2328:. Retrieved
2324:
2301:. Retrieved
2292:
2282:
2255:
2251:
2241:
2231:
2207:
2203:
2190:
2178:. Retrieved
2169:
2145:
2111:. Retrieved
2107:
2098:
2088:December 11,
2086:. Retrieved
2081:
2071:
2059:
2034:
2030:
2023:
2013:
2006:
1995:
1988:
1977:
1957:
1937:
1930:
1920:
1913:
1902:. Retrieved
1895:the original
1890:
1877:
1852:
1848:
1821:
1784:Delambre,...
1782:
1775:
1765:
1758:
1731:
1727:
1701:
1666:
1662:
1652:
1643:
1637:
1625:. Retrieved
1621:
1586:
1561:. Retrieved
1557:
1548:
1497:
1493:
1435:
1431:
1393:. Retrieved
1388:
1336:November 30,
1334:. Retrieved
1330:
1308:November 30,
1306:. Retrieved
1301:
1279:November 30,
1277:. Retrieved
1268:
1221:
1211:
1204:
1197:
1190:
1183:
1172:
1164:
1155:, mol), and
1100:
1094:
1060:
1054:
1025:
1014:Eiffel Tower
994:
988:had founded
986:Eratosthenes
982:meridian arc
978:South Africa
953:
952:at the 1883
939:
930:
906:
883:
842:
821:
815:
805:
801:
796:
795:
784:
772:
753:
741:
733:
725:
692:
687:
678:In 1889 the
677:
620:
605:
576:
561:
541:
537:
497:
492:
460:
458:
445:
436:
426:
383:
363:
344:
337:
318:
283:
264:
247:
240:Jean Brunner
233:
205:
181:
177:
175:
150:
149:
133:
127:Institutions
112:
4165:1891 deaths
4160:1825 births
3977:January 20,
3952:January 12,
3927:January 12,
3902:January 12,
3877:January 12,
3836:January 12,
3749:January 20,
3688:isi-web.org
3656:isi-web.org
3629:(in French)
3422:(in French)
3398:|work=
3359:(in French)
3291:February 9,
2364:January 11,
2293:E-Periodica
2037:: 161–180.
1304:(in French)
1034:World War I
812:, p. 8
699:thermometry
618:and Japan.
302:Switzerland
294:Southampton
234:Ibáñez and
97:(1875–1891)
82:Nationality
4190:Geodesists
4154:Categories
4032:Wikisource
3776:(50): 185.
3698:2022-12-23
3669:2022-12-23
3322:2023-01-17
3265:: 655–661.
3236:2021-01-05
3069:August 25,
2773:–258, 269.
2113:2023-01-06
1904:2019-06-10
1331:dbe.rah.es
1248:References
1217:, and the
1182:in vacuum
1121:base units
1115:system of
966:Washington
922:statistics
902:aberration
894:precession
878:gravimetry
866:oblateness
661:gravimetry
648:fortuitous
627:gravimetry
314:Bellinzona
310:Weinfelden
267:Madridejos
3813:0004-6302
3574:cite book
3543:cite book
3535:861693071
3483:cite book
3400:ignored (
3390:cite book
3122:120943411
3114:1432-1394
2884:April 12,
2601:CiteSeerX
2582:0004-6337
2560:(7): 97.
2424:cite book
2330:August 5,
2274:0982-1783
2051:109333769
1979:l'Espagne
1869:0368-3893
1793:cite book
1750:0261-0523
1683:0096-3771
1540:119447198
1532:0949-7714
1510:CiteSeerX
1468:125925505
1460:1432-1394
849:Barcelona
623:metrology
616:Argentina
491:(German:
465:Neuchâtel
390:Neuchâtel
364:Moreover
341:meridian.
48:Barcelona
4141:Archived
4130:Archived
3972:bipm.org
3947:bipm.org
3922:bipm.org
3176:36747385
2993:June 22,
2961:bipm.org
2875:Archived
2827:cite web
2743:usma.org
2654:bipm.org
2358:Archived
2303:July 29,
2297:Archived
2229:(1934).
2180:July 29,
2174:Archived
1558:bipm.org
1273:Archived
1231:See also
1113:coherent
1052:(IERS).
