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Cauchy's integral theorem

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276: 55: 3680: 3859: 3502: 3684: 3168: 3303: 2961: 2015: 3034: 3172: 3493: 3431: 2777: 1863: 3675:{\displaystyle \iint _{D}\left(-{\frac {\partial v}{\partial x}}-{\frac {\partial u}{\partial y}}\right)\,dx\,dy=\iint _{D}\left({\frac {\partial u}{\partial y}}-{\frac {\partial u}{\partial y}}\right)\,dx\,dy=0} 3854:{\displaystyle \iint _{D}\left({\frac {\partial u}{\partial x}}-{\frac {\partial v}{\partial y}}\right)\,dx\,dy=\iint _{D}\left({\frac {\partial u}{\partial x}}-{\frac {\partial u}{\partial x}}\right)\,dx\,dy=0} 669: 1390: 1749: 2381: 1325: 1858: 1214:) from the curve to the constant curve. Intuitively, this means that one can shrink the curve into a point without exiting the space.) The first version is a special case of this because on a 3913: 1184: 918: 737: 1022: 777: 1784: 463: 2174: 1060: 818: 2642:
of this region. Cauchy provided this proof, but it was later proven by Goursat without requiring techniques from vector calculus, or the continuity of partial derivatives.
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One important consequence of the theorem is that path integrals of holomorphic functions on simply connected domains can be computed in a manner familiar from the
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If one assumes that the partial derivatives of a holomorphic function are continuous, the Cauchy integral theorem can be proven as a direct consequence of
2197: 1330: 24: 576: 4135: 3163:{\displaystyle \oint _{\gamma }(u\,dx-v\,dy)=\iint _{D}\left(-{\frac {\partial v}{\partial x}}-{\frac {\partial u}{\partial y}}\right)\,dx\,dy} 299: 3298:{\displaystyle \oint _{\gamma }(v\,dx+u\,dy)=\iint _{D}\left({\frac {\partial u}{\partial x}}-{\frac {\partial v}{\partial y}}\right)\,dx\,dy} 4156: 4027: 2307: 1253: 1789: 2956:{\displaystyle \oint _{\gamma }f(z)\,dz=\oint _{\gamma }(u+iv)(dx+i\,dy)=\oint _{\gamma }(u\,dx-v\,dy)+i\oint _{\gamma }(v\,dx+u\,dy)} 4052: 292: 157: 2010:{\displaystyle \oint _{\gamma }{\frac {1}{z}}\,dz=\int _{0}^{2\pi }{\frac {1}{e^{it}}}(ie^{it}\,dt)=\int _{0}^{2\pi }i\,dt=2\pi i} 3866: 1137: 871: 2090: 1673: 4151: 3928: 489: 388: 1250:
does not surround any "holes" in the domain, or else the theorem does not apply. A famous example is the following curve:
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The Cauchy integral theorem is valid with a weaker hypothesis than given above, e.g. given
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showed, Cauchy's integral theorem can be proven assuming only that the complex derivative
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cannot be shrunk to a point without exiting the space. Thus, the theorem does not apply.
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Spring 2018 Massachusetts Institute of Technology: MIT OpenCourseWare Creative Commons.
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We therefore find that both integrands (and hence their integrals) are zero
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But as the real and imaginary parts of a function holomorphic in the domain
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is nonzero; the Cauchy integral theorem does not apply here since
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is nonzero. The Cauchy integral theorem does not apply here since
1385:{\displaystyle \int _{\gamma }{\frac {1}{z}}\,dz=2\pi i\neq 0,} 1327:
which traces out the unit circle. Here the following integral:
2969:, we may then replace the integrals around the closed contour 1591:
for these functions, and from that deduce these functions are
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which traces out the unit circle, and then the path integral
664:{\displaystyle \int _{\gamma }f'(z)\,dz=f(z_{1})-f(z_{0}).} 3955:"The Cauchy-Goursat Theorem for Rectifiable Jordan Curves" 1230:
In both cases, it is important to remember that the curve
1744:{\displaystyle U_{z_{0}}=\{z:\left|z-z_{0}\right|<r\}} 2532: 2477: 694: 3869: 3687: 3505: 3438: 3379: 3355: 3335: 3314: 3175: 3037: 3015: 2995: 2975: 2780: 2733: 2699: 2674: 2652: 2622: 2582: 2505: 2456: 2436: 2414: 2391: 2310: 2290: 2266: 2246: 2226: 2206: 2182: 2148: 2126: 2099: 2066: 2060:
is not defined (and is certainly not holomorphic) at
