Causative - Knowledge

3967:

humans perceive of causal relations. While certainly not irrelevant, these extra-linguistic questions will, for now, be left aside. Comrie usefully characterizes causative events in terms of two (or more) microevents perceived of composing a macroevent, and encoded in a single expression (of varying size and form). Formally, he categorizes causatives into 3 types, depending on the contiguity of the material encoding the causing event and that encoding the caused event. These are: 1) lexical causatives, in which the two events are expressed in a single lexical item, as in the well-discussed case of English kill; 2) morphological causatives, in which the causing event and the caused event are encoded in a single verbal complex via causative morphology, and, prototypically, morphological marking showing the status of affected arguments. Finally, Comrie discusses analytic causatives, in which the causing event and the caused event are encoded in separate clauses.

146: 3769: 3396: 2542:) only allow causatives of intransitive verbs, with some exceptions. In all cases, the original subject of the underlying intransitive verb corresponds with the object of the derived transitive verb. All languages have this construction, though some allow a semantic difference if the original subject is marked differently (such as 4022:

morpheme", in which and form a single grammatical unit. Most of the examples given look like serial verb constructions, and no in-depth analysis is undertaken for some of the constructions in which and are less formally contiguous. Song notes this non-contiguity, but does not undertake to explain why it might be important.

5866:

While Golla does not generalize about the semantics of verb themes that are compatible with causative ƚ-, several preliminary generalizations can be made. Firstly, in the three cases described by Golla, O is neither controlling nor agentive; O is largely patientive in all cases. Secondly, the causer

1088:

Within morphological causatives, this degree of compactness bears an important variable when considering the semantics of the two processes. For example, mechanisms that do not change the length of the word (internal change, tone change) are shorter than those that lengthen it. Of those that lengthen

5803:

The semantic factor of causee control, or the degree of control that that causee wields over the effecting of the caused microevent (also discussed as parameter #3 on Dixon's (2000:62) list) and which Rice (2001) finds to be a major factor in other Athabaskan causatives helps account for much of the

4101:

One question remaining to be explored is how this set of divisions usefully differs from other analysts' typologies of the semantics of encoding causal relations. Some overlap in the types of semantic information in play is immediately apparent, however: in cases of instrument causation ('the hammer

4029:

One of Song's major contributions to the literature is fleshing out an analysis of his PURP causative. These are constructions which encode intended causation on the part of the causer, but which do not encode any outcome: i.e., the speaker encodes and causer intentionality, but remains agnostic as

4025:

The AND causative, for Song, is any construction with a separate and i.e., in which "two clauses involved". This, in theory, could include larger, multi-clausal expressions of causal relations which many analysts probably would not label a 'causative construction', e.g.: 'It rained yesterday, so

3954:

This set of definitional prerequisites allows for a broad set of types of relationships based, at least, on the lexical verb, the semantics of the causer, the semantics of the causee and the semantics of the construction explicitly encoding the causal relationship. Many analysts (Comrie (1981), Song

3966:

focuses on the typology of the syntax and semantics of causative constructions proper. Crucially, Comrie (and others to be discussed here) distinguish between the linguistic encoding of causal relations and other extra-linguistic concerns such as the nature of causation itself and questions of how

426:

On the surface, lexical causatives look essentially the same as a regular transitive verb. There are a few reasons why this is not true. The first is that transitive verbs generally do not have an intransitive counterpart but lexical causatives do. The semantics of the verbs show the difference as

3949:

The relation between causing event and caused event is such that the speaker believes the occurrence of the caused event depends wholly on the occurrence of the causing event—the dependency of the two events here must be to the extent that it allows the speaker a counterfactual inference that the

3988:

Presenting a typology of causatives and causation based on a database of 600 languages, Song is very critical of typological work that depends on statistical inference, citing data from the Niger-Congo family that contradicts some earlier claims that "languages within genera are generally fairly

5798:

Perhaps the presence of the direct object pronoun in the causative construction has something to do with whether the causee is human or animate or is capable of being regarded as such. When the causee or the verb cannot be or is not perceived as a potential controller, the pronoun is not found

4041:

conducts an in-depth investigation of different types of causal relations. Talmy refers to these as "lexicalization patterns," a term which remains unclear to me, given that few of the examples given in his discussion are lexical items, and most interpretations of "different types of causation

4021:

The major differences between Song's analysis and Comrie (1981) and Dixon (2000), is that Song lumps the range of lexical and morphological causatives together under the label COMPACT, in which can be "less than a free morpheme" (e.g., bound morpheme , zero-derivation, suppletion); or "a free

1980:

The first example implies that Montezuma was physically there and was directly involved in making Cortés eat bread. The second example implies that Montezuma was not physically there and arranged for something to happen to make Cortés eat bread, perhaps by killing all of his cattle. That could

3970:

Comrie's work is also noteworthy for having brought the notion of syntactic hierarchy to bear on the typology of causative constructions. A hierarchy of grammatical relations had already been formulated to help explain possibilities for relative clause formation (first presented as Keenan and

4966:

language has two ways to form causative verbs: by using a non-ergative transitive verb in the absolute form, or by the morphological causativization. The first method is only possible with a restricted set of verbs which excludes those whose subjects take the ergative case, such as the verb

2750:

is a language that follows this hierarchy. When a causative is employed, the original A does not get marked the same for intransitives, transitives, and ditransitives. In this first example, the verb in intransitive, and with the subject slot taken, the original A becomes a direct object:

422:

Lexical causatives are common in the world's languages. There are three kinds of lexical causatives, the unifying factor being that the idea of causation is part of the semantics of the verb itself. (English, for example, employs all three of these kinds of lexical causatives.)

3971:

Comrie's (1972) NP accessibility hierarchy; see Croft 1990: 147), and Comrie argued that a similar hierarchy was in play, at least in some constructions, in the marking of the original A argument when a base transitive clause is causativized. The hierarchy is as follows:

3243:, languages employ a variety of constructions. They tend to be idiosyncratic and are difficult to group together into types. Additionally, data is patchy for many languages since descriptions of languages seldom include information of causatives of ditransitives. 368:

is used to describe sentences, phrases, or words that correspond to their causative versions. Often, this underlying sentence may not be explicitly stated. For example, for the sentence "'John made Bill drive the truck'", the underlying sentence would be

1709:

These parameters are not mutually exclusive. Many causative constructions involve the semantics of two or more parameters. However, the difference between the causatives in a language most likely will be distinguished by one of the parameters.

630:. It is this type of ambitransitive verb that is considered a causative. This is given some anecdotal evidence in that to translate (3b) above into languages with morphological causatives, a morpheme would need to be attached to the verb. 633:

Lexical causatives are apparently constrained to involving only one agentive argument. Semantically, the causer is usually marked as the patient. In fact, it is unlikely whether any language has a lexical causative for verbs such as

4102:

broke the cup'), we would certainly expect the 'causer' to be acting directly and to be involved in the activity ; likewise, we would expect instances of caused agency to include more information on causee control on willingness .

3317:). All of these examples apply to underlying intransitive verbs, yielding a ditransitive verb. So far, there are no reliable data for a morphological double causative of a transitive verb, resulting in a verb with four arguments. 2494:

All eight of the components in each prototype are never attested in a single causative. However, a single process may have two or three components. Dixon admits to these being very tentative and in need for further investigation.

3979:

Comrie's argument was, in short, that some causativized-transitive constructions mark the new A as belonging to the leftmost available slot in the above hierarchy. Dixon (2000) fleshes out a version this analysis in more detail.

3955:(1996), Dixon (2000) and others) have worked to tease apart what factors (semantic or otherwise) account for the distribution of causative constructions, as well as to document what patterns actually occur cross-linguistically. 1609:

A language may have one or more different formal mechanisms for expression of causation. For languages with only one, the semantic range is broad. For those with multiple, there is always a semantic difference between the two.

3989:

similar typologically". Song therefore culls data from every language for which adequate documentation is available to him, and categorizes the various causative constructions gleaned therefrom into three classes:

2437:

section above, more compact causative processes show one distinction while less compact processes show the other distinction. For example, Parameter 6 distinguishes between more direct and less direct causation. In

666:("the tree fell"), exemplifying this category. This is considered a lexical change because it is not at all productive. If it were productive, it would be an internal change morphological causative (below). 5315:), it expresses the idea that the causee was forced to perform the action. With a transitive verb, this contrast is not directly visible as a clause cannot contain two noun phrases marked as accusative. 7582:

Goertz, G. et al. 2006. "Use of causatives in Navajo: Syntax and morphology." In Santa Barbara Papers in Linguistics, Volume 18: Proceedings from the Ninth Workshop on American Indigenous Languages.

3946:

The relation between two events is such that the speaker believes that the occurrence of one event, the ‟caused event," has been realized at t2, which is after t1, the time of the ‟causing event"

4042:

incorporated in the verb root" are in fact wholly dependent on other morphosyntactic material in the clause. Let us first examine his list of possible (semantic) causative types, with examples:

2576:, the new causer always becomes the new A of the sentence. What happens to the causee and the original object depend on the language. Dixon shows that there are five main types of situations: 5299:

In the context of an intransitive verb, the syntax of Japanese causatives allows a two-way distinction in the causee's willingness to perform the action. If the new object is marked in the

5307:), it suggests that the causee did the action willingly, suggesting the agent allowed or requested the action rather than forcing or demanding it. However, if the object is marked in the 3063:

Most other languages are of the second subtype of type (v), and the original A takes on a set case or marking, regardless whether the underlying verb is intransitive or transitive:

7376: 4286:

in other languages) can express the acquisition of a quality or changes of state with causatives, in the same way as with regular verbs. For example, if there is a stative verb

391:

is the new argument in a causative expression that causes the action to be done. The causer is the new argument brought into a derived sentence. In the example sentence above,

5259:

has lexical forms and a morphological device to signify causation. Lexical forms come in pairs of intransitive and transitive verbs, where the causee is mostly inanimate.

174: 7320:

Wolff, Phillip, Grace Song, & David Driscoll (2002). "Models of causation and causal verbs." pp. 607–622 of Andronix, M., C. Ball, H. Eslton, & S. Neuval (Eds.),

7585:

Huang, S. and Lily I-Wen Su. 2005. "Iconicity as Evidenced in Saisiyat Linguistic Coding of Causative Events." Oceanic Linguistics, Vol. 44, No. 2 (Dec., 2005): 341–356.

1336:

Some languages use a periphrastic (or analytic) construction to express causation and typically include two verbs and two clauses. English causatives prototypically use

3309:, have two different morphological mechanisms that can apply to a single verb. Still others have one morpheme that applies to intransitives and another to transitives ( 3472:

increases by one. If, after the application of the grammatical voice, there are two actor arguments, one of them is obligatorily demoted to an oblique argument.

1727:

of a causative and the mechanism by which it is expressed. Generally, if a causative is more "compact" than another, it usually implies a more direct causation.

5867:

appears to be acting directly on O. Thirdly, none of the examples given (including the examples above) involve the causativization of a base-transitive theme.

5795:

Koyukon (Northern Athabaskan; Alaska) was found to be the only language in the survey allowing productive morphological causativization of transitive verbs.

3906:) expressing the meaning 'for the purpose of, for the reason that', and denoting price asked of or paid for goods. It is formed by adding the ending suffix 7647: 5761:"he feeds him/her/it something" the causative makes the intransitive verb "eat something" into the bitransitive verb "feed someone something," requiring a 2430:, the morphemes are about the same length. When a larger sample of languages show this distinction, perhaps this parameter can be included in the table. 2736:

Within type (v) there are two main subtypes. Either the original A goes into the first empty slot in a hierarchy or it always takes a certain function.

210:-increasing operation that indicates that a subject either causes someone or something else to do or be something or causes a change in state of a non- 3950:

caused event would not have taken place at a particular time if the causing event had not taken place, provided that all else had remained the same.

7029:

Lehmann, Christian (2013). "Latin causativization in typological perspective". In Lenoble, Muriel & Longrée, Dominique (eds.) (forthcoming),

5568:

found informally). While most languages uses their causative affix for derivational purposes, it has integrated to Malay verb inflection system.

1371:, have the opposite syntax: the causative is in a subordinating clause and the main verb is in the main clause, as in the following example from 3255:

it would be difficult to find a lexical double causative. Periphrastic causatives however, have the potential to always be applied iteratively (

5773:

Causativity is often used in honorific speech in Classical Nahuatl, and rather than simply "doing," the honored person "causes himself to do."

167: 5789:

In all Athabaskan languages surveyed , the causativizing morphology can causativize at least some intransitive verbs with patientive subjects.

5274:

However, both intransitive and transitive verbs can form the causative in a mostly regular pattern, now with the causee being mostly animate:

402:

is the argument that actually does the action in a causativized sentence. It is usually present in both the underlying and derived sentences.

7428: 5326:

has six prefixes and one infix to derive the causative form of verbs, but they vary in frequency and productiveness. The consonantal prefix

349:

is S, the agent of a transitive verb is A, and the object of a transitive is O. These terms are technically not abbreviations (anymore) for "

2560:

The syntax of a causative construction is almost always the same as some other type of sentence, such as a sentence with a transitive verb.

1153:

family, all languages can causativize inactive intransitives, but not all of them can causativize active intransitives or even transitives.

214:

event. Normally, it brings in a new argument (the causer), A, into a transitive clause, with the original subject S becoming the object O.

7098:

Comrie, B. (1976). "The syntax of causative constructions: cross-language similarities and divergencies." pp. 261–312. In Shibantani 1976.