1048:and the
934:Mulhacén
910:Legendre
898:nutation
853:latitude
502:and the
418:Mulhacén
410:Shetland
386:Portugal
236:Saavedra
227:for the
65:(France)
4070:Excmo.
4049:(ed.).
4021:(ed.).
3868:Bibcode
3866:: 175.
3801:Bibcode
3799:: 465.
3317:unav.es
3094:Bibcode
2987:Gallica
2966:May 22,
2941:May 24,
2817:May 22,
2684:May 26,
2659:May 22,
2562:Bibcode
2480:Perrier
2354:Gallica
2170:Gallica
2144:(ed.).
1671:Bibcode
1627:May 22,
1563:May 22,
1502:Bibcode
1440:Bibcode
1395:May 22,
1157:candela
1131:, kg),
1008:of the
990:geodesy
729:Carlist
682:met at
635:geodesy
412:to the
406:Algeria
306:Aarberg
85:Spanish
77:in Nice
50:(Spain)
3811:
3533:
3523:
3174:
3164:
3120:
3112:
2603:
2580:
2534:France
2513:
2272:
2049:
1997:Ibañez
1867:
1748:
1703:France
1681:
1538:
1530:
1512:
1466:
1458:
1269:rac.es
1207:, the
1200:, the
1193:, the
1186:, the
1178:, the
1147:, K),
1141:kelvin
1139:, A),
1133:ampere
1125:length
1020:, the
830:zenith
759:Legacy
737:Geneva
684:Sèvres
594:, the
414:Sahara
296:where
260:Madrid
178:Ibáñez
119:Fields
102:Awards
4107:26–31
4045:. In
4017:. In
3740:(PDF)
3663:(PDF)
3652:(PDF)
3598:(PDF)
3255:(PDF)
3230:(PDF)
3219:(PDF)
3118:S2CID
3020:(PDF)
2931:(PDF)
2878:(PDF)
2867:(PDF)
2631:(PDF)
2200:(PDF)
2140:. In
2047:S2CID
1898:(PDF)
1887:(PDF)
1618:(PDF)
1536:S2CID
1464:S2CID
1428:(PDF)
1385:(PDF)
914:Gauss
857:geoid
810:(PDF)
703:invar
372:that
252:Egypt
244:Borda
4127:3–14
3979:2021
3954:2021
3929:2021
3904:2021
3879:2021
3838:2021
3809:ISSN
3751:2021
3635:2020
3609:2020
3580:link
3549:link
3531:OCLC
3521:ISBN
3489:link
3458:2020
3428:2020
3402:help
3365:2020
3293:2021
3223:BIPM
3202:2020
3172:OCLC
3162:ISBN
3110:ISSN
3071:2019
3050:2020
2995:2020
2968:2017
2943:2017
2886:2021
2833:link
2819:2017
2788:1870
2750:2020
2686:2017
2661:2017
2578:ISSN
2511:ISBN
2460:2019
2430:link
2366:2020
2332:2021
2305:2021
2270:ISSN
2182:2021
2090:2019
1891:BIPM
1865:ISSN
1799:link
1746:ISSN
1679:ISSN
1629:2017
1565:2017
1528:ISSN
1456:ISSN
1397:2017
1338:2019
1310:2019
1281:2019
1149:mole
1129:mass
1095:The
958:Rome
912:and
695:BIPM
693:The
577:The
542:The
498:The
431:and
357:and
336:The
312:and
63:Nice
56:Died
41:Born
4136:or
4125:pp.
4122:p.,
3864:208
3263:169
3102:doi
2907:doi
2771:254
2704:hdl
2570:doi
2503:doi
2392:doi
2260:doi
2256:XXI
2039:doi
2035:157
1857:doi
1736:doi
1732:163
1591:doi
1520:doi
1448:doi
964:in
956:in
904:).
851:'s
697:'s
219:or
4156::
4105:p.
4103:,
4101:p.
4063:,
4003:.
3999:.
3970:.
3945:.
3920:.
3895:.
3862:.
3858:.
3846:^
3829:.
3807:.
3797:78
3795:.
3791:.
3774:10
3772:.
3768:.
3742:.
3722:79
3720:.
3716:.
3686:.
3654:.
3625:.
3600:.
3576:}}
3572:{{
3545:}}
3541:{{
3529:.
3485:}}
3481:{{
3448:.
3436:^
3418:.
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