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has a single-valued antiderivative in an open region
579: 552: 525: 501: 419: 397: 361: 3907: 3853: 3674: 3487: 3425: 3361: 3341: 3320: 3297: 3162: 3021: 3001: 2981: 2955: 2764: 2720: 2683: 2658: 2628: 2603: 2576:and the fact that the real and imaginary parts of 2545: 2511: 2490: 2462: 2442: 2422: 2397: 2376:{\displaystyle \int _{\gamma }f(z)\,dz=F(b)-F(a).} 2375: 2296: 2272: 2252: 2232: 2212: 2188: 2168: 2134: 2105: 2078: 2052: 2009: 1852: 1778: 1743: 1662: 1634: 1610: 1579: 1559: 1513: 1493: 1473: 1453: 1427: 1384: 1320:{\displaystyle \gamma (t)=e^{it}\quad t\in \left,} 1319: 1242: 1206: 1178: 1122: 1102: 1054: 1016: 980: 956: 932: 912: 860: 812: 771: 731: 663: 565: 538: 507: 457: 403: 376: 1853:{\displaystyle \gamma (t)=e^{it}\quad t\in \left} 1587:. This is significant because one can then prove 1786:, qualifies. The condition is crucial; consider 3959:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 473:Fundamental theorem for complex line integrals 1190:to a constant curve if there exists a smooth 300: 8: 2989:with an area integral throughout the domain 1738: 1697: 964:has no "holes", or in other words, that the 3908:{\displaystyle \oint _{\gamma }f(z)\,dz=0} 2691:into their real and imaginary components: 2198:piecewise continuously differentiable path 1670:is trivial; for instance, every open disk 1179:{\displaystyle \int _{\gamma }f(z)\,dz=0.} 913:{\displaystyle \int _{\gamma }f(z)\,dz=0.} 307: 293: 29: 3988: 3970: 3892: 3874: 3868: 3838: 3831: 3806: 3783: 3772: 3758: 3751: 3726: 3703: 3692: 3686: 3659: 3652: 3627: 3604: 3593: 3579: 3572: 3547: 3524: 3510: 3504: 3465: 3439: 3437: 3403: 3380: 3378: 3354: 3334: 3313: 3288: 3281: 3256: 3233: 3222: 3205: 3192: 3180: 3174: 3153: 3146: 3121: 3098: 3084: 3067: 3054: 3042: 3036: 3014: 2994: 2974: 2943: 2930: 2918: 2898: 2885: 2873: 2856: 2817: 2803: 2785: 2779: 2755: 2732: 2698: 2673: 2651: 2621: 2581: 2533: 2531: 2504: 2478: 2476: 2455: 2435: 2416: 2415: 2413: 2390: 2333: 2315: 2309: 2289: 2265: 2245: 2225: 2205: 2181: 2162: 2161: 2147: 2128: 2127: 2125: 2098: 2065: 2042: 2022: 1988: 1976: 1971: 1954: 1945: 1924: 1915: 1906: 1901: 1887: 1877: 1871: 1865: 1812: 1791: 1772: 1771: 1762: 1756: 1721: 1686: 1681: 1675: 1655: 1627: 1603: 1572: 1538: 1506: 1486: 1466: 1440: 1417: 1397: 1354: 1344: 1338: 1332: 1276: 1255: 1235: 1199: 1163: 1145: 1139: 1115: 1071: 1048: 1047: 1033: 1010: 1009: 1001: 973: 949: 925: 897: 879: 873: 829: 806: 805: 791: 765: 764: 756: 722: 699: 693: 649: 627: 607: 584: 578: 557: 551: 530: 524: 500: 442: 424: 418: 396: 360: 3945: 1017:{\displaystyle U\subseteq \mathbb {C} } 772:{\displaystyle U\subseteq \mathbb {C} } 747:Formulation on simply connected regions 222: 215: 137: 99: 61: 45: 25:Cauchy formula for repeated integration 2638:and moreover in the open neighborhood 411:in Ω, that contour integral is zero. 391:Ω, then for any simply closed contour 4083:, McGraw-Hill series in mathematics, 4043:, McGraw-Hill series in Mathematics, 2556:The Cauchy integral theorem leads to 1779:{\displaystyle z_{0}\in \mathbb {C} } 739:is path independent for all paths in 732:{\textstyle \int _{\gamma }f'(z)\,dz} 488:is a holomorphic function on an open 7: 1481:surrounds a "hole" in the domain of 458:{\displaystyle \int _{C}f(z)\,dz=0.} 4136:Complex Variables with Applications 4018:, Cambridge Stud. Adv. Math., 107, 2430:, we can weaken the assumptions to 2176:be a holomorphic function, and let 2169:{\displaystyle f:U\to \mathbb {C} } 1055:{\displaystyle f:U\to \mathbb {C} } 813:{\displaystyle f:U\to \mathbb {C} } 343:), is an important statement about 3817: 3809: 3794: 3786: 3737: 3729: 3714: 3706: 3638: 3630: 3615: 3607: 3558: 3550: 3535: 3527: 3476: 3468: 3450: 3442: 3414: 3406: 3391: 3383: 3267: 3259: 3244: 3236: 3132: 3124: 3109: 3101: 2408:a simply connected open subset of 14: 868:be a smooth closed curve. Then: 274: 53: 2091:fundamental theorem of calculus 1821: 1285: 355:. Essentially, it says that if 3929:Methods of contour integration 3889: 3883: 3863:This gives the desired result 3212: 3186: 3074: 3048: 2950: 2924: 2905: 2879: 2863: 2841: 2838: 2823: 2800: 2794: 2367: 2361: 2352: 2346: 2330: 2324: 2158: 2033: 2027: 1961: 1935: 1802: 1796: 1554: 1548: 1408: 1402: 1266: 1260: 1160: 1154: 1110:be a smooth closed curve. If 1094: 1091: 1079: 1044: 894: 888: 852: 849: 837: 802: 719: 713: 655: 642: 633: 620: 604: 598: 439: 433: 371: 365: 1: 1103:{\displaystyle \gamma :\to U} 861:{\displaystyle \gamma :\to U} 4157:Theorems in complex analysis 2668:as well as the differential 2546:{\textstyle {\overline {U}}} 2538: 2491:{\textstyle {\overline {U}}} 2483: 2423:{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } 2135:{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } 4104:Encyclopedia of Mathematics 3953:Walsh, J. L. (1933-05-01). 