5618:, there are three causatives: one for transitive verbs and two for intransitive verbs. In some texts, the first one is called "coactive." 5441:

marks the original subject of an intransitive differently in causative forms to convey direct causation. If the causee is marked by the

1795:

Generally, the larger the distance between the causer and the causee, the more finite the verb is. Consider the following examples from

323:

Many authors have written extensively on causative constructions and have used a variety of terms, often to talk about the same things.

5876: 5792:

For intransitive verbs with agentive patients, the family shows a split: only some languages then allow morphological causativization.

1601:

Analytic causatives are sometimes not considered to be valency increasing devices, but they can semantically be interpreted as such.

8305: 7255: 6955: 3816: 3443: 160: 40: 7446: 7640: 4309:

As far as lexical causatives are concerned, English has at least 49 causative verbs. Roughly half affect only sentient beings:

8295: 3838: 3794: 3421: 196: 3337:, that indicates causation in addition to repetition. This is separate from the language's normal mechanisms of causation. 8300: 7517:

Rice, Keren. 2000. "Voice and valency in the Athabaskan family." In Dixon, R.M.W. and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, eds. 2000.

3872: 2009:(two verbs, one predicate), and P refers to periphrastic constructions. These processes are explained more clearly in the 7983: 5408:

The causative suffix is often used irregularly and/or because of historical reasons, as the following Finnish examples:

729:

There are eight different morphological processes by which a causative may be marked, roughly organized by compactness:

4903:

with those roots ending with a vowel. Thus, the verbal root transformations of the two previously mentioned verbs are:

3939:

Shibatani lists three criteria for entities and relations that must be encoded in linguistic expressions of causation:

5998:, the original S becomes the O of the main clause, leaving the original verb in the infinitive, just like in English: 1092:

Verbs can be classified into four categories, according to how susceptible they are to morphological causativization:

427:

well. A regular transitive verb implies a single event while a lexical causative implies a realization of an event:

8310: 8222: 7798: 7633: 7620: 7530:

Mithun, Marianne. (2000). "Valency-changing derivation in Central Alaskan Yup'ik." In Dixon & Aikhenvald (2000)

4228: 3790: 3417: 2523: 1146: 217:

All languages have ways to express causation but differ in the means. Most, if not all, languages have specific or

1161:

A number of languages involve a form of analytic causative that involves two verbs in a single predicate, such as

7694: 7677: 7667: 1614:

breaks down these semantic differences into 9 parameters, involving the verb itself, the causee, and the causer:

338: 7615: 5707:

meaning and translates roughly as "to cause something or someone to participate in an action with the subject:"

3269:

For morphological causatives, some languages do not allow single morpheme to be applied twice on a single verb (

2422:

Parameter 9, Involvement, cannot be included in the table because the only two languages with this distinction,

8185: 7850: 4251: 3864: 3779: 3406: 246: 112: 1527:

Portuguese also has a periphrastic construction like that of English but unlike most other Romance languages:

1145:, only about 16% of causatives apply to transitives. For some languages, it may not apply to transitive verbs 1761:

Analytic causatives (1–3) imply that no physical contact was involved and therefore was done by some sort of

1490: 6133:, the original S remains in the embedded clause and the original verb is still marked for person and tense: 3798: 3783: 3425: 3410: 2554: 1982: 1981:

approximate the English construction "Montezuma got Cortés to eat bread." Therefore, at least in Spanish, a

1738:, English analytic causatives (1–3) are therefore not completely synonymous with lexical causatives (4–6): 8269: 5241: 3240: 2423: 2107: 342: 211: 47: 7912: 7591:

Talmy, L. 2000. Toward a Cognitive Semantics Volume 1: Concept Structuring Systems. Cambridge: MIT Press.

1634:: Does the causative apply to only intransitives, to intransitives and some transitives, or to all verbs? 1038: 296:

is a causative, it carries some additional meaning (it implies direct causation) and is less common than

8259: 8239: 7872: 7783: 7370: 5467: 3469: 2519: 451: 350: 262: 207: 96: 69: 7917: 7892: 7391: 5816:(summarized in Sapir and Golla (2001)), describes three classes of morphologically derived causatives: 3274: 7017:

2000. "A typology of causatives: form, syntax and meaning". In Dixon & Aikhenvald (2000) p. 30–83.

4136:

voicing applied. (All of those characteristics derive from the way that causative verbs are formed in

1997:, and summarizes his findings in the following table. In this table, L refers to lexical causatives, M 1787:

are animate and awake. Barring magic, (2) makes sense only if the object is inanimate or unconscious.

438:

Sentence (b) is judged ungrammatical because it goes against the successful event implied by the verb

7897: 7840: 7072:

Velázquez-Castillo, Maura (2002). "Guaraní causative constructions." pg. 507–534 of Shibatani (2002).

6998: 5976: 5782: 5743: 5495: 3943:

An agent causing or forcing another participant to perform an action, or to be in a certain condition

3236: 3178: 3107: 2743:

subject > direct object > indirect object > oblique > genitive > object of comparison.

2427: 1150: 1149:

and may only apply to verbs that denote abstract action or consumption of food. Additionally, within

358: 132: 3231:

The syntactic and morphological constraints of individual language generally restrict causatives of

8234: 8200: 8076: 7588:

Song, J.J. (2001) Linguistic Typology: Morphology and Syntax. Harlow and London: Pearson (Longman).

7494:

Karttunen, Frances. "Conventions of Polite Speech in Nahuatl." Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl 20(1990)

5615: 5545: 5245: 4717: 4629: 4137: 3853: 3263: 2081: 2006: 1994: 1274: 784: 484: 457: 414:

There are various ways of encoding causation, which form somewhat of a continuum of "compactness."

354: 2818:

The following example has a transitive verb. The subject and direct object slots are filled (with

1886: 1869: 1303: 1193: 1141:

This hierarchy has some exceptions, but it does generally hold true. For example, given a text of

701:

These pairs are linked semantically by various means, usually involving translation. For example,

487:

ambitransitives. Agentive ambitransitives (also called S=A ambitransitives) include verbs such as

8264: 8254: 8207: 8150: 8046: 7857: 7503:

Rice, Keren. 2000. "Voice and valency in the Athabaskan family." In Dixon & Aikhenvald (2000)

6514:

in "I had him write a paper"), but other causatives imply a direct causation (similar to English

5746:

family, has a well-developed morphological system of expressing causation by means of the suffix

5438: 4712: 4125: 3899: 3868: 3483: 3330: 3286: 3278: 3133: 2639: 2547: 2535: 1762: 1361: 269:. There tends to be a link between how "compact" a causative device is and its semantic meaning. 150: 136: 7424: 6928:, Dixon, R.M.W. and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, eds. New York: Cambridge University Press. p.30–83. 6521:

One of the more direct causation devices is the deletion of what is called a "neutral" morpheme

2290: 311:

does not require one ("My mom made me eat broccoli"), at least when it is not being used in the

30:

This article is about the causative voice. For the unrelated concept of the causative mood, see

361:", though they can usually be thought of that way. P is often used instead of O in many works. 8274: 8229: 8217: 8051: 7978: 7793: 7722: 7420: 7351: 7251: 6978:

verbs or constructions since one agent is (to one degree or another) 'causing' another to act.

6951: 5739: 5463: 5446: 5256: 5143: 4522: 4275:= "to make into an object", "to cause (something) to become an object" (figuratively, that is) 3486:

are examples of languages with the causative voice. The following are examples from Japanese:

3475: 3468:

of a transitive verb to an actor argument. When the causative voice is applied to a verb, its

3461: 3270: 3232: 3125: 3115: 2697: 2678: 2515: 2319: 2217: 2157: 1435: 1425: 1270: 1080: 954: 912: 473: 346: 304: 285: 124: 108: 81: 62: 54: 7579:, Dixon, R.M.W. and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, eds: 1–28. New York: Cambridge University Press. 3852:

that indicates that the marked noun is the cause or reason for something. It is found in the

3056:

While some writers have called this hierarchical causative construction the norm, outside of

570:

in (2), are primarily transitive and secondarily intransitive. Other verbs like this include

8249: 8244: 8212: 8180: 8117: 8096: 8081: 8066: 8031: 7937: 7927: 7922: 7877: 7656: 7343: 7216:. Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology. New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation. pp. 94–5. 7158:

Popjes, J. & Popjes, J. (1986). "Canela-Kraho". p. 143 in Derbyshire & Pullum (1986)

5503: 5499: 5370: 5366: 5107: 4803: 4583: 4526: 3903: 3895: 3856: 3849: 3592: 3572: 3479: 3465: 3314: 3294: 3282: 3197: 3141: 3137: 3111: 3057: 2709: 2701: 2674: 2670: 2561: 2414: 2410: 2397: 2298: 2258: 2230: 2204: 2068: 1796: 1735: 1444: 1372: 1368: 1278: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1142: 996: 273: 85: 8190: 8091: 7963: 7882: 7867: 7778: 7727: 7707: 7702: 7466: 6947: 6940: 5704: 5442: 5300: 5170: 4963: 3860: 3704: 3640: 3620: 3503: 3310: 3208: 3103: 3099: 2747: 2666: 2643: 2620: 2573: 2539: 2531: 2384: 2327: 2323: 2135: 2131: 2111: 1181:

is used as a causative, the causee noun phrase cannot occur between it and the next verb.

1162: 477: 58: 4133: 566:

These are further divided into two more types, based on speakers' intuition. Some, like

8195: 8086: 8026: 8010: 7907: 7902: 7887: 7862: 7830: 7820: 7805: 7773: 7737: 7335: 7266: 7014: 6994: 5541: 5323: 4806:. In the simplest way, the causative form of a verb can be formed by adding the suffix 4121: 4026:

they stayed home', but the boundaries of the AND causative category are not discussed.

3963: 3875: 3306: 3302: 3290: 2705: 2647: 2616: 2503: 2439: 2362: 2315: 2294: 2286: 2176: 2085: 1611: 1447:

has a combination of the two in which the causee is marked twice, once in each clause:

1284: 710: 495:

because the S of the intransitive corresponds to the A of the transitive. For example:

266: 128: 31: 7572:

Croft, W. 2003. Typology and Universals, 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press.

1627:: Can the causative apply to state and process verbs or does it apply to action verbs? 8289: 8155: 8112: 8058: 8036: 8005: 7990: 7973: 7958: 7953: 7932: 7845: 7825: 7815: 7788: 7768: 7763: 7758: 7742: 7717: 7322:

Papers from the 37th Metting of the Chicago Linguistics Society, Main Session, Vol. 1

7311:

Volume 2: Typology and Process in Concept Structuring. Cambridge: MIT Press. p.67–101

5147: 4038: 3923: 3729: 3653: 3516: 3216: 3188: 3170: 3151: 2349: 2311: 1766: 1694:: Does the activity happen fairly naturally or is it with effort, violence, or force? 828: 582:

in (3) go the other way: they are primarily intransitive and secondarily transitive.

312: 104: 7810: 7732: 5218: 4246:

Additionally, there are several morphemes that can express causation. For example,

3251:

Some types of causative constructions essentially do not permit double causatives,

1882: 1810: 89: 8175: 4881:

in Bengali) perspective, the formation of causatives is done by adding the suffix

2506:

also outlines the syntactic possibilities of causatives in the world's languages.

253:) that change verbs into their causative forms or change adjectives into verbs of 7226: 6851: 3024: 3000: 2892: 1671:(c) Parameters that relate to the causer (the new A in a causative construction) 1245: 17: 8041: 7968: 7835: 7712: 5308: 3879: 3768: 3684: 3547: 3395: 3091: 870: 258: 188: 1772:

For animate and conscious objects, there is a different difference in meaning:

145: 8134: 8071: 8000: 7995: 7672: 5214: 250: 7355: 6924:

Dixon, R.M.W. 2000. "A typology of causatives: form, syntax and meaning". In

5429:"to write" ("transform into patterns of text"), not "to transform into books" 6789: 4749:"to make someone read" → "paṛhvānā" "to cause someone to make someone read." 3160: 2465:

Causee either lacking control or being willing and may be partially affected

1724: 2433:

The table shows that for each of eight semantic parameters outlined in the

1641:(b) Parameters that relate to the thing being caused (the original S or A) 1287:

uses a similar mechanism. Verbs can be compounded with the transitive verb

662:(as in "Paul felled the tree") can be thought of as a lexical causative of 5835:

causatives from primary extension neuters with ƚ- classifier (76-77, 201)

4941: 4930: 4918: 4907: 4893: 4882: 4871: 4856: 4845: 4832: 4821: 4807: 4791: 3975:

subject > direct object > indirect object > oblique > genitive

3382:

This implies a single act by the causer, but multiple acts by the causee.

530:

For patientive ambitransitives (also called S=O ambitransitives), such as

4514: 1299: 6283:

morpheme, which can be applied to intransitives (3) or transitives (4):

5085: 5081: 5020: 5016: 4777:"to have someone make someone drink": "Usne naukrānī se bachchõ-ko pānī 2963: 2944: 2853: 2834: 2778: 2759: 2480:

Causer achieves the result accidentally, with effort, or acts indirectly

1948: 1915: 1824: 1550: 1535: 1486: 1208: 1189: 5762: 4954:

These verb roots are thereafter inflected with tense, aspect and mood.

1731: 384:

sentence would be the causativized variant of the underlying sentence.

7347: 5510:

prefix is added to verbal forms and to adjectives to form causatives:

2739:

For the first subtype, there is a hierarchy involved in the language:

2453:

Summarizing the table, Dixon has given two prototypes for causatives:

2446:, or the shorter morphological process, shows direct causation while M 7111:

Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p. 153. Cited in Dixon (2000).

5198: 5184: 4633: 4541: 4530: 3049:

1SG+NOM make+FUT+1SG write+INF a letter PREP+ART headmaster PREP Jean

7625: 7575:

Dixon, R.M.W. and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald. 2000. "Introduction". In

7149:

Abbot, M. (1991). "Macushi" pp. 40 in Derbyshire & Pullum (1991)

4703:, mainly because of its lack of productive morphological causative. 538:, the S of the intransitive corresponds to the O of the transitive: 5879:

and describes each in detail. Here is a brief description of each:

4227:

English uses various causative mechanisms, with varying degrees of

698:

where one is essentially the causative correspondent of the other.

7271:

Language Universals and Linguistic Typology: Syntax and Morphology

5781:

Rice makes the following points about morphological causatives in

5146:, there is a causative form of the verb. It is postulated that in 4700: 3591: 3571: 2924:

This final French example has a ditransitive verb. The subject is

1103:

Middle/ingestive verbs (either intransitive or transitive such as

5056: 4994: 3703: 3639: 3619: 3502: 2948: 2838: 2763: 2522:, virtually any type of causative construction can apply to them 1311: 5850:

causatives from primary intransitive action themes (76-77, 204)

5813: 5077: 5012: 4537: 4401:. The others can affect either sentient or non-sentient beings: 7629: 7227:"Kannada Language - Structure, Writing & Alphabet - MustGo" 6729: 6662: 6621: 6452: 6403: 6303: 5425:

ancient "patterns (of embroidery or text)" but modern "book" →

5045: 4983: 4739:"to have done" → "karvānā" → "to have someone make someone do." 4298:. The reflexive form of the causative can then be used to mean 4128:

such as English, causative verbs are formed by adding a suffix

3728: 3652: 3515: 3366: 3333:, an indigenous language spoken in California, has a morpheme, 2462:

Causer achieves the result natural, intentionally, and directly

1415: 1383: 5652:

prefix is added to intransitive oral verbs and is replaced by

3762: 3389: 3257:

Mom made Dad make my brother make his friends leave the house.

2959: 2849: 2826:, respectively) so the original A becomes an indirect object: 2774: 2483:

Causee is in control but unwilling and is completely affected.

2450:, the longer morphological process, shows indirect causation. 1472: 1204: 7293:

Causatives and causation: A universal-typological perspective

3683: 3546: 1859: 7031:

Actes du 13ème Colloque International de Linguistique Latine

6230: 6212: 6148: 6097: 6071: 6022: 5820:

causatives from descriptive neuters with ƚ-classifier (176)

4892:

with the verb roots ending with a consonant, and the suffix

2974: 2864: 2789: 2530:

allowed with intransitive verbs and some languages (such as

1841: 1569: 1546: 1463: 1404: 1219: 7340:

Anuario del Seminario de Filología Vasca "Julio de Urquijo"

6734: 6667: 6457: 6345: 5979:

uses periphrastic causatives and morphological causatives.

5703:) prefix can also be added to intransitive verbs. It has a 5067: 4265:= "to make simple", "to cause (something) to become simple" 4254:

that turns an adjective or noun into a "verb of becoming":

3922:"I sent him to the store for bread". It is not affected by 3721: 3564: 3356: 1911: 1820: 1495: 1393: 1360:

can be used) in the main clause with the lexical verb in a

1307: 717:

as in "I burned the grass" (transitive) would translate as

705:

as in "The grass burned" (intransitive) would translate as

300:. Also, while most other English causative verbs require a 4231:. There are a large number of lexical causatives, such as 2557:, causatives of intransitives may be treated differently. 5106:

In addition to very productive morphological causatives,

3004: 1952: 1919: 1828: 1657:: Does the causee do the action willingly or unwillingly? 854: 838: 7336:"Lexical causatives and causative alternation in Basque" 6739: 6672: 6625: 6525:, which indicates state or potentiality. Stems with the 6462: 6407: 6350: 6307: 6234: 6216: 6152: 6101: 6075: 6026: 5726:) can take both causatives but with different meanings. 3305:

carries an intensive meaning). Other languages, such as

284:. Linguistic terms are traditionally given names with a 7419:

Sebastian Nordhoff: Nomen/Verb-Distinktion im Guarani,

7199:

Comrie, B. (1975). "Causatives and universal grammar,"

7183:

Haiman, John (1983). "Iconic and Economic Motivation".

7140:

Vol 1. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Cited in Dixon (2000)

7061:

The grammar of causation and interpersonal manipulation

4148:-grade of a non-derived verb.) Here are some examples: 2005:

refers to less compact processes, CP refers to complex

1687:: Is the result achieved accidentally or intentionally? 6938:

Celce-Murcia, Marianne; Larsen-Freeman, Diane (1999).

5804:

distribution of the Hupa syntactic causative (below).

5213:

Arabic also has a causative form (Form II) created by

4699:

The topic of causatives has not been studied much for

3235:. The underlying phrase already contains an A, O, and 2001:

refers to more compact morphological processes while M

1769:. Lexical causatives (4–6) do not imply that meaning. 1064: 1048: 938: 922: 896: 880: 276:

causative verb or control verb used in periphrasis is

7442: 7440: 6942:

The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL teacher's course, 2nd ed

4586:, the causative form of the verb is formed by adding 1973:

Montezuma CAUS:3SG:PERF that Cortés eat:3SG:SUB bread

1022: 1006: 980: 964: 7462: 7460: 7458: 7136:

Derbyshire, D. C. & Pullum, G. K., eds. (1986).

6852:

Describing morphosyntax: A guide for field linguists

5244:, is no longer productive in many of the colloquial 4282:

can also be a causative. In English, adjectives (or

434:(b) *John melted the ice but nothing happened to it. 8168: 8143: 8105: 8019: 7946: 7751: 7693: 7686: 7392:"Japanese Causative Form with the particle に and を" 7132: 7130: 4632:, the causative form of the verb is made by adding 3052:"I will make Jean write a letter to the headmaster" 431:(a) John kicked the ice but nothing happened to it. 7201:Transactions of the Philological Society for 1974. 6939: 6856:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 173–186. 6510:implies an indirect causation (similar to English 5718:"to make (someone) take a walk with (the subject)" 1440:"Satan unsuccessfully tried to make Jesus do bad." 1089:it, shorter changes are more compact than longer. 7605:. University of California Press. p. 160–72. 7375:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 7273:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p.158–177 6974:together with their complements are often called 5445:, a more direct causation is implied than if the 4781:" - "She had the maid make the kids drink water." 4250:can be thought of as a causative in that it is a 1664:: Is the causee completely or partially affected? 4132:to the past-tense ablaut of a strong verb, with 2917:1SG+NOM make+FUT+1SG eat+INF the cakes PREP Jean 768: 752: 3293:), though sometimes with an idiomatic meaning ( 1650:: Does the causee have control of the activity? 7577:Changing Valency: Case Studies in Transitivity 7519:Changing Valency: Case Studies in Transitivity 7295:. London and New York: Addison Wesley Longman. 7003:Changing Valency: Case Studies in Transitivity 6926:Changing Valency: Case Studies in Transitivity 5295:"to let or force (someone) put (something) in" 5150:, the causative verbal stem was formed by the 3378:"one who makes (people) play music repeatedly" 1701:: How involved was the causer in the activity? 1618:(a) Parameters that relate to the verb itself 1277:uses a periphrastic construction like that of 1262:1SG.A make+FUT+1SG eat+INF the cakes PREP Jean 7641: 7481:Gregores, Emma & Jorge A. Suárez (1967). 7195: 7193: 7063:. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 4946: 4935: 4923: 4912: 4898: 4887: 4876: 4861: 4850: 4837: 4826: 4817:with the verbal noun form of the given verb. 4812: 4797: 4054:The vase broke from a ball's rolling into it. 2936:, so the original A is marked as an oblique: 1680:: Does the causer act directly or indirectly? 168: 8: 7554:. University of California Press. p. 160–72. 5812:Golla, in his (1970) descriptive grammar of 307:(as in "My mom caused me to eat broccoli"), 7415: 7413: 7411: 7055: 7053: 7051: 7049: 7047: 7045: 7043: 7041: 7039: 4078:I broke the vase by rolling a ball into it. 4072:I broke the vase in rolling a ball into it. 4011:– the clause which denotes the caused event 3797:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3424:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1324: 480:("The vase broke" vs. "I broke the vase.") 7690: 7648: 7634: 7626: 7546: 7544: 7542: 7540: 7538: 7536: 7124:. London: Routledge. Cited in Dixon (2000) 5982:The periphrastic causatives use the verbs 4008:– the clause which denotes a causing event 3239:, and so in order to accommodate a fourth 2526:within a language. Some constructions are 2486:More likely to apply to all types of verbs 1723:There is a strong correlation between the 1714:Relationship between devices and semantics 811: 794: 175: 161: 36: 7303: 7301: 7242: 7240: 7238: 7236: 7179: 7177: 7025: 7023: 6990: 6988: 6986: 6533:, but the causation is then less direct: 4517:, there is a causative form of the verb ( 3817:Learn how and when to remove this message 3444:Learn how and when to remove this message 2564:, however, is an exception to this rule. 1434:bad do Jesus-ERG CAUS try-PAST Satan-ERG 288:root, which has led some to believe that 7601:Kinyarwanda: Kimenyi, Alexandre (1980). 7550:Kinyarwanda: Kimenyi, Alexandre (1980). 6920: 6918: 6916: 6914: 6912: 6910: 6908: 6906: 6904: 6902: 6900: 6898: 6896: 6894: 6892: 6890: 6888: 6886: 6884: 6882: 5881: 5875:Mithun (2000) lists nine causatives for 5548:, causatives are formed from the prefix 4060:A ball's rolling into it broke the vase. 4004:Song employs the following terminology: 3067: 3040:je ferai écrire une lettre au directeur 2580: 2015: 1594:1SG make+PAST+1SG José eat+INF the cakes 731: 456:Some languages, including English, have 7521:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 7513: 7511: 7509: 7324:. Chicago: Chicago Linguistics Society. 7287: 7285: 7283: 7281: 7279: 7087:The grammar of causative constructions. 7005:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 6880: 6878: 6876: 6874: 6872: 6870: 6868: 6866: 6864: 6862: 6845: 6843: 6841: 6839: 6837: 6835: 6833: 6831: 6827: 4971:(cough -- literally "make (a) cough"). 4169:"to destroy", i.e. "to cause to perish" 4070:author causation (unintended) 4030:to whether was felicitously effected. 118: 95: 68: 46: 39: 8127: 7368: 7334:Oyharçabal, Beñat (15 February 2003). 5920:'intentionally or deliberately cause' 5365:Causative forms are also found in the 4763:"to have someone make something move." 1985:verb implies a less direct causation. 6427:"The children are reading the books." 5094:child.ERG cat.ABS die.CAU AUX:3SG.3SG 4219:form pairs of resultative/causative. 4179:"to save", i.e. "to cause to survive" 4094:caused agency (inductive causation) 4082:undergoer situation (non-causative) 7: 5896:'let, allow, permit, cause, compel' 5270:"to drop (something) or to let fall" 5240:form (Form IV), while it is used in 3795:adding citations to reliable sources 3422:adding citations to reliable sources 610:Other examples of this type include 483:These are split into two varieties: 406:is the causee in the above example. 7603:A Relational Grammar of Kinyarwanda 7552:A Relational Grammar of Kinyarwanda 7483:A Description of Colloquial Guaraní 7167:Aissen, J. (1974). "Verb raising," 5625:suffix (or one of its allomorphes: 4159:"to raise", i.e. "to cause to rise" 4046:autonomous events (non-causative) 3262:Many Indo-Aryan languages (such as 2119:intransitive and simple transitive 6796:can be added to any kind of word: 6597:Another direct causation maker is 5248:, which uniformly prefer Form II. 5110:also has some lexical causatives: 4866:'to feed/to cause someone to eat'. 4842:'to show/to cause someone to see'. 3266:) have lexical double causatives. 1976:"Montezuma made Cortés eat bread." 1891:"Montezuma made Cortés eat bread." 1431:emapu'tî yonpa-'pî makui-ya teuren 1259:je ferai manger les gâteaux à Jean 25: 7947:Possession, companion, instrument 7596:Causatives of a specific language 6424:children they-PRES-read-ASP books 5097:'The child caused the cat to die' 5029:child.ERG cat.ABS die AUX:3SG.3SG 4529:perform an action. The causative 4084:My arm broke (on me) when I fell. 2920:"I will make Jean eat the cakes." 2811:1SG+NOM make+FUT+1SG run+INF Jean 1748:"I made the cup rise to my lips." 1265:"I will make Jean eat the cakes." 523:This type of ambitransitive does 345:in a sentence. The subject of an 221:causative forms (such as English 8122: 7452:(downloaded 19. September 2012.) 6518:in "I made him write a paper"). 6279:Derivational causatives use the 5633:) is added to transitive verbs: 5556:after actor focus/active prefix 5531:"to make eat, to feed" (Tagalog) 5419:"to assume", not "to make exist" 5217:of the central consonant of the 4525:of a clause forces or makes the 4189:"to lay": "to cause to lie down" 3767: 3394: 1993:Dixon examines this correlation 1885:CAUS:3SG:PERF eat:INF bread DAT 373:. This has also been called the 144: 7472:(downloaded 19. September 2012) 7248:Hungarian: an essential grammar 7171:5.325–66. Cited in Dixon (2000) 7138:Handbook of Amazonian languages 6946:. Heinle & Heinle. p. 5474:prefix can be added to a verb: 4790:The causative verbs are called 3663:children NOM book ACC read-PRES 3196:The morphological causative in 674:English has verb pairs such as 527:show a causative relationship. 7434:(downloaded 17. October 2012) 7396:Wasabi - Learn Japanese Online 6601:which is used for some verbs: 6115:man he-PST-cause-ASP children 5485:"to teach" (to cause to learn) 5285:"to let or force (someone) in" 3878:. It is also found in extinct 3069:Further divisions of type (v) 2468:Less transitive verbs affected 2434: 1757:"I raised the cup to my lips." 1: 7214:Yokuts Language of California 6502:the children read the books." 6121:"The man caused the children 5605:) "to renew/update something" 4302:, or even as a middle voice, 4076:agent causation (intended) 3910:to the end of the noun, e.g. 3882:, an Indo-European language. 2932:, and the indirect object is 2543: 1776:"He caused them to lie down." 8151:Postpositional/Prepositional 7309:Toward a Cognitive Semantics 6637:"The water is being warmed." 6319:"The children are sleeping." 6316:children they-PRES-sleep-ASP 5960:'become or cause to become' 5904:'let, allow, cause, compel' 4759:"to have something moved" → 4052:resulting-event causation 3920:elküldtem a boltba kenyérért 2908:je ferai manger les gâteaux 2010: 1597:"I made José eat the cakes." 1320:2SG.A-now-start.off-CAUS+IMP 855: 839: 292:is more prototypical. While 245:). Some languages also have 7485:. The Hague: Mouton. p 126. 7447:Description of the language 7081:Shibatani, M., ed. (1976). 6634:water {it-PRES-be warm-ASP} 6421:Ábáana ba-ra-som-a ibitabo. 5601:(+ local transitive suffix 5583:(+ local transitive suffix 4942: 4931: 4919: 4908: 4894: 4883: 4872: 4857: 4846: 4833: 4822: 4808: 4792: 4573:"I cause to eat" = "I feed" 3743:children DAT book ACC read- 3060:it is in fact rather rare. 1791:Finite and non-finite verbs 1177:. For example, when French 1065: 1049: 981: 965: 939: 923: 897: 881: 265:, idiomatic expressions or 8327: 7059:Shibatani, M., ed. (2001) 6563:"have (something) broken" 6108:Umugabo y-a-tee-ye ábáana 5032:'The child killed the cat' 4773:"to have someone drink" → 4710: 4521:), which is used when the 4290:, the causative will mean 4088:self-agentive causation 4058:causing-event causation 2582:Causative of a transitive 2240:causee partially affected 1988: 1966:Montezuma hizo que Cortés 1591:Eu fiz José comer os bolos 1332:Periphrastic constructions 1157:Two verbs in one predicate 449: 119:Reflexives and reciprocals 29: 7752:Location, time, direction 7695:Morphosyntactic alignment 7678:Morphosyntactic alignment 7663: 7089:New York: Academic Press. 6849:Payne, Thomas E. (1997). 6779:the woman warm the water. 5830:'cause O to be beautiful' 5667:"to make (someone) laugh" 5154:prefix, which has become 5091:Haurrak katua hilarazi du 4947: 4936: 4924: 4913: 4899: 4888: 4877: 4862: 4851: 4838: 4827: 4813: 4798: 4728:to make verbs causative. 4124:, the parent language of 2374: 2371: 2368: 2339: 2336: 2333: 2270: 2267: 2264: 2236: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2091: 2052: 2049: 2046: 2027: 2024: 2021: 2018: 1745:"I made the chicken die." 1367:Other languages, such as 1364:, as in "I made him go." 1340:(but other verbs such as 1323:"Go ahead and run it !" ( 339:morphosyntactic alignment 257:. Other languages employ 8306:Transitivity and valency 7212:Newman, Stanley (1944). 5166:in different languages. 4619:(to cause/make to laugh) 4540:, which may cause vowel 4096:I sent him to the store. 4064:instrument causation 3602:Tanaka to collect them." 1783:(1) makes sense only if 1096:Inactive intransitives ( 41:Transitivity and valency 7621:What is causative case? 7429:version in the internet 7350:(inactive 2024-09-12). 6999:Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald 6589:"have (something) cut" 6382:the children to sleep." 6264:girl she-PST-cause-ASP 5826:'be good, beautiful' → 5209:"he made someone laugh" 4106:Indo-European languages 3529:"Tanaka collects them." 3526:Tanaka NOM collect-PRES 3523:Tanaka-kun ga atsume-ru 3179:West Greenlandic Eskimo 2928:, the direct object is 2814:"I will make Jean run." 2145:causee lacking control 1754:"I killed the chicken." 1742:"I made the tree fall." 1291:to create a causative: 1023: 1007: 812: 795: 485:agentive and patientive 7120:Mahootian, S. (1997). 7107:Watkins, L.J. (1984). 6313:Ábáana ba-rá-ryáam-ye. 5952:'let, wait for, make' 5877:Central Alaskan Yup'ik 5871:Central Alaskan Yup'ik 5757:"he eats something" → 5644:"I make (someone) do". 5521:"to enlarge" (Ilokano) 5453:Austronesian languages 5242:Modern Standard Arabic 4870:From the verbal root ( 4605:(to cause/make to eat) 4090:I walked to the store. 4066:A ball broke the vase. 3666:"Children read books." 