2765:{\displaystyle dz=dx+i\,dy} 2645:We can break the integrand 1218:set, every closed curve is 1134:to a constant curve, then: 16:Theorem in complex analysis 4173: 18: 4121:"Cauchy Integral Theorem" 4099:"Cauchy integral theorem" 4081:Real and Complex Analysis 2615:in the region bounded by 2558:Cauchy's integral formula 1593:infinitely differentiable 1589:Cauchy's integral formula 688:, then the path integral 217:Geometric function theory 163:Cauchy's integral formula 153:Cauchy's integral theorem 21:Cauchy's integral formula 3371:Cauchy–Riemann equations 2613:Cauchy–Riemann equations 2053:{\displaystyle f(z)=1/z} 1428:{\displaystyle f(z)=1/z} 1186:(Recall that a curve is 125:Cauchy–Riemann equations 19:Not to be confused with 4068:, Springer Verlag GTM, 3022:{\displaystyle \gamma } 2982:{\displaystyle \gamma } 2629:{\displaystyle \gamma } 2512:{\displaystyle \gamma } 2189:{\displaystyle \gamma } 1514:{\displaystyle \gamma } 1474:{\displaystyle \gamma } 1243:{\displaystyle \gamma } 1123:{\displaystyle \gamma } 508:{\displaystyle \gamma } 325:Cauchy integral theorem 110:Complex-valued function 3909: 3855: 3676: 3489: 3427: 3363: 3343: 3322: 3299: 3164: 3023: 3003: 2983: 2957: 2766: 2722: 2721:{\displaystyle f=u+iv} 2685: 2660: 2630: 2605: 2604:{\displaystyle f=u+iv} 2547: 2513: 2492: 2464: 2444: 2424: 2399: 2377: 2298: 2282:complex antiderivative 2274: 2254: 2234: 2214: 2190: 2170: 2136: 2107: 2080: 2054: 2011: 1854: 1780: 1745: 1664: 1642:has no "holes" or, in 1636: 1612: 1581: 1561: 1515: 1495: 1475: 1455: 1429: 1386: 1321: 1244: 1208: 1180: 1124: 1104: 1056: 1018: 982: 958: 934: 914: 862: 814: 773: 733: 665: 567: 540: 509: 459: 405: 378: 329:Cauchy–Goursat theorem 281:Mathematics portal 4152:Augustin-Louis Cauchy 4134:Jeremy Orloff, 18.04 3972:10.1073/pnas.19.5.540 3910: 3856: 3677: 3490: 3428: 3364: 3344: 3323: 3300: 3165: 3024: 3004: 2984: 2958: 2774:In this case we have 2767: 2723: 2686: 2661: 2631: 2606: 2548: 2514: 2493: 2465: 2450:being holomorphic on 2445: 2425: 2400: 2378: 2299: 2275: 2255: 2235: 2215: 2191: 2171: 2137: 2108: 2081: 2055: 2012: 1855: 1781: 1746: 1665: 1637: 1613: 1582: 1567:exists everywhere in 1562: 1560:{\displaystyle f'(z)} 1516: 1496: 1476: 1456: 1430: 1387: 1322: 1245: 1222:to a constant curve. 1209: 1181: 1125: 1105: 1057: 1019: 983: 959: 935: 915: 863: 815: 774: 734: 666: 568: 566:{\displaystyle z_{1}} 541: 539:{\displaystyle z_{0}} 510: 460: 406: 379: 349:holomorphic functions 337:Augustin-Louis Cauchy 233:Augustin-Louis Cauchy 35:Mathematical analysis 3867: 3685: 3503: 3436: 3377: 3353: 3333: 3312: 3173: 3035: 3013: 3009:that is enclosed by 2993: 2973: 2778: 2731: 2697: 2672: 2650: 2620: 2580: 2530: 2503: 2475: 2454: 2434: 2412: 2389: 2308: 2288: 2264: 2244: 2224: 2204: 2180: 2146: 2124: 2097: 2064: 2021: 1864: 1790: 1755: 1674: 1654: 1626: 1602: 1571: 1537: 1505: 1485: 1465: 1439: 1396: 1331: 1254: 1234: 1198: 1138: 1114: 1070: 1064:holomorphic function 1032: 1000: 972: 948: 924: 920:(The condition that 872: 828: 822:holomorphic function 790: 755: 692: 577: 550: 523: 499: 417: 395: 384:is holomorphic in a 377:{\displaystyle f(z)} 359: 243:Carl Friedrich Gauss 178:Isolated singularity 120:Holomorphic function 2079:{\displaystyle z=0} 1984: 1914: 1598:The condition that 1454:{\displaystyle z=0} 992:General formulation 327:(also known as the 130:Formal power series 92:Unit complex number 4118:Weisstein, Eric W. 3905: 3851: 3672: 3485: 3423: 3359: 3339: 3318: 3295: 3160: 3019: 2999: 2979: 2953: 2762: 2718: 2684:{\displaystyle dz} 2681: 2656: 2626: 2601: 2543: 2509: 2488: 2470:and continuous on 2460: 2440: 2420: 2395: 2373: 2294: 2270: 2250: 2230: 2210: 2186: 2166: 2132: 2103: 2076: 2050: 2007: 1967: 1897: 1850: 1776: 1741: 1660: 1632: 1608: 1577: 1557: 1511: 1491: 1471: 1451: 1435:is not defined at 1425: 1382: 1317: 1240: 1204: 1176: 1120: 1100: 1052: 1014: 978: 954: 930: 910: 858: 810: 769: 729: 661: 563: 536: 505: 455: 401: 374: 208:Laplace's equation 188:Argument principle 4029:978-0-521-80937-5 4012:Kodaira, Kunihiko 3824: 3801: 3744: 3721: 3645: 3622: 3565: 3542: 3483: 