3326:Causative (repetitive) 2572:In the causative of a 2243:causee fully affected 2148:causee having control 2108:Austronesian languages 1126:Active intransitives ( 769: 753: 472:, which may either be 151:Linguistics portal 27:Aspect of verb grammar 8296:Linguistic morphology 6686:Umugóre a-rá-shyúush- 6631:Ámáazi a-rá-shyúuh-a. 6257:Umukoôbwa y-a-tum-ye 5765:prefix, in this case 5730:Uto-Aztecan languages 5587:) "to fix something" 5468:Austronesian language 4639:to the present stem: 4590:to the present stem: 4017:- verbal elements of 4014:– verbal elements of 3865:Native South American 3754:children read books." 3660:kodomo ga hon o yom-u 3579:Tanaka-kun ni atsume- 3375:{play music} CAUS AGT 1719:Animacy of the object 654:Irregular stem change 578:Other verbs, such as 452:Causative alternation 8301:Syntactic categories 7616:What is a causative? 7083:Syntax and semantics 6761:Umugabo a-rá-shyúuh- 6693:woman she-PRES-warm- 5944:'tend not to cause' 5888:Approximate meaning 5783:Athabaskan languages 5777:Athabaskan languages 5744:Uto-Aztecan language 5517:"big (adjective)" → 5496:Philippine languages 5490:Philippine languages 5026:Haurrak katua hil du 4185:(V) "to lie down" → 4165:(III) "to perish" → 4144:suffix added to the 3791:improve this section 3736:kodomo ni hon o yom- 3418:improve this section 1995:cross-linguistically 1779:"He laid them down." 1751:"I felled the tree." 1327:"make it start off") 835:consonant repetition 458:ambitransitive verbs 371:Bill drove the truck 133:Reciprocal (grammar) 7291:Song, J.J. (1996). 7246:Rounds, C. (2001). 7187:. 59:4 pp. 781–819. 7033:. Louvain: Peeters. 6495:-ASP children books 5481:"to learn" becomes 5369:of Europe, such as 5246:varieties of Arabic 4536:is attached to the 4175:(V) "to survive" → 4140:, with an accented 4138:Proto-Indo-European 3873:Northeast Caucasian 3854:Dravidian languages 3586:Tanaka DAT collect- 3273:) while others do ( 3077:original A (causee) 3070: 2593:original A (causee) 2583: 1281:, discussed below. 517:is knitting a scarf 7169:Linguistic Inquiry 7109:A grammar of Kiowa 6813:"clean (adj)" → 6765:-a umugóre ámáazi. 6488:-a ábáana ibitabo. 6261:amábárúwa meênshi. 6178:amábárúwa meênshi. 4713:Hindustani Grammar 4690:(to make to dance) 4670:(to make to laugh) 4300:to enlarge oneself 4211:, and in German, 4199:"to cause to weep" 4195:(VII) "to weep" → 4126:Germanic languages 4111:Germanic languages 3918:"for bread", e.g. 3372:'utuˑ -lsaˑ -unhoˑ 3233:ditransitive verbs 3159:Some languages of 3068: 2581: 2516:intransitive verbs 1989:Dixon's prototypes 1362:subordinate clause 1269:Unlike most other 1133:Transitive verbs ( 337:are terms used in 137:Reciprocal pronoun 113:Impersonal passive 8311:Grammatical cases 8283: 8282: 8164: 8163: 7657:Grammatical cases 7348:10.1387/asju.9721 6772:-ASP woman water. 6768:man he-PRES-warm- 6593: 6592: 6529:removed can take 6491:man he-PRES-read- 6484:Umugabo a-ra-som- 6271:"The girl caused 5964: 5963: 5740:Classical Nahuatl 5735:Classical Nahuatl 5656:for nasal verbs: 5447:instrumental case 5400:"to evaporate" → 5144:Semitic languages 5138:Semitic languages 4680:(to make to swim) 4615:(present stem) → 4601:(present stem) → 4559:"he causes to be" 4551:"to be, exist" → 3886:Causal-final case 3827: 3826: 3819: 3462:grammatical voice 3454: 3453: 3446: 3247:Double causatives 3222: 3221: 3058:Romance languages 2732: 2731: 2633:retains A-marking 2420: 2419: 2189:causee unwilling 2042:Causative type 2 2039:Causative type 1 2036:Causative type 2 2033:Causative type 1 1271:Romance languages 1086: 1085: 877:vowel lengthening 863:make go bad, ruin 347:intransitive verb 305:complement clause 249:devices (such as 185: 184: 125:Reflexive pronoun 63:Ditransitive verb 55:Intransitive verb 18:Causal-final case 16:(Redirected from 8318: 8176:Classical Arabic 7691: 7650: 7643: 7636: 7627: 7555: 7548: 7531: 7528: 7522: 7515: 7504: 7501: 7495: 7492: 7486: 7479: 7473: 7471: 7464: 7453: 7451: 7444: 7435: 7433: 7417: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7402: 7387: 7381: 7380: 7374: 7366: 7364: 7362: 7331: 7325: 7318: 7312: 7307:Talmy, L. 2000. 7305: 7296: 7289: 7274: 7264: 7258: 7244: 7231: 7230: 7223: 7217: 7210: 7204: 7197: 7188: 7181: 7172: 7165: 7159: 7156: 7150: 7147: 7141: 7134: 7125: 7118: 7112: 7105: 7099: 7096: 7090: 7079: 7073: 7070: 7064: 7057: 7034: 7027: 7018: 7012: 7006: 6992: 6981: 6980: 6945: 6935: 6929: 6922: 6857: 6847: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6627: 6623: 6538: 6537: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6409: 6405: 6371:woman she-sleep- 6364:Umugóre a-ryaam- 6352: 6347: 6309: 6305: 6236: 6232: 6218: 6214: 6154: 6150: 6103: 6099: 6077: 6073: 6028: 6024: 5936:'tend to cause' 5882: 5870: 5828:O ni-(w)-ƚ-whon’ 5367:Uralic languages 5356:Uralic languages 5330:is one of them: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5069: 5058: 5047: 5022: 5018: 5014: 4996: 4985: 4950: 4949: 4945: 4939: 4938: 4934: 4927: 4926: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4911: 4902: 4901: 4897: 4891: 4890: 4886: 4880: 4879: 4875: 4865: 4864: 4860: 4854: 4853: 4849: 4841: 4840: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4825: 4816: 4815: 4811: 4801: 4800: 4795: 4660:(to make to sit) 4650:(to make to fly) 4155:(I) "to rise" → 3896:grammatical case 3850:grammatical case 3847: 3846: 3822: 3815: 3811: 3808: 3802: 3771: 3763: 3732: 3725: 3707: 3687: 3656: 3643: 3623: 3595: 3575: 3568: 3550: 3519: 3506: 3466:oblique argument 3449: 3442: 3438: 3435: 3429: 3398: 3390: 3368: 3358: 3071: 3026: 3006: 3002: 2976: 2965: 2961: 2950: 2946: 2894: 2866: 2855: 2851: 2840: 2836: 2805:je ferai courir 2791: 2780: 2776: 2765: 2761: 2584: 2082:Bahasa Indonesia 2016: 1954: 1950: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1861: 1843: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1734:and unconscious 1571: 1552: 1548: 1537: 1497: 1492: 1488: 1474: 1465: 1437: 1427: 1417: 1406: 1395: 1385: 1326: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1247: 1221: 1210: 1206: 1195: 1191: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1061: 1058: 1055: 1052: 1035: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1010: 993: 990: 987: 984: 977: 974: 971: 968: 951: 948: 945: 942: 935: 932: 929: 926: 909: 906: 903: 900: 893: 890: 887: 884: 867: 864: 861: 858: 851: 848: 845: 842: 825: 822: 819: 815: 808: 805: 802: 798: 781: 778: 775: 772: 765: 762: 759: 756: 732: 560:spilled the milk 205: 204: 177: 170: 163: 149: 148: 37: 21: 8326: 8325: 8321: 8320: 8319: 8317: 8316: 8315: 8286: 8285: 8284: 8279: 8223:Old High German 8160: 8139: 8101: 8015: 7942: 7747: 7682: 7659: 7654: 7612: 7598: 7569: 7567:General reading 7564: 7562:Further reading 7559: 7558: 7549: 7534: 7529: 7525: 7516: 7507: 7502: 7498: 7493: 7489: 7480: 7476: 7469: 7465: 7456: 7449: 7445: 7438: 7431: 7418: 7409: 7400: 7398: 7389: 7388: 7384: 7367: 7360: 7358: 7333: 7332: 7328: 7319: 7315: 7306: 7299: 7290: 7277: 7265: 7261: 7245: 7234: 7225: 7224: 7220: 7211: 7207: 7198: 7191: 7182: 7175: 7166: 7162: 7157: 7153: 7148: 7144: 7135: 7128: 7119: 7115: 7106: 7102: 7097: 7093: 7080: 7076: 7071: 7067: 7058: 7037: 7028: 7021: 7013: 7009: 7001:, eds. (2000). 6993: 6984: 6958: 6937: 6936: 6932: 6923: 6860: 6848: 6829: 6824: 6786: 6781: 6759: 6751: 6743: 6718: 6710: 6706: 6684: 6676: 6651: 6643: 6639: 6629: 6614: 6606: 6504: 6482: 6474: 6466: 6441: 6433: 6429: 6419: 6411: 6396: 6388: 6384: 6362: 6354: 6333: 6325: 6321: 6311: 6299:ba-rá-ryáam-ye. 6296: 6288: 6277: 6266:I-PST-write-ASP 6255: 6247: 6239: 6220: 6205: 6197: 6193: 6182:I-PST-write-ASP 6173: 6165: 6157: 6138: 6127: 6106: 6087: 6079: 6064: 6056: 6052: 6042:they-PST-go-ASP 6031: 6011: 6003: 5974: 5969: 5967:Bantu languages 5928:'try to cause' 5873: 5856:'grow tired' → 5810: 5779: 5737: 5732: 5722:The same root ( 5612: 5538: 5492: 5460: 5455: 5443:accusative case 5436: 5363: 5358: 5321: 5301:accusative case 5254: 5219:triliteral root 5205:"he laughed" → 5140: 5104: 5099: 5089: 5071: 5060: 5049: 5038: 5034: 5024: 5006: 4998: 4987: 4976: 4960: 4799:প্রযোজক ক্রিয়া 4793:prayōjaka kriẏā 4788: 4720:uses the infix 4715: 4709: 4697: 4626: 4580: 4569:; for example, 4555:; for example, 4544:to take place: 4511: 4225: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4048:The vase broke. 4036: 3986: 3961: 3937: 3932: 3888: 3842: 3841: 3823: 3812: 3806: 3803: 3788: 3772: 3761: 3756: 3734: 3709: 3697: 3689: 3677: 3668: 3658: 3645: 3633: 3625: 3613: 3604: 3577: 3552: 3540: 3531: 3521: 3508: 3496: 3458:causative voice 3450: 3439: 3433: 3430: 3415: 3399: 3388: 3386:Causative voice 3380: 3370: 3360: 3350: 3342: 3328: 3323: 3249: 3237:indirect object 3229: 3054: 3038: 3028: 3016: 3008: 2994: 2986: 2978: 2967: 2952: 2922: 2906: 2896: 2884: 2876: 2868: 2857: 2842: 2816: 2803: 2793: 2782: 2767: 2728:many languages 2610:special marking 2574:transitive verb 2570: 2512: 2501: 2449: 2445: 2283: 2277: 2255: 2249: 2201: 2195: 2186:causee willing 2173: 2167: 2112:Mayan languages 2098:all transitive 2065: 2059: 2013:section above. 2004: 2000: 1991: 1978: 1964: 1956: 1939: 1931: 1923: 1905: 1897: 1893: 1875:Montezuma hizo 1873: 1863: 1853: 1845: 1832: 1814: 1804: 1793: 1721: 1716: 1607: 1599: 1589: 1581: 1573: 1562: 1554: 1539: 1525: 1499: 1476: 1467: 1457: 1442: 1429: 1419: 1408: 1397: 1387: 1334: 1329: 1315: 1306:-now-start.off- 1267: 1257: 1249: 1239: 1231: 1223: 1212: 1197: 1159: 1075: 1073:feed (make eat) 1072: 1069: 1059: 1056: 1053: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1017: 1014: 1011: 991: 988: 985: 975: 972: 969: 949: 946: 943: 933: 930: 927: 907: 904: 901: 891: 888: 885: 865: 862: 859: 849: 846: 843: 823: 820: 817: 806: 803: 800: 799:(high falling) 779: 776: 773: 763: 760: 757: 749:internal change 727: 672: 656: 454: 448: 420: 412: 395:is the causer. 321: 267:auxiliary verbs 200: 199: 181: 143: 135: 131: 127: 111: 107: 88: 84: 80: 61: 59:Transitive verb 57: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8324: 8322: 8314: 8313: 8308: 8303: 8298: 8288: 8287: 8281: 8280: 8278: 8277: 8272: 8270:Serbo-Croatian 8267: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8247: 8242: 8237: 8232: 8227: 8226: 8225: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8204: 8203: 8198: 8196:Middle English 8188: 8183: 8178: 8172: 8170: 8166: 8165: 8162: 8161: 8159: 8158: 8153: 8147: 8145: 8141: 8140: 8138: 8137: 8132: 8131: 8130: 8120: 8115: 8109: 8107: 8106:Cause, purpose 8103: 8102: 8100: 8099: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8079: 8077:Multiplicative 8074: 8069: 8064: 8061: 8056: 8055: 8054: 8049: 8039: 8034: 8029: 8023: 8021: 8017: 8016: 8014: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7998: 7993: 7988: 7987: 7986: 7976: 7971: 7966: 7961: 7956: 7950: 7948: 7944: 7943: 7941: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7913:Superdirective 7910: 7905: 7900: 7895: 7890: 7885: 7880: 7875: 7870: 7865: 7860: 7855: 7854: 7853: 7843: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7802: 7801: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7766: 7761: 7755: 7753: 7749: 7748: 7746: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7699: 7697: 7688: 7684: 7683: 7681: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7664: 7661: 7660: 7655: 7653: 7652: 7645: 7638: 7630: 7624: 7623: 7618: 7611: 7610:External links 7608: 7607: 7606: 7597: 7594: 7593: 7592: 7589: 7586: 7583: 7580: 7573: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7557: 7556: 7532: 7523: 7505: 7496: 7487: 7474: 7454: 7436: 7407: 7382: 7326: 7313: 7297: 7275: 7259: 7232: 7218: 7205: 7189: 7173: 7160: 7151: 7142: 7126: 7113: 7100: 7091: 7074: 7065: 7035: 7019: 7007: 6982: 6962:...verbs like 6956: 6930: 6858: 6826: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6819: 6818: 6808: 6785: 6782: 6752: 6744: 6719: 6711: 6708: 6707: 6700:"The woman is 6677: 6652: 6644: 6641: 6640: 6617:a-rá-shyúuh-a. 6615: 6607: 6604: 6603: 6595: 6594: 6591: 6590: 6587: 6582: 6579: 6574: 6571: 6565: 6564: 6561: 6555: 6552: 6547: 6544: 6475: 6467: 6442: 6434: 6431: 6430: 6412: 6397: 6389: 6386: 6385: 6378:"The woman is 6355: 6334: 6326: 6323: 6322: 6297: 6289: 6286: 6285: 6275:many letters." 6248: 6240: 6221: 6206: 6198: 6195: 6194: 6166: 6158: 6139: 6136: 6135: 6088: 6080: 6065: 6057: 6054: 6053: 6046:"The children 6012: 6004: 6001: 6000: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5962: 5961: 5958: 5954: 5953: 5950: 5946: 5945: 5942: 5938: 5937: 5934: 5930: 5929: 5926: 5922: 5921: 5918: 5914: 5913: 5910: 5906: 5905: 5902: 5898: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5889: 5886: 5872: 5869: 5864: 5863: 5862: 5861: 5848: 5847: 5846: 5833: 5832: 5831: 5809: 5806: 5801: 5800: 5796: 5793: 5790: 5778: 5775: 5771: 5770: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5720: 5719: 5689: 5688: 5678: 5668: 5646: 5645: 5611: 5608: 5607: 5606: 5588: 5537: 5534: 5533: 5532: 5522: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5486: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5435: 5432: 5431: 5430: 5420: 5406: 5405: 5395: 5385: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5353: 5352: 5342: 5320: 5317: 5297: 5296: 5291:"to put in" → 5286: 5272: 5271: 5253: 5250: 5234: 5233: 5221:, as follows: 5211: 5210: 5196: 5182: 5139: 5136: 5103: 5100: 5072: 5061: 5050: 5039: 5036: 5035: 5007: 4999: 4988: 4977: 4974: 4973: 4959: 4956: 4952: 4951: 4928: 4868: 4867: 4843: 4787: 4784: 4783: 4782: 4764: 4750: 4740: 4711:Main article: 4708: 4705: 4696: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4681: 4671: 4661: 4651: 4625: 4622: 4621: 4620: 4606: 4579: 4576: 4575: 4574: 4560: 4510: 4507: 4277: 4276: 4266: 4224: 4221: 4201: 4200: 4190: 4180: 4170: 4160: 4122:Proto-Germanic 4117: 4116:Proto-Germanic 4114: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4099: 4098: 4092: 4086: 4080: 4074: 4068: 4062: 4056: 4050: 4035: 4032: 4019: 4018: 4015: 4012: 4009: 3985: 3982: 3977: 3976: 3964:Bernard Comrie 3960: 3957: 3952: 3951: 3947: 3944: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926:in Hungarian. 3887: 3884: 3835:causative case 3825: 3824: 3775: 3773: 3766: 3760: 3757: 3710: 3698: 3690: 3678: 3670: 3669: 3646: 3634: 3626: 3614: 3606: 3605: 3553: 3541: 3533: 3532: 3509: 3497: 3489: 3488: 3464:promoting the 3452: 3451: 3402: 3400: 3393: 3387: 3384: 3361: 3351: 3343: 3341:-'utoˑlsunhu'- 3340: 3339: 3327: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3248: 3245: 3228: 3225: 3224: 3223: 3220: 3219: 3214: 3211: 3206: 3202: 3201: 3194: 3191: 3186: 3182: 3181: 3176: 3173: 3168: 3164: 3163: 3157: 3154: 3149: 3145: 3144: 3131: 3128: 3123: 3119: 3118: 3097: 3094: 3089: 3085: 3084: 3081: 3078: 3075: 3029: 3017: 3009: 2995: 2987: 2979: 2968: 2953: 2939: 2938: 2897: 2885: 2877: 2869: 2858: 2843: 2829: 2828: 2794: 2783: 2768: 2754: 2753: 2745: 2744: 2734: 2733: 2730: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2717: 2713: 2712: 2695: 2692: 2689: 2686: 2682: 2681: 2664: 2661: 2658: 2655: 2651: 2650: 2637: 2634: 2631: 2628: 2624: 2623: 2614: 2611: 2608: 2605: 2601: 2600: 2597: 2594: 2591: 2588: 2569: 2566: 2511: 2508: 2500: 2497: 2492: 2491: 2490: 2489: 2488: 2487: 2484: 2481: 2473: 2472: 2471: 2470: 2469: 2466: 2463: 2447: 2443: 2418: 2417: 2408: 2405: 2401: 2400: 2395: 2392: 2388: 2387: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2373: 2370: 2366: 2365: 2360: 2357: 2353: 2352: 2347: 2344: 2341: 2338: 2335: 2331: 2330: 2309: 2306: 2302: 2301: 2284: 2281: 2278: 2275: 2272: 2269: 2266: 2262: 2261: 2256: 2253: 2250: 2247: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2234: 2233: 2228: 2225: 2221: 2220: 2215: 2212: 2208: 2207: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2187: 2184: 2180: 2179: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2161: 2160: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2139: 2138: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2116: 2115: 2105: 2102: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2089: 2088: 2079: 2076: 2072: 2071: 2066: 2063: 2060: 2057: 2054: 2051: 2048: 2044: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2030: 2029: 2026: 2023: 2020: 2002: 1998: 1990: 1987: 1957: 1940: 1932: 1924: 1906: 1898: 1895: 1894: 1864: 1854: 1846: 1833: 1815: 1805: 1802: 1801: 1792: 1789: 1781: 1780: 1777: 1759: 1758: 1755: 1752: 1749: 1746: 1743: 1720: 1717: 1715: 1712: 1707: 1706: 1705: 1704: 1703: 1702: 1695: 1688: 1681: 1669: 1668: 1667: 1666: 1665: 1658: 1651: 1639: 1638: 1637: 1636: 1635: 1628: 1612:R. M. W. Dixon 1606: 1603: 1582: 1574: 1563: 1555: 1540: 1530: 1529: 1512:-sleep SUBORD 1477: 1468: 1458: 1450: 1449: 1420: 1409: 1398: 1388: 1378: 1377: 1333: 1330: 1294: 1293: 1250: 1240: 1232: 1224: 1213: 1198: 1184: 1183: 1158: 1155: 1139: 1138: 1131: 1124: 1113:put clothes on 1101: 1084: 1083: 1078: 1062: 1046: 1042: 1041: 1036: 1020: 1004: 1000: 999: 994: 978: 962: 958: 957: 952: 936: 920: 916: 915: 910: 894: 878: 874: 873: 868: 852: 836: 832: 831: 826: 809: 792: 788: 787: 782: 766: 750: 746: 745: 742: 741:Causative Form 739: 736: 726: 723: 671: 668: 655: 652: 608: 607: 595: 594: 564: 563: 551: 550: 521: 520: 508: 507: 450:Main article: 447: 444: 436: 435: 432: 419: 416: 411: 408: 375:base situation 320: 317: 183: 182: 180: 179: 172: 165: 157: 154: 153: 140: 139: 129:Reflexive verb 121: 120: 116: 115: 101: 100: 93: 92: 74: 73: 66: 65: 51: 50: 44: 43: 32:Causative mood 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8323: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8302: 8299: 8297: 8294: 8293: 8291: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8241: 8238: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8228: 8224: 8221: 8220: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8193: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8186:Archaic Dutch 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8173: 8171: 8167: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8148: 8146: 8142: 8136: 8133: 8129: 8126: 8125: 8124: 8121: 8119: 8116: 8114: 8111: 8110: 8108: 8104: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8053: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8044: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8033: 8030: 8028: 8025: 8024: 8022: 8020:State, manner 8018: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7994: 7992: 7989: 7985: 7982: 7981: 7980: 7977: 7975: 7972: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7962: 7960: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7951: 7949: 7945: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7889: 7886: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7876: 7874: 7873:Postdirective 7871: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7861: 7859: 7856: 7852: 7849: 7848: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7800: 7797: 7796: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7784:Approximative 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7770: 7767: 7765: 7762: 7760: 7757: 7756: 7754: 7750: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7700: 7698: 7696: 7692: 7689: 7685: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7668:List of cases 7666: 7665: 7662: 7658: 7651: 7646: 7644: 7639: 7637: 7632: 7631: 7628: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7613: 7609: 7604: 7600: 7599: 7595: 7590: 7587: 7584: 7581: 7578: 7574: 7571: 7570: 7566: 7561: 7553: 7547: 7545: 7543: 7541: 7539: 7537: 7533: 7527: 7524: 7520: 7514: 7512: 7510: 7506: 7500: 7497: 7491: 7488: 7484: 7478: 7475: 7468: 7463: 7461: 7459: 7455: 7448: 7443: 7441: 7437: 7430: 7426: 7422: 7416: 7414: 7412: 7408: 7397: 7393: 7386: 7383: 7378: 7372: 7357: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7337: 7330: 7327: 7323: 7317: 7314: 7310: 7304: 7302: 7298: 7294: 7288: 7286: 7284: 7282: 7280: 7276: 7272: 7268: 7263: 7260: 7257: 7256:0-415-22612-0 7253: 7250:. Routledge. 7249: 7243: 7241: 7239: 7237: 7233: 7228: 7222: 7219: 7215: 7209: 7206: 7202: 7196: 7194: 7190: 7186: 7180: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7164: 7161: 7155: 7152: 7146: 7143: 7139: 7133: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7117: 7114: 7110: 7104: 7101: 7095: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7078: 7075: 7069: 7066: 7062: 7056: 7054: 7052: 7050: 7048: 7046: 7044: 7042: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7026: 7024: 7020: 7016: 7015:Dixon, R.M.W. 7011: 7008: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6995:Dixon, R.M.W. 6991: 6989: 6987: 6983: 6979: 6977: 6973: 6969: 6965: 6959: 6957:0-8384-4725-2 6953: 6949: 6944: 6943: 6934: 6931: 6927: 6921: 6919: 6917: 6915: 6913: 6911: 6909: 6907: 6905: 6903: 6901: 6899: 6897: 6895: 6893: 6891: 6889: 6887: 6885: 6883: 6881: 6879: 6877: 6875: 6873: 6871: 6869: 6867: 6865: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6853: 6846: 6844: 6842: 6840: 6838: 6836: 6834: 6832: 6828: 6821: 6816: 6812: 6809: 6806: 6802: 6799: 6798: 6797: 6795: 6792:, the suffix 6791: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6773: 6771: 6766: 6764: 6758: 6755: 6750: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6726: 6724: 6717: 6714: 6705: 6703: 6698: 6696: 6691: 6689: 6683: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6659: 6657: 6654:a-rá-shyúush- 6650: 6647: 6638: 6635: 6632: 6628: 6618: 6613: 6610: 6602: 6600: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6566: 6562: 6560: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6539: 6536: 6535: 6534: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6519: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6503: 6501: 6496: 6494: 6489: 6487: 6481: 6478: 6473: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6449: 6447: 6440: 6437: 6428: 6425: 6422: 6418: 6415: 6410: 6400: 6395: 6392: 6383: 6381: 6376: 6375:-ASP children 6374: 6369: 6367: 6361: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6341: 6339: 6332: 6329: 6320: 6317: 6314: 6310: 6300: 6295: 6292: 6284: 6282: 6276: 6274: 6269: 6267: 6262: 6260: 6254: 6251: 6246: 6243: 6238: 6237: 6226: 6225: 6219: 6209: 6204: 6201: 6192: 6191:many letters. 6190: 6185: 6183: 6179: 6177: 6172: 6169: 6164: 6161: 6156: 6155: 6144: 6143: 6134: 6132: 6126: 6124: 6119: 6118: 6113: 6111: 6105: 6104: 6094: 6092: 6086: 6083: 6078: 6068: 6063: 6060: 6051: 6049: 6044: 6043: 6038: 6036: 6030: 6029: 6018: 6016: 6010: 6007: 5999: 5997: 5993: 5990:, which mean 5989: 5985: 5980: 5978: 5971: 5966: 5959: 5956: 5955: 5951: 5948: 5947: 5943: 5940: 5939: 5935: 5932: 5931: 5927: 5924: 5923: 5919: 5916: 5915: 5911: 5908: 5907: 5903: 5900: 5899: 5895: 5893:-vkar-/-cete- 5892: 5891: 5887: 5884: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5868: 5859: 5855: 5852: 5851: 5849: 5844: 5841:'O hangs' → 5840: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5829: 5825: 5822: 5821: 5819: 5818: 5817: 5815: 5807: 5805: 5797: 5794: 5791: 5788: 5787: 5786: 5784: 5776: 5774: 5769:"him/her/it") 5768: 5764: 5760: 5759:quitlacualtia 5756: 5753: 5752: 5751: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5734: 5729: 5727: 5725: 5717: 5713: 5710: 5709: 5708: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5686: 5683:"to go up" → 5682: 5679: 5676: 5672: 5669: 5666: 5663:"to laugh" → 5662: 5659: 5658: 5657: 5655: 5651: 5643: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5634: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5619: 5617: 5609: 5604: 5600: 5598: 5592: 5589: 5586: 5582: 5580: 5574: 5571: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5566:*memerhatikan 5563: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5535: 5530: 5526: 5523: 5520: 5516: 5513: 5512: 5511: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5489: 5484: 5480: 5477: 5476: 5475: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5457: 5452: 5450: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5433: 5428: 5424: 5421: 5418: 5414: 5411: 5410: 5409: 5404:"to vaporize" 5403: 5399: 5396: 5393: 5389: 5386: 5383: 5379: 5376: 5375: 5374: 5372: 5368: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5346: 5343: 5340: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5331: 5329: 5325: 5318: 5316: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5294: 5290: 5287: 5284: 5281:"to go in" → 5280: 5277: 5276: 5275: 5269: 5265: 5262: 5261: 5260: 5258: 5251: 5249: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5231: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5216: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5197: 5195:"he informed" 5194: 5190: 5186: 5183: 5181:"he composed" 5180: 5177:"he wrote" → 5176: 5172: 5169: 5168: 5167: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5148:Proto-Semitic 5145: 5137: 5135: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5101: 5098: 5095: 5092: 5088: 5075: 5070: 5064: 5059: 5053: 5048: 5042: 5033: 5030: 5027: 5023: 5010: 5005: 5002: 4997: 4991: 4986: 4980: 4972: 4970: 4965: 4957: 4955: 4944: 4933: 4929: 4921: 4910: 4906: 4905: 4904: 4896: 4885: 4874: 4859: 4848: 4844: 4835: 4824: 4820: 4819: 4818: 4810: 4805: 4794: 4785: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4769:"to drink" → 4768: 4765: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4751: 4748: 4744: 4741: 4738: 4734: 4731: 4730: 4729: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4714: 4706: 4704: 4702: 4694: 4689: 4686:(to dance) → 4685: 4682: 4679: 4675: 4672: 4669: 4666:(to laugh) → 4665: 4662: 4659: 4655: 4652: 4649: 4645: 4642: 4641: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4631: 4623: 4618: 4614: 4611:(to laugh) → 4610: 4607: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4593: 4592: 4591: 4589: 4585: 4577: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4561: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4547: 4546: 4545: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4508: 