3457: 3421: 3398: 3369:must satisfy the 3362:{\displaystyle v} 3342:{\displaystyle u} 3321:{\displaystyle D} 3274: 3251: 3139: 3116: 3002:{\displaystyle D} 2659:{\displaystyle f} 2611:must satisfy the 2541: 2486: 2463:{\displaystyle U} 2443:{\displaystyle f} 2398:{\displaystyle U} 2297:{\displaystyle f} 2273:{\displaystyle F} 2253:{\displaystyle b} 2233:{\displaystyle a} 2220:with start point 2213:{\displaystyle U} 2106:{\displaystyle U} 1933: 1885: 1663:{\displaystyle U} 1648:fundamental group 1635:{\displaystyle U} 1611:{\displaystyle U} 1580:{\displaystyle U} 1494:{\displaystyle f} 1352: 1207:{\displaystyle U} 981:{\displaystyle U} 966:fundamental group 957:{\displaystyle U} 933:{\displaystyle U} 404:{\displaystyle C} 317: 316: 203:Harmonic function 115:Analytic function 101:Complex functions 87:Complex conjugate 4164: 4131: 4130: 4112: 4087: 4072: 4066:Complex Analysis 4057: 4041:Complex Analysis 4032: 4016:Complex Analysis 4003: 4002: 3992: 3974: 3950: 3924:Morera's theorem 3914: 3912: 3911: 3906: 3879: 3878: 3860: 3858: 3857: 3852: 3830: 3826: 3825: 3823: 3815: 3807: 3802: 3800: 3792: 3784: 3777: 3776: 3750: 3746: 3745: 3743: 3735: 3727: 3722: 3720: 3712: 3704: 3697: 3696: 3681: 3679: 3678: 3673: 3651: 3647: 3646: 3644: 3636: 3628: 3623: 3621: 3613: 3605: 3598: 3597: 3571: 3567: 3566: 3564: 3556: 3548: 3543: 3541: 3533: 3525: 3515: 3514: 3494: 3492: 3491: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3474: 3466: 3458: 3456: 3448: 3440: 3432: 3430: 3429: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3412: 3404: 3399: 3397: 3389: 3381: 3368: 3366: 3365: 3360: 3348: 3346: 3345: 3340: 3329: 3327: 3325: 3324: 3319: 3304: 3302: 3301: 3296: 3280: 3276: 3275: 3273: 3265: 3257: 3252: 3250: 3242: 3234: 3227: 3226: 3185: 3184: 3169: 3167: 3166: 3161: 3145: 3141: 3140: 3138: 3130: 3122: 3117: 3115: 3107: 3099: 3089: 3088: 3047: 3046: 3028: 3026: 3025: 3020: 3008: 3006: 3005: 3000: 2988: 2986: 2985: 2980: 2962: 2960: 2959: 2954: 2923: 2922: 2878: 2877: 2822: 2821: 2790: 2789: 2771: 2769: 2768: 2763: 2727: 2725: 2724: 2719: 2690: 2688: 2687: 2682: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2662: 2657: 2641: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2632: 2627: 2610: 2608: 2607: 2602: 2552: 2550: 2549: 2544: 2542: 2534: 2518: 2516: 2515: 2510: 2497: 2495: 2494: 2489: 2487: 2479: 2469: 2467: 2466: 2461: 2449: 2447: 2446: 2441: 2429: 2427: 2426: 2421: 2419: 2404: 2402: 2401: 2396: 2382: 2380: 2379: 2374: 2320: 2319: 2303: 2301: 2300: 2295: 2279: 2277: 2276: 2271: 2259: 2257: 2256: 2251: 2239: 2237: 2236: 2231: 2219: 2217: 2216: 2211: 2195: 2193: 2192: 2187: 2175: 2173: 2172: 2167: 2165: 2141: 2139: 2138: 2133: 2131: 2115:simply connected 2112: 2110: 2109: 2104: 2085: 2083: 2082: 2077: 2059: 2057: 2056: 2051: 2046: 2016: 2014: 2013: 2008: 1983: 1975: 1953: 1952: 1934: 1932: 1931: 1916: 1913: 1905: 1886: 1878: 1876: 1875: 1859: 1857: 1856: 1851: 1849: 1845: 1820: 1819: 1785: 1783: 1782: 1777: 1775: 1767: 1766: 1750: 1748: 1747: 1742: 1731: 1727: 1726: 1725: 1693: 1692: 1691: 1690: 1669: 1667: 1666: 1661: 1646:terms, that the 1641: 1639: 1638: 1633: 1620:simply connected 1617: 1615: 1614: 1609: 1586: 1584: 1583: 1578: 1566: 1564: 1563: 1558: 1547: 1520: 1518: 1517: 1512: 1500: 1498: 1497: 1492: 1480: 1478: 1477: 1472: 1460: 1458: 1457: 1452: 1434: 1432: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1391: 1389: 1388: 1383: 1353: 1345: 1343: 1342: 1326: 1324: 1323: 1318: 1313: 1309: 1284: 1283: 1249: 1247: 1246: 1241: 1216:simply connected 1213: 1211: 1210: 1205: 1185: 1183: 1182: 1177: 1150: 1149: 1129: 1127: 1126: 1121: 1109: 1107: 1106: 1101: 1061: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1051: 1023: 1021: 1020: 1015: 1013: 987: 985: 984: 979: 963: 961: 960: 955: 942:simply connected 939: 937: 936: 931: 919: 917: 916: 911: 884: 883: 867: 865: 864: 859: 819: 817: 816: 811: 809: 781:simply connected 778: 776: 775: 770: 768: 742: 738: 736: 735: 730: 712: 704: 703: 687: 683: 670: 668: 667: 662: 654: 653: 632: 631: 597: 589: 588: 572: 570: 569: 564: 562: 561: 545: 543: 542: 537: 535: 534: 518: 514: 512: 511: 506: 494: 487: 464: 462: 461: 456: 429: 428: 410: 408: 407: 402: 386:simply connected 383: 381: 380: 375: 333:complex analysis 309: 302: 295: 279: 278: 263:Karl Weierstrass 258:Bernhard Riemann 248:Jacques Hadamard 77:Imaginary number 57: 47:Complex analysis 41: 39:Complex analysis 30: 4172: 4171: 4167: 4166: 4165: 