4506: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4307: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4284:stative verbs 4281: 4274: 4270: 4267: 4264: 4260: 4257: 4256: 4255: 4253: 4249: 4244: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4198: 4194: 4191: 4188: 4184: 4181: 4178: 4174: 4171: 4168: 4167:*frawardijaną 4164: 4161: 4158: 4154: 4151: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4103: 4097: 4093: 4091: 4087: 4085: 4081: 4079: 4075: 4073: 4069: 4067: 4063: 4061: 4057: 4055: 4051: 4049: 4045: 4044: 4043: 4040: 4039:Leonard Talmy 4033: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4016: 4013: 4010: 4007: 4006: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3983: 3981: 3974: 3973: 3972: 3968: 3965: 3958: 3956: 3948: 3945: 3942: 3941: 3940: 3934: 3929: 3927: 3925: 3924:vowel harmony 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3885: 3883: 3881: 3877: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3855: 3851: 3845: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3821: 3818: 3810: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3776:This section 3774: 3770: 3765: 3764: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3748: 3746: 3741: 3739: 3733: 3731: 3726: 3724: 3717: 3715: 3708: 3706: 3701: 3696: 3693: 3688: 3686: 3681: 3676: 3673: 3667: 3664: 3661: 3657: 3655: 3649: 3644: 3642: 3637: 3632: 3629: 3624: 3622: 3617: 3612: 3609: 3603: 3601: 3596: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3582: 3576: 3574: 3569: 3567: 3560: 3558: 3551: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3536: 3530: 3527: 3524: 3520: 3518: 3512: 3507: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3492: 3487: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3448: 3445: 3437: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3413: 3412: 3408: 3403:This section 3401: 3397: 3392: 3391: 3385: 3383: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3349: 3346: 3338: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3267: 3265: 3260: 3258: 3254: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3227:Ditransitives 3226: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3210: 3207: 3204: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3187: 3184: 3183: 3180: 3177: 3174: 3172: 3169: 3166: 3165: 3162: 3158: 3155: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3146: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3120: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3098: 3095: 3093: 3090: 3087: 3086: 3082: 3079: 3076: 3073: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3053: 3050: 3047: 3046: 3043: 3037: 3034: 3033: 3027: 3022: 3021: 3015: 3012: 3007: 2998: 2993: 2990: 2985: 2982: 2977: 2971: 2966: 2956: 2951: 2942: 2937: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2921: 2918: 2915: 2914: 2911: 2905: 2902: 2901: 2895: 2890: 2889: 2883: 2880: 2875: 2872: 2867: 2861: 2856: 2846: 2841: 2832: 2827: 2825: 2821: 2815: 2812: 2809: 2808: 2802: 2799: 2798: 2792: 2786: 2781: 2771: 2766: 2757: 2752: 2749: 2742: 2741: 2740: 2737: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2718: 2715: 2714: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2696: 2693: 2690: 2687: 2684: 2683: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2665: 2663:has O-marking 2662: 2660:has O-marking 2659: 2656: 2653: 2652: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2638: 2635: 2632: 2629: 2626: 2625: 2622: 2618: 2615: 2612: 2609: 2606: 2603: 2602: 2598: 2595: 2592: 2589: 2586: 2585: 2579: 2578: 2577: 2575: 2567: 2565: 2563: 2558: 2556: 2555:split systems 2551: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2510:Intransitives 2509: 2507: 2505: 2498: 2496: 2485: 2482: 2479: 2478: 2477: 2476: 2474: 2467: 2464: 2461: 2460: 2459: 2458: 2456: 2455: 2454: 2451: 2441: 2436: 2431: 2429: 2425: 2424:Nomatsiguenga 2416: 2412: 2409: 2406: 2403: 2402: 2399: 2396: 2393: 2390: 2389: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2377: 2367: 2364: 2361: 2358: 2355: 2354: 2351: 2348: 2345: 2342: 2332: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2310: 2307: 2304: 2303: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2285: 2279: 2273: 2263: 2260: 2257: 2251: 2245: 2242: 2239: 2235: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2223: 2222: 2219: 2218:Tangkhul Naga 2216: 2213: 2210: 2209: 2206: 2203: 2197: 2191: 2181: 2178: 2175: 2169: 2163: 2162: 2159: 2156: 2153: 2150: 2140: 2137: 2133: 2130: 2127: 2124: 2122:ditransitive 2121: 2118: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2095:intransitive 2094: 2090: 2087: 2083: 2080: 2077: 2074: 2073: 2070: 2067: 2061: 2055: 2045: 2041: 2038: 2035: 2032: 2031: 2017: 2014: 2012: 2008: 1996: 1986: 1984: 1977: 1974: 1971: 1969: 1963: 1960: 1955: 1945: 1944: 1938: 1935: 1930: 1927: 1922: 1909: 1904: 1901: 1892: 1889: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1879:pan a Cortés. 1878: 1872: 1871: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1849: 1844: 1838: 1837: 1831: 1818: 1813: 1812: 1808: 1800: 1798: 1790: 1788: 1786: 1778: 1775: 1774: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1764: 1763:magical power 1756: 1753: 1750: 1747: 1744: 1741: 1740: 1739: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1726: 1718: 1713: 1711: 1700: 1696: 1693: 1689: 1686: 1682: 1679: 1675: 1674: 1673: 1672: 1670: 1663: 1659: 1656: 1652: 1649: 1645: 1644: 1643: 1642: 1640: 1633: 1629: 1626: 1622: 1621: 1620: 1619: 1617: 1616: 1615: 1613: 1604: 1602: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1588: 1585: 1580: 1577: 1572: 1566: 1561: 1558: 1553: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1524: 1522: 1517: 1515: 1511: 1506: 1504: 1498: 1493: 1483: 1481: 1475: 1470: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1453: 1448: 1446: 1441: 1438: 1432: 1428: 1423: 1418: 1412: 1407: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1380: 1376: 1374: 1370: 1365: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1331: 1328: 1321: 1318: 1314: 1297: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1266: 1263: 1260: 1256: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1235: 1230: 1227: 1222: 1216: 1211: 1201: 1196: 1187: 1182: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1156: 1154: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1136: 1132: 1129: 1125: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1099: 1095: 1094: 1093: 1090: 1082: 1079: 1067: 1063: 1051: 1047: 1044: 1043: 1040: 1037: 1025: 1021: 1009: 1005: 1002: 1001: 998: 995: 983: 979: 967: 963: 960: 959: 956: 953: 941: 937: 925: 921: 919:reduplication 918: 917: 914: 911: 899: 895: 883: 879: 876: 875: 872: 869: 857: 853: 841: 837: 834: 833: 830: 827: 821:awaken, rouse 814: 810: 797: 793: 790: 789: 786: 783: 777:make suitable 771: 767: 755: 751: 748: 747: 743: 740: 737: 734: 733: 730: 725:Morphological 724: 722: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 699: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 669: 667: 665: 661: 653: 651: 649: 645: 641: 637: 631: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 605: 601: 597: 596: 593: 589: 585: 584: 583: 581: 577: 573: 569: 561: 557: 553: 552: 549: 545: 541: 540: 539: 537: 533: 528: 526: 518: 514: 510: 509: 506: 502: 498: 497: 496: 494: 490: 486: 481: 479: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 453: 445: 443: 441: 433: 430: 429: 428: 424: 417: 415: 409: 407: 405: 401: 396: 394: 390: 385: 383: 378: 376: 372: 367: 362: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 318: 316: 314: 313:passive voice 310: 306: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 270: 268: 264: 263:control verbs 260: 256: 252: 248: 247:morphological 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 215: 213: 209: 203: 198: 194: 190: 178: 173: 171: 166: 164: 159: 158: 156: 155: 152: 147: 142: 141: 138: 134: 130: 126: 123: 122: 117: 114: 110: 106: 103: 102: 98: 94: 91: 87: 83: 79: 76: 75: 71: 67: 64: 60: 56: 53: 52: 49: 45: 42: 38: 33: 19: 7979:Instrumental 7918:Superelative 7893:Subdirective 7851:-qualitative 7794:Distributive 7723:Intransitive 7602: 7576: 7551: 7526: 7518: 7499: 7490: 7482: 7477: 7399:. Retrieved 7395: 7385: 7371:cite journal 7359:. Retrieved 7339: 7329: 7321: 7316: 7308: 7292: 7270: 7262: 7247: 7221: 7213: 7208: 7200: 7184: 7168: 7163: 7154: 7145: 7137: 7121: 7116: 7108: 7103: 7094: 7086: 7082: 7077: 7068: 7060: 7030: 7010: 7002: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6961: 6941: 6933: 6925: 6850: 6814: 6810: 6804: 6800: 6793: 6787: 6776: 6775:"The man is 6774: 6769: 6767: 6762: 6760: 6756: 6753: 6748: 6745: 6733: 6727: 6722: 6721:a-rá-shyúuh- 6720: 6715: 6712: 6701: 6699: 6694: 6692: 6687: 6685: 6681: 6678: 6666: 6660: 6655: 6653: 6648: 6645: 6636: 6633: 6630: 6619: 6616: 6611: 6608: 6598: 6596: 6584: 6576: 6568: 6558: 6549: 6541: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6520: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6505: 6499: 6498:"The man is 6497: 6492: 6490: 6485: 6483: 6479: 6476: 6471: 6468: 6456: 6450: 6445: 6443: 6438: 6435: 6426: 6423: 6420: 6416: 6413: 6401: 6398: 6393: 6390: 6379: 6377: 6372: 6370: 6365: 6363: 6359: 6356: 6344: 6342: 6337: 6335: 6330: 6327: 6318: 6315: 6312: 6301: 6298: 6293: 6290: 6280: 6278: 6272: 6270: 6268:letters many 6265: 6263: 6258: 6256: 6252: 6249: 6244: 6241: 6228: 6227: 6223: 6222: 6210: 6207: 6202: 6199: 6188: 6186: 6184:letters many 6181: 6180: 6176:N-a-andits-e 6175: 6174: 6170: 6167: 6162: 6159: 6146: 6145: 6142:N-a-andits-e 6141: 6140: 6130: 6128: 6122: 6120: 6116: 6114: 6109: 6107: 6096: 6095: 6090: 6089: 6084: 6081: 6069: 6066: 6061: 6058: 6047: 6045: 6041: 6039: 6034: 6032: 6020: 6019: 6014: 6013: 6008: 6005: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5981: 5975: 5874: 5865: 5860:'tire O out' 5858:O-ti-ƚ-ch’id 5857: 5853: 5842: 5838: 5827: 5823: 5811: 5802: 5780: 5772: 5766: 5758: 5754: 5747: 5738: 5723: 5721: 5715: 5714:"to walk" → 5711: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5690: 5687:"to elevate" 5684: 5680: 5674: 5673:"to walk" → 5670: 5664: 5660: 5653: 5649: 5647: 5641: 5640:"I make" → 5637: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5620: 5613: 5602: 5596: 5594: 5590: 5584: 5578: 5576: 5572: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5552:(it becomes 5549: 5539: 5528: 5524: 5518: 5514: 5507: 5493: 5482: 5478: 5471: 5461: 5437: 5426: 5422: 5416: 5412: 5407: 5401: 5397: 5391: 5387: 5381: 5377: 5364: 5348: 5344: 5338: 5334: 5327: 5322: 5312: 5304: 5298: 5292: 5288: 5282: 5278: 5273: 5267: 5266:"to fall" → 5263: 5255: 5237: 5235: 5229: 5228:"he knew" → 5225: 5212: 5206: 5202: 5192: 5191:"he knew" → 5188: 5178: 5174: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5141: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5105: 5096: 5093: 5090: 5076: 5073: 5065: 5062: 5054: 5051: 5043: 5040: 5031: 5028: 5025: 5011: 5008: 5003: 5000: 4992: 4989: 4981: 4978: 4968: 4961: 4953: 4869: 4789: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4760: 4756: 4755:"to move" → 4752: 4746: 4745:"to read" → 4742: 4736: 4732: 4725: 4721: 4716: 4698: 4687: 4683: 4677: 4676:(to swim) → 4673: 4667: 4663: 4657: 4653: 4647: 4646:(to fly) → 4643: 4636: 4627: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4587: 4581: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4533: 4518: 4512: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4308: 4303: 4299: 4296:to make grow 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4278: 4272: 4268: 4262: 4258: 4247: 4245: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4229:productivity 4226: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4203:In English, 4202: 4196: 4192: 4186: 4182: 4176: 4172: 4166: 4162: 4156: 4152: 4145: 4141: 4134:Verner's Law 4129: 4119: 4100: 4095: 4089: 4083: 4077: 4071: 4065: 4059: 4053: 4047: 4037: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4003: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3987: 3978: 3969: 3962: 3953: 3938: 3919: 3915: 3914:"bread" > 3911: 3907: 3892:causal-final 3891: 3889: 3843: 3834: 3830: 3828: 3813: 3804: 3789:Please help 3777: 3751: 3749: 3744: 3742: 3737: 3735: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3713: 3711: 3702: 3699: 3694: 3691: 3682: 3679: 3674: 3671: 3665: 3662: 3659: 3650: 3647: 3638: 3635: 3630: 3627: 3618: 3615: 3610: 3607: 3599: 3597: 3587: 3585: 3580: 3578: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3556: 3554: 3545: 3542: 3537: 3534: 3528: 3525: 3522: 3513: 3510: 3501: 3498: 3493: 3490: 3474: 3457: 3455: 3440: 3431: 3416:Please help 3404: 3381: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3365: 3362: 3355: 3352: 3347: 3344: 3334: 3329: 3321:Other topics 3298: 3268: 3261: 3256: 3252: 3250: 3230: 3126:instrumental 3062: 3055: 3051: 3048: 3044: 