4163: 4162: 4161: 4142: 4141: 4116: 4115: 4097: 4094: 4075: 4070:Springer Verlag 4060: 4055: 4035: 4030: 4010: 4007: 4006: 3952: 3951: 3947: 3942: 3920: 3870: 3865: 3864: 3816: 3808: 3793: 3785: 3782: 3778: 3768: 3736: 3728: 3713: 3705: 3702: 3698: 3688: 3683: 3682: 3637: 3629: 3614: 3606: 3603: 3599: 3589: 3557: 3549: 3534: 3526: 3520: 3516: 3506: 3501: 3500: 3475: 3467: 3449: 3441: 3434: 3433: 3413: 3405: 3390: 3382: 3375: 3374: 3351: 3350: 3331: 3330: 3310: 3309: 3308: 3266: 3258: 3243: 3235: 3232: 3228: 3218: 3176: 3171: 3170: 3131: 3123: 3108: 3100: 3094: 3090: 3080: 3038: 3033: 3032: 3011: 3010: 2991: 2990: 2971: 2970: 2967:Green's theorem 2914: 2869: 2813: 2781: 2776: 2775: 2729: 2728: 2695: 2694: 2670: 2669: 2648: 2647: 2646: 2639: 2618: 2617: 2616: 2578: 2577: 2574:Green's theorem 2570: 2562:residue theorem 2528: 2527: 2501: 2500: 2473: 2472: 2452: 2451: 2432: 2431: 2410: 2409: 2387: 2386: 2311: 2306: 2305: 2286: 2285: 2262: 2261: 2242: 2241: 2222: 2221: 2202: 2201: 2178: 2177: 2144: 2143: 2122: 2121: 2095: 2094: 2062: 2061: 2019: 2018: 1941: 1920: 1867: 1862: 1861: 1832: 1828: 1808: 1788: 1787: 1758: 1753: 1752: 1717: 1710: 1706: 1682: 1677: 1672: 1671: 1652: 1651: 1624: 1623: 1600: 1599: 1569: 1568: 1540: 1535: 1534: 1531:Édouard Goursat 1527: 1503: 1502: 1483: 1482: 1463: 1462: 1461:. Intuitively, 1437: 1436: 1394: 1393: 1334: 1329: 1328: 1296: 1292: 1272: 1252: 1251: 1232: 1231: 1228: 1196: 1195: 1141: 1136: 1135: 1112: 1111: 1068: 1067: 1030: 1029: 998: 997: 994: 970: 969: 946: 945: 922: 921: 875: 870: 869: 826: 825: 788: 787: 753: 752: 749: 740: 705: 695: 690: 689: 685: 674: 645: 623: 590: 580: 575: 574: 553: 548: 547: 526: 521: 520: 516: 497: 496: 492: 478: 475: 470: 420: 415: 414: 393: 392: 357: 356: 341:Édouard Goursat 313: 273: 183:Residue theorem 158:Local primitive 148:Zeros and poles 63:Complex numbers 33: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4170: 4168: 4160: 4159: 4154: 4144: 4143: 4140: 4139: 4132: 4113: 4093: 4092:External links 4090: 4089: 4088: 4073: 4058: 4053: 4033: 4028: 4005: 4004: 3965:(5): 540–541. 3944: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3937: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3919: 3916: 3904: 3901: 3898: 3895: 3891: 3888: 3885: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3850: 3847: 3844: 3841: 3837: 3834: 3829: 3822: 3819: 3814: 3811: 3805: 3799: 3796: 3791: 3788: 3781: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3764: 3761: 3757: 3754: 3749: 3742: 3739: 3734: 3731: 3725: 3719: 3716: 3711: 3708: 3701: 3695: 3691: 3671: 3668: 3665: 3662: 3658: 3655: 3650: 3643: 3640: 3635: 3632: 3626: 3620: 3617: 3612: 3609: 3602: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3585: 3582: 3578: 3575: 3570: 3563: 3560: 3555: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3537: 3532: 3529: 3523: 3519: 3513: 3509: 3481: 3478: 3473: 3470: 3464: 3461: 3455: 3452: 3447: 3444: 3419: 3416: 3411: 3408: 3402: 3396: 3393: 3388: 3385: 3358: 3338: 3317: 3294: 3291: 3287: 3284: 3279: 3272: 3269: 3264: 3261: 3255: 3249: 3246: 3241: 3238: 3231: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3214: 3211: 3208: 3204: 3201: 3198: 3195: 3191: 3188: 3183: 3179: 3159: 3156: 3152: 3149: 3144: 3137: 3134: 3129: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3111: 3106: 3103: 3097: 3093: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3076: 3073: 3070: 3066: 3063: 3060: 3057: 3053: 3050: 3045: 3041: 3018: 2998: 2978: 2952: 2949: 2946: 2942: 2939: 2936: 2933: 2929: 2926: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2910: 2907: 2904: 2901: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2888: 2884: 2881: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2865: 2862: 2859: 2855: 2852: 2849: 2846: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2831: 2828: 2825: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2809: 2806: 2802: 2799: 2796: 2793: 2788: 2784: 2761: 2758: 2754: 2751: 2748: 2745: 2742: 2739: 2736: 2717: 2714: 2711: 2708: 2705: 2702: 2680: 2677: 2655: 2625: 2600: 2597: 2594: 2591: 2588: 2585: 2569: 2566: 2540: 2537: 2508: 2485: 2482: 2459: 2439: 2418: 2394: 2372: 2369: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2357: 2354: 2351: 2348: 2345: 2342: 2339: 2336: 2332: 2329: 2326: 2323: 2318: 2314: 2293: 2269: 2249: 2240:and end point 2229: 2209: 2185: 2164: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2130: 2102: 2075: 2072: 