3041: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3030: 3023: 3019: 3018: 3013: 3010: 2999: 2996: 2991: 2988: 2983: 2980: 2972: 2969: 2957: 2954: 2943: 2940: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2923: 2919: 2916: 2912: 2909: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2898: 2891: 2887: 2886: 2881: 2878: 2873: 2870: 2862: 2859: 2847: 2844: 2833: 2830: 2823: 2819: 2817: 2813: 2810: 2806: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2795: 2787: 2784: 2772: 2769: 2758: 2755: 2746: 2738: 2735: 2571: 2559: 2552: 2527: 2524:productively 2513: 2504:R.M.W. Dixon 2502: 2493: 2475:Prototype 2 2457:Prototype 1 2452: 2432: 2421: 2375:with effort 2337:intentional 1992: 1979: 1975: 1972: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1958: 1946: 1942: 1941: 1936: 1933: 1928: 1925: 1910: 1907: 1902: 1899: 1890: 1881: 1876: 1874: 1868: 1865: 1858: 1855: 1850: 1847: 1839: 1835: 1834: 1819: 1816: 1809: 1806: 1794: 1784: 1782: 1771: 1760: 1729: 1722: 1708: 1698: 1691: 1684: 1677: 1662:Affectedness 1661: 1654: 1647: 1632:Transitivity 1631: 1625:State/Action 1624: 1608: 1600: 1596: 1593: 1590: 1586: 1583: 1578: 1575: 1567: 1564: 1559: 1556: 1544: 1541: 1534: 1531: 1526: 1520: 1518: 1513: 1509: 1507: 1502: 1500: 1485: 1484: 1479: 1478: 1471: 1469: 1462: 1459: 1454: 1451: 1445:Canela-Krahô 1443: 1439: 1433: 1430: 1424: 1421: 1413: 1410: 1402: 1399: 1392: 1389: 1381: 1379: 1366: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1335: 1322: 1319: 1317:bé-kó-ày-ɔ́m 1316: 1298: 1296:bé-kó-ày-ɔ́m 1295: 1288: 1283: 1268: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1254: 1251: 1244: 1241: 1236: 1233: 1228: 1225: 1217: 1214: 1202: 1199: 1188: 1185: 1178: 1160: 1147:productively 1140: 1134: 1127: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1097: 1091: 1087: 816:(low level) 728: 718: 714: 706: 702: 700: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 673: 663: 659: 657: 647: 643: 639: 635: 632: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 609: 604:tripped John 603: 599: 591: 587: 579: 575: 571: 567: 565: 559: 555: 547: 543: 535: 531: 529: 524: 522: 516: 512: 505:is knitting. 504: 500: 492: 488: 482: 474:intransitive 469: 465: 461: 455: 439: 437: 425: 421: 413: 403: 399: 397: 392: 388: 386: 381: 379: 374: 370: 365: 363: 341:to describe 334: 330: 326: 325: 322: 308: 301: 297: 293: 289: 281: 280:rather than 277: 271: 254: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 216: 201: 192: 186: 90:Dative shift 77: 48:Transitivity 8201:Old English 8169:Declensions 8118:Benefactive 8097:Translative 8082:Orientative 8067:Instructive 8032:Comparative 7984:-comitative 7938:Terminative 7928:Superlative 7923:Superessive 7878:Postelative 7470:(in German) 7450:(in German) 7432:(in German) 7342:: 223–253. 6803:"to die" → 6704:the water." 6546:"be broken" 6506:The suffix 6399:ba-ra-som-a 6368:-ije ábáana 6273:me to write 6259:n-á-andik-a 6224:n-á-andik-a 5977:Kinyarwanda 5972:Kinyarwanda 5845:'hang O up' 5560:, expected 5380:"to eat" → 5351:"to gather" 5347:"around" → 5337:"joined" → 5309:dative case 5232:"he taught" 4855:'to eat' → 4831:'to see' → 4656:(to sit) → 4597:(to eat) → 4565:"to eat" → 4538:verbal root 4288:to be large 4163:*frawerþaną 3880:Tocharian B 3839:abbreviated 3759:Causal case 3299:force to do 2824:les gâteaux 2568:Transitives 2340:accidental 1767:telekinesis 1699:Involvement 1692:Naturalness 1519:"Capi made 1436:FRUSTRATION 1426:FRUSTRATION 871:Gulf Arabic 791:tone change 761:be suitable 319:Terminology 272:The normal 259:periphrasis 197:abbreviated 189:linguistics 109:Antipassive 86:Benefactive 82:Applicative 8290:Categories 8260:Lithuanian 8092:Semblative 8001:Possessive 7964:Comitative 7898:Subelative 7883:Postessive 7868:Pertingent 7841:Limitative 7779:Apudessive 7728:Nominative 7708:Accusative 7703:Absolutive 7673:Declension 7467:Dictionary 7401:2021-07-13 7361:19 October 7267:Comrie, B. 7085:, Vol VI, 6822:References 6817:"to clean" 6697:-ASP water 6690:-a ámáazi. 6343:she-sleep- 6208:y-a-tum-ye 6117:INF-go-ASP 6110:ku-geend-a 6091:ku-geend-a 6067:y-a-tee-ye 6035:b-a-gii-ye 6015:b-a-gii-ye 5843:na-O-ƚ-‘a’ 5763:pronominal 5705:comitative 5677:"to guide" 5546:Indonesian 5519:padakkelen 5427:kirjoittaa 5415:"to be" → 5402:haihduttaa 5215:gemination 4969:eztul egin 4735:"to do" → 4718:Hindustani 4707:Hindustani 4678:plaukdinti 4648:skraidinti 4630:Lithuanian 4624:Lithuanian 4431:discourage 4292:to enlarge 4252:derivation 4197:*grōtijaną 4157:*raizijaną 3930:Literature 3807:April 2014 3535:Tanaka-kun 3491:Tanaka-kun 3434:April 2014 3348:play music 3264:Hindustani 3209:possessive 3083:languages 3080:original O 3014:headmaster 2930:une lettre 2599:languages 2596:original O 2372:naturally 2025:Mechanism 2019:Parameter 2007:predicates 1983:conjugated 1678:Directness 1508:Capi PAST 1275:Portuguese 1151:Athabaskan 1066:-a-č'm-ev- 947:make shout 785:Lithuanian 738:Basic Verb 721:in Yimas. 478:transitive 366:underlying 251:inflection 212:volitional 99:decreasing 72:increasing 8240:Hungarian 8087:Revertive 8027:Adverbial 8011:Sociative 8006:Privative 7996:Possessed 7908:Sublative 7903:Subessive 7888:Prolative 7863:Perlative 7831:Intrative 7821:Inelative 7806:Egressive 7799:-temporal 7774:Antessive 7738:Partitive 7425:1615-1496 7356:2444-2992 6976:causitive 6807:"to kill" 6790:Esperanto 6784:Esperanto 6624:-be warm- 6444:a-ra-som- 6242:amábárúwa 6200:Umukoôbwa 6160:amábárúwa 6040:children 5957:-(r/l)i - 5742:, in the 5575:"good" → 5449:is used. 5439:Hungarian 5434:Hungarian 5394:"to fill" 5390:"full" → 5384:"to feed" 5341:"to join" 5293:iresaseru 5283:hairaseru 5122:"plant", 5118:"split", 5114:"break", 4644:skraidyti 4617:xandândan 4571:khādayāmi 4557:bhāvayati 4463:influence 4419:constrain 4395:stimulate 4273:objectify 3935:Shibatani 3916:kenyérért 3900:Hungarian 3867:language 3778:does not 3511:atsume-ru 3484:Mongolian 3405:does not 3295:Swahili's 3287:Kabardian 3279:Hungarian 3161:Daghestan 3134:Hungarian 3011:directeur 2934:directeur 2640:Kabardian 2548:Hungarian 2536:Blackfoot 2518:have low 2435:semantics 2359:M plus P 2271:indirect 2028:Language 1903:Montezuma 1900:Montezuma 1883:Montezuma 1811:Montezuma 1807:Montezuma 1732:inanimate 1725:semantics 1685:Intention 1605:Semantics 1501:Capi te 1400:yonpa-'pî 1045:circumfix 1024:-kam-isa- 940:be-bengok 744:Language 670:Two words 544:The milk 364:The term 343:arguments 193:causative 78:Causative 8213:Georgian 8156:Vocative 8113:Aversive 8059:Exessive 8037:Equative 7991:Ornative 7974:Genitive 7959:Caritive 7954:Abessive 7933:Temporal 7846:Locative 7826:Inessive 7816:Illative 7789:Delative 7769:Allative 7764:Adessive 7759:Ablative 7743:Pegative 7718:Ergative 7269:(1981). 7203:p. 1–32. 7185:Language 6573:"be cut" 6559:méneesh- 6477:ibitabo. 6472:children 6414:ibitabo. 6394:children 6360:children 6336:a-ryaam- 6294:children 6250:meênshi. 6168:meênshi. 6085:children 6009:children 5925:-cetaar- 5912:'cause' 5885:Morpheme 5854:ti-ch’id 5824:ni-whon’ 5699:or just 5675:mboguata 5593:"new" → 5529:pakainin 5527:"eat" → 5498:such as 5483:whakaako 5257:Japanese 5252:Japanese 5142:In most 5134:"open". 5130:"hide", 5126:"burn", 5063:hilarazi 4863:খাওয়ানো 4858:khāōẏānō 4688:šokdinti 4668:juokinti 4609:xandidan 4603:xorândan 4588:ân(i)dan 4515:Sanskrit 4509:Sanskrit 4491:restrict 4479:persuade 4435:dissuade 4423:convince 4379:restrain 4263:simplify 4209:to seat" 4193:*grētaną 4187:*lagjaną 4183:*ligjaną 4177:*nazjaną 3750:"(They) 3675:children 3611:children 3562:collect- 3514:collect- 3476:Japanese 3275:Capanawa 3271:Jarawara 3241:argument 3189:adessive 3171:allative 3152:locative 3116:Japanese 3108:Kamaiurá 2722:non-core 2698:Javanese 2694:non-core 2679:Sanskrit 2544:Japanese 2428:Kamayurá 2320:Alamblak 2158:Japanese 2022:Meaning 1655:Volition 1411:makui-ya 1390:emapu'tî 1105:sit down 1081:Georgian 955:Javanese 913:Kashmiri 804:be awake 713:, while 658:English 620:dissolve 592:tripped. 548:spilled. 446:One word 357:", and " 255:becoming 8265:Russian 8255:Latvian 8208:Finnish 8191:English 8047:-formal 7811:Elative 7733:Oblique 7122:Persian 6805:mortigi 6754:ámáazi. 6746:umugóre 6713:Umugabo 6702:warming 6679:ámáazi. 6646:Umugóre 6585:-sátuz- 6577:-sátur- 6569:-sáduk- 6554:"break" 6542:-mének- 6436:Umugabo 6380:putting 6328:Umugóre 6306:-sleep- 6245:letters 6233:-write- 6215:-cause- 6189:I wrote 6163:letters 6151:-write- 6074:-cause- 6059:Umugabo 6033:Ábáana 5994:. With 5941:-naite- 5933:-narqe- 5839:na-…‘a’ 5716:roguata 5665:mbopuka 5642:japouka 5616:Guaraní 5610:Guaraní 5562:*memer- 5554:memper- 5504:Ilokano 5500:Tagalog 5417:olettaa 5398:haihtua 5392:täyttää 5382:syöttää 5371:Finnish 5361:Finnish 5230:ʿallama 5193:ʾaʿlama 5108:Turkish 5102:Turkish 5041:Haurrak 4979:Haurrak 4834:dēkhānō 4804:Bengali 4786:Bengali 4779:pilvāyā 4775:pilvānā 4761:hilvānā 4747:paṛhānā 4726:-(l)vā- 4674:plaukti 4664:juoktis 4658:sodinti 4637:-(d)in- 4584:Persian 4578:Persian 4567:khād-ay 4553:bhāv-ay 4523:subject 4519:ṇijanta 4467:inspire 4375:protect 4371:prevent 4304:to grow 4223:English 4173:*nesaną 4153:*rīsaną 3991:COMPACT 3904:Chuvash 3869:Quechua 3857:Kannada 3848:) is a 3799:removed 3784:sources 3598:"Let's 3555:atsume- 3480:Turkish 3470:valency 3426:removed 3411:sources 3315:Guarani 3303:Oromo's 3283:Turkish 3198:Finnish 3142:Marathi 3138:Kannada 3112:Turkish 2879:gâteaux 2710:Babungo 2702:Swahili 2675:Amharic 2671:Tariana 2562:Tariana 2520:valency 2415:Tariana 2411:Russian 2398:English 2299:Jingpaw 2268:direct 2259:Tariana 2231:Swahili 2205:Swahili 2114:, etc. 2069:Amharic 2053:action 2011:devices 1968:comiera 1943:comiera 1866:Cortés. 1797:Spanish 1736:objects 1648:Control 1523:sleep." 1373:Macushi 1369:Persian 1279:English 1234:gâteaux 1175:Catalan 1171:Italian 1167:Spanish 1143:Guarani 1039:Kʼicheʼ 997:Amharic 982:a-gǝbba 770:táikyti 735:Process 612:explode 576:extend. 418:Lexical 410:Devices 382:derived 351:subject 286:Romance 274:English 261:, with 219:lexical 208:valency 206:) is a 105:Passive 97:Valence 70:Valence 8275:Slovak 8230:Gothic 8218:German 8128:-final 8123:Causal 8063:Formal 8052:-modal 8042:Essive 7969:Dative 7858:Medial 7836:Lative 7713:Direct 7423: 7354: 7254: 6970:, and 6954: 6815:purigi 6777:having 6757:water. 6732:-warm- 6665:-warm- 6609:Ámáazi 6508:-iish- 6500:making 6469:ábáana 6455:-read- 6406:-read- 6391:Ábáana 6357:ábáana 6291:Ábáana 6281:-iish- 6082:ábáana 6006:Ábáana 5996:-teer- 5984:-teer- 5755:tlacua 5693:guero- 5685:mopu'ã 5564:as in 5515:dakkel 5506:, the 5472:whaka- 5470:, the 5423:kirja- 5264:ochiru 5226:ʿalima 5207:hiṣħik 5199:Hebrew 5189:ʿalima 5185:Arabic 5179:ʾaxtev 5171:Syriac 5128:sakla- 5044:child. 4982:child. 4964:Basque 4958:Basque 4948:খাওয়া 4943:khāōẏā 4895:"-ōẏā" 4852:খাওয়া 4847:khāōẏā 4839:দেখানো 4771:pilānā 4757:hilānā 4743:paṛhnā 4737:karānā 4722:-(l)ā- 4654:sėdėti 4634:suffix 4595:xordan 4542:sandhi 4531:suffix 4527:object 4483:prompt 4459:induce 4455:incite 4447:hamper 4415:compel 4367:permit 4347:impede 4339:hinder 4323:enable 4269:object 4259:simple 4248:-(i)fy 4217:setzen 4213:sitzen 4205:to sit 4130:-j/ij- 3959:Comrie 3912:kenyér 3871:, and 3863:, the 3861:Telugu 3831:causal 3672:kodomo 3608:kodomo 3593:COHORT 3573:COHORT 3538:Tanaka 3494:Tanaka 3363:-unhoˑ 3331:Yokuts 3311:Apalai 3297:means 3104:Apalai 3100:Sanuma 3092:dative 3074:causer 2992:letter 2989:lettre 2973:write+ 2970:écrire 2860:manger 2785:courir 2748:French 2667:Hebrew 2644:Trumai 2621:Telugu 2590:causer 2540:Gothic 2538:, and 2532:Arabic 2514:Since 2499:Syntax 2385:Fijian 2328:Korean 2324:Mixtec 2291:Apalaí 2136:Abkhaz 2132:Basque 2050:state 1937:Cortés 1934:Cortés 1887:Cortés 1870:Cortés 1473:SUBORD 1422:teuren 1414:Satan- 1382:Jesus- 1358:compel 1215:manger 1163:French 1109:ascend 1050:-č'am- 1003:suffix 989:insert 961:prefix 924:bengok 856:xarrab 847:go bad 626:, and 400:causee 389:causer 359:object 333:, and 8250:Latin 8245:Irish 8235:Hindi 8181:Czech 8144:Other 8135:Final 8072:Modal 7687:Cases 6801:morti 6749:woman 6709:(5c.) 6682:water 6649:woman 6642:(5b.) 6612:water 6605:(5a.) 6581:"cut" 6550:-mén- 6531:-iish 6480:books 6432:(4b.) 6417:books 6402:they- 6387:(4a.) 6331:woman 6324:(3b.) 6302:they- 6287:(3a.) 6196:(2b.) 6137:(2a.) 6131:-túm- 6129:With 6123:to go 6055:(1b.) 6021:they- 6002:(1a.) 5992:cause 5988:-tum- 5949:-cir- 5917:-rqe- 5909:-nar- 5724:guata 5712:guata 5697:rero- 5671:guata 5638:ajapo 5599:barui 5581:baiki 5558:meng- 5542:Malay 5536:Malay 5466:, an 5464:Māori 5458:Māori 5388:täysi 5378:syödä 5339:pcoap 5324:Khmer 5319:Khmer 5289:ireru 5279:hairu 5268:otosu 5203:ṣaħak 5175:kəθav 5116:yırt- 5052:katua 4990:katua 4920:dēkhā 4873:dhātu 4823:dēkhā 4809:"-nō" 4802:) in 4753:hilnā 4733:karnā 4701:Latin 4695:Latin 4684:šokti 4495:rouse 4451:impel 4439:drive 4427:deter 4411:bribe 4391:start 4355:leave 4327:force 4319:cause 4315:block 4311:allow 4034:Talmy