2069: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2038: 2035: 2032: 2029: 2026: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1997: 1994: 1991: 1987: 1982: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1963: 1960: 1957: 1951: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1937: 1930: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1912: 1909: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1893: 1890: 1884: 1881: 1874: 1870: 1848: 1844: 1841: 1838: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1824: 1818: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1798: 1795: 1774: 1770: 1765: 1761: 1740: 1737: 1734: 1730: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1696: 1689: 1685: 1680: 1659: 1631: 1607: 1576: 1556: 1553: 1550: 1546: 1543: 1526: 1523: 1510: 1490: 1470: 1450: 1447: 1444: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1413: 1410: 1407: 1404: 1401: 1381: 1378: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1351: 1348: 1341: 1337: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1305: 1302: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1288: 1282: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1268: 1265: 1262: 1259: 1239: 1227: 1224: 1203: 1175: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1162: 1159: 1156: 1153: 1148: 1144: 1119: 1099: 1096: 1093: 1090: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1078: 1075: 1050: 1046: 1043: 1040: 1037: 1012: 1008: 1005: 993: 990: 977: 953: 929: 909: 906: 903: 900: 896: 893: 890: 887: 882: 878: 857: 854: 851: 848: 845: 842: 839: 836: 833: 808: 804: 801: 798: 795: 767: 763: 760: 748: 745: 728: 725: 721: 718: 715: 711: 708: 702: 698: 660: 657: 652: 648: 644: 641: 638: 635: 630: 626: 622: 619: 616: 613: 610: 606: 603: 600: 596: 593: 587: 583: 560: 556: 533: 529: 515:is a curve in 504: 474: 471: 469: 466: 454: 451: 448: 445: 441: 438: 435: 432: 427: 423: 400: 373: 370: 367: 364: 345:line integrals 335:, named after 315: 314: 312: 311: 304: 297: 289: 286: 285: 284: 283: 268: 267: 266: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 238:Leonhard Euler 235: 227: 226: 220: 219: 213: 212: 211: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 173:Laurent series 170: 168:Winding number 165: 160: 155: 150: 142: 141: 135: 134: 133: 132: 127: 122: 117: 112: 104: 103: 97: 96: 95: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 66: 65: 59: 58: 50: 49: 43: 42: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4169: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4137: 4133: 4128: 4127: 4122: 4119: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4105: 4100: 4096: 4095: 4091: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4077:Rudin, Walter 4074: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4056: 4054:0-07-000657-1 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4037:Ahlfors, Lars 4034: 4031: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4008: 4000: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3949: 3946: 3939: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3921: 3917: 3915: 3902: 3899: 3896: 3893: 3886: 3880: 3875: 3871: 3861: 3848: 3845: 3842: 3839: 3835: 3832: 3827: 3820: 3812: 3803: 3797: 3789: 3779: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3762: 3759: 3755: 3752: 3747: 3740: 3732: 3723: 3717: 3709: 3699: 3693: 3689: 3669: 3666: 3663: 3660: 3656: 3653: 3648: 3641: 3633: 3624: 3618: 3610: 3600: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3583: 3580: 3576: 3573: 3568: 3561: 3553: 3544: 3538: 3530: 3521: 3517: 3511: 3507: 3498: 3495: 3479: 3471: 3462: 3459: 3453: 3445: 3417: 3409: 3400: 3394: 3386: 3372: 3356: 3336: 3315: 3305: 3292: 3289: 3285: 3282: 3277: 3270: 3262: 3253: 3247: 3239: 3229: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3199: 3196: 3193: 3189: 3181: 3177: 3157: 3154: 3150: 3147: 3142: 3135: 3127: 3118: 3112: 3104: 3095: 3091: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3071: 3068: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3055: 3051: 3043: 3039: 3030: 3016: 2996: 2976: 2968: 2963: 2947: 2944: 2940: 2937: 2934: 2931: 2927: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2908: 2902: 2899: 2895: 2892: 2889: 2886: 2882: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2860: 2857: 2853: 2850: 2847: 2844: 2835: 2832: 2829: 2826: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2807: 2804: 2797: 2791: 2786: 2782: 2772: 2759: 2756: 2752: 2749: 2746: 2743: 2740: 2737: 2734: 2715: 2712: 2709: 2706: 2703: 2700: 2692: 2678: 2675: 2653: 2643: 2623: 2614: 2598: 2595: 2592: 2589: 2586: 2583: 2575: 2567: 2565: 2563: 2559: 2554: 2535: 2525: 2522: 2506: 2498: 2480: 2457: 2437: 2407: 2392: 2383: 2370: 2364: 2358: 2355: 2349: 2343: 2340: 2337: 2334: 2327: 2321: 2316: 2312: 2291: 2283: 2267: 2247: 2227: 2207: 2199: 2183: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2119: 2116: 2100: 2092: 2087: 2073: 2070: 2067: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2036: 2030: 2024: 2004: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1992: 1989: 1985: 1980: 1977: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1958: 1955: 1949: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1928: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1910: 1907: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1891: 1888: 1882: 1879: 1872: 1868: 1846: 1842: 1839: 1836: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1822: 1816: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1799: 1793: 1768: 1763: 1759: 1735: 1732: 1728: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1700: 1694: 1687: 1683: 1678: 1657: 1649: 1645: 1629: 1621: 1605: 1596: 1594: 1590: 1574: 1551: 1544: 1541: 1532: 1524: 1522: 1508: 1488: 1468: 1448: 1445: 1442: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1411: 1405: 1399: 1379: 1376: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1349: 1346: 1339: 1335: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1286: 1280: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1263: 1257: 1237: 1225: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1201: 1193: 1189: 1173: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1157: 1151: 1146: 1142: 1133: 1117: 1097: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1076: 1073: 1065: 1041: 1038: 1035: 1027: 1006: 1003: 991: 989: 988:is trivial.) 975: 967: 951: 943: 927: 907: 904: 901: 898: 891: 885: 880: 876: 855: 846: 843: 840: 834: 831: 823: 799: 796: 793: 786:set, and let 785: 782: 761: 758: 746: 744: 726: 723: 716: 709: 706: 700: 696: 681: 677: 671: 658: 650: 646: 639: 636: 628: 624: 617: 614: 611: 608: 601: 594: 591: 585: 581: 558: 554: 531: 527: 502: 491: 485: 481: 472: 467: 465: 452: 449: 446: 443: 436: 430: 425: 421: 412: 398: 390: 387: 368: 362: 354: 353:complex plane 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 310: 305: 303: 298: 296: 291: 290: 288: 287: 282: 277: 272: 271: 270: 269: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 230: 229: 228: 225: 221: 218: 214: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 198:Schwarz lemma 196: 194: 193:Conformal map 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 145: 144: 143: 140: 136: 131: 128: 126: 123: 121: 118: 116: 113: 111: 108: 107: 106: 105: 102: 98: 93: 90: 88: 85: 83: 82:Complex plane 80: 78: 75: 73: 70: 69: 68: 67: 64: 60: 56: 52: 51: 48: 44: 40: 36: 32: 31: 26: 22: 4124: 4102: 4080: 4065: 4040: 4015: 3962: 3958: 3948: 3862: 3499: 3496: 3306: 3031: 3029:as follows: 2964: 2773: 2693: 2644: 2571: 2555: 2405: 2384: 2088: 1597: 1528: 1229: 1226:Main example 995: 750: 679: 675: 672: 483: 479: 476: 413: 328: 324: 318: 152: 139:Basic theory 38: 4085:McGraw-Hill 4062:Lang, Serge 4045:McGraw-Hill 3934:Star domain 2524:simple loop 2521:rectifiable 2118:open subset 1622:means that 944:means that 673:Also, when 321:mathematics 253:Kiyoshi Oka 72:Real number 4146:Categories 3940:References 1525:Discussion 1028:, and let 4126:MathWorld 4109:EMS Press 3981:0027-8424 3876:γ 3872:∮ 3818:∂ 3810:∂ 3804:− 3795:∂ 3787:∂ 3770:∬ 3738:∂ 3730:∂ 3724:− 3715:∂ 3707:∂ 3690:∬ 3639:∂ 3631:∂ 3625:− 3616:∂ 3608:∂ 3591:∬ 3559:∂ 3551:∂ 3545:− 3536:∂ 3528:∂ 3522:− 3508:∬ 3477:∂ 3469:∂ 3463:− 3451:∂ 3443:∂ 3415:∂ 3407:∂ 3392:∂ 3384:∂ 3268:∂ 3260:∂ 3254:− 3245:∂ 3237:∂ 3220:∬ 3182:γ 3178:∮ 3133:∂ 3125:∂ 3119:− 3110:∂ 3102:∂ 3096:− 3082:∬ 3062:− 3044:γ 3040:∮ 3017:γ 2977:γ 2920:γ 2916:∮ 2893:− 2875:γ 2871:∮ 2819:γ 2815:∮ 2787:γ 2783:∮ 2624:γ 2539:¯ 2507:γ 2484:¯ 2356:− 2317:γ 2313:∫ 2184:γ 2159:→ 2002:π 1981:π 1969:∫ 1911:π 1899:∫ 1873:γ 1869:∮ 1843:π 1826:∈ 1794:γ 1769:∈ 1715:− 1509:γ 1469:γ 1374:≠ 1368:π 1340:γ 1336:∫ 1307:π 1290:∈ 1258:γ 1238:γ 1220:homotopic 1188:homotopic 1147:γ 1143:∫ 1132:homotopic 1118:γ 1095:→ 1074:γ 1045:→ 1007:⊆ 881:γ 877:∫ 853:→ 832:γ 803:→ 762:⊆ 701:γ 697:∫ 637:− 586:γ 582:∫ 503:γ 468:Statement 422:∫ 4079:(2000), 4064:(2003), 4039:(2000), 4014:(2007), 3999:16587781 3918:See also 2560:and the 1644:homotopy 1545:′ 1194:(within 1192:homotopy 1026:open set 710:′ 595:′ 4111:, 2001 3990:1086062 3373:there: 2304:, then 351:in the 4051:  4026:  3997:  3987:  3979:  2142:, let 2093:: let 1751:, for 1066:. Let 1024:be an 824:. Let 573:then, 495:, and 490:region 389:domain 323:, the 224:People 2568:Proof 2280:is a 2260:. If 2196:be a 2113:be a 1501:, so 1062:be a 820:be a 779:be a 519:from 339:(and 331:) in 4049:ISBN 4024:ISBN 3995:PMID 3977:ISSN 3349:and 2499:and 1733:< 996:Let 784:open 751:Let 347:for 4020:CUP 3985:PMC 3967:doi 2965:By 2526:in 2284:of 2200:in 2120:of 1650:of 1618:be 1529:As 1130:is 968:of 940:be 546:to 477:If 319:In 23:or 4148:: 4123:. 4107:, 4101:, 4047:, 4022:, 3993:. 3983:. 3975:. 3963:19 3961:. 3957:. 2564:. 2553:. 2519:a 2086:. 1595:. 1174:0. 908:0. 743:. 453:0. 37:→ 4129:. 4001:. 3969:: 3903:0 3900:= 3897:z 3894:d 3890:) 3887:z 3884:( 3881:f 3849:0 3846:= 3843:y 3840:d 3836:x 3833:d 3828:) 3821:x 3813:u 3798:x 3790:u 3780:( 3774:D 3766:= 3763:y 3760:d 3756:x 3753:d 3748:) 3741:y 3733:v 3718:x 3710:u 3700:( 3694:D 3670:0 3667:= 3664:y 3661:d 3657:x 3654:d 3649:) 3642:y 3634:u 3619:y 3611:u 3601:( 3595:D 3587:= 3584:y 3581:d 3577:x 3574:d 3569:) 3562:y 3554:u 3539:x 3531:v 3518:( 3512:D 3480:x 3472:v 3460:= 3454:y 3446:u 3418:y 3410:v 3401:= 3395:x 3387:u 3357:v 3337:u 3328:, 3316:D 3293:y 3290:d 3286:x 3283:d 3278:) 3271:y 3263:v 3248:x 3240:u 3230:( 3224:D 3216:= 3213:) 3210:y 3207:d 3203:u 3200:+ 3197:x 3194:d 3190:v 3187:( 3158:y 3155:d 3151:x 3148:d 3143:) 3136:y 3128:u 3113:x 3105:v 3092:( 3086:D 3078:= 3075:) 3072:y 3069:d 3065:v 3059:x 3056:d 3052:u 3049:( 2997:D 2951:) 2948:y 2945:d 2941:u 2938:+ 2935:x 2932:d 2928:v 2925:( 2912:i 2909:+ 2906:) 2903:y 2900:d 2896:v 2890:x 2887:d 2883:u 2880:( 2867:= 2864:) 2861:y 2858:d 2854:i 2851:+ 2848:x 2845:d 2842:( 2839:) 2836:v 2833:i 2830:+ 2827:u 2824:( 2811:= 2808:z 2805:d 2801:) 2798:z 2795:( 2792:f 2760:y 2757:d 2753:i 2750:+ 2747:x 2744:d 2741:= 2738:z 2735:d 2716:v 2713:i 2710:+ 2707:u 2704:= 2701:f 2679:z 2676:d 2666:, 2654:f 2640:U 2636:, 2599:v 2596:i 2593:+ 2590:u 2587:= 2584:f 2536:U 2481:U 2458:U 2438:f 2417:C 2406:, 2393:U 2371:. 2368:) 2365:a 2362:( 2359:F 2353:) 2350:b 2347:( 2344:F 2341:= 2338:z 2335:d 2331:) 2328:z 2325:( 2322:f 2292:f 2268:F 2248:b 2228:a 2208:U 2163:C 2156:U 2153:: 2150:f 2129:C 2101:U 2074:0 2071:= 2068:z 2048:z 2044:/ 2040:1 2037:= 2034:) 2031:z 2028:( 2025:f 2005:i 1999:2 1996:= 1993:t 1990:d 1986:i 1978:2 1973:0 1965:= 1962:) 1959:t 1956:d 1950:t 1947:i 1943:e 1939:i 1936:( 1929:t 1926:i 1922:e 1918:1 1908:2 1903:0 1895:= 1892:z 1889:d 1883:z 1880:1 1847:] 1840:2 1837:, 1834:0 1830:[ 1823:t 1817:t 1814:i 1810:e 1806:= 1803:) 1800:t 1797:( 1773:C 1764:0 1760:z 1739:} 1736:r 1729:| 1723:0 1719:z 1712:z 1708:| 1704:: 1701:z 1698:{ 1695:= 1688:0 1684:z 1679:U 1658:U 1630:U 1606:U 1575:U 1555:) 1552:z 1549:( 1542:f 1489:f 1449:0 1446:= 1443:z 1423:z 1419:/ 1415:1 1412:= 1409:) 1406:z 1403:( 1400:f 1380:, 1377:0 1371:i 1365:2 1362:= 1359:z 1356:d 1350:z 1347:1 1315:, 1311:] 1304:2 1301:, 1298:0 1294:[ 1287:t 1281:t 1278:i 1274:e 1270:= 1267:) 1264:t 1261:( 1202:U 1171:= 1168:z 1165:d 1161:) 1158:z 1155:( 1152:f 1098:U 1092:] 1089:b 1086:, 1083:a 1080:[ 1077:: 1049:C 1042:U 1039:: 1036:f 1011:C 1004:U 976:U 952:U 928:U 905:= 902:z 899:d 895:) 892:z 889:( 886:f 856:U 850:] 847:b 844:, 841:a 838:[ 835:: 807:C 800:U 797:: 794:f 766:C 759:U 741:U 727:z 724:d 720:) 717:z 714:( 707:f 686:U 682:) 680:z 678:( 676:f 659:. 656:) 651:0 647:z 643:( 640:f 634:) 629:1 625:z 621:( 618:f 615:= 612:z 609:d 605:) 602:z 599:( 592:f 559:1 555:z 532:0 528:z 517:U 493:U 486:) 484:z 482:( 480:f 450:= 447:z 444:d 440:) 437:z 434:( 431:f 426:C 399:C 372:) 369:z 366:( 363:f 308:e 301:t 294:v 27:.

Index

Cauchy's integral formula
Cauchy formula for repeated integration
Mathematical analysis
Complex analysis

Complex numbers
Real number
Imaginary number
Complex plane
Complex conjugate
Unit complex number
Complex functions
Complex-valued function
Analytic function
Holomorphic function
Cauchy–Riemann equations
Formal power series
Basic theory
Zeros and poles
Cauchy's integral theorem
Local primitive
Cauchy's integral formula
Winding number
Laurent series
Isolated singularity
Residue theorem
Argument principle
Conformal map
Schwarz lemma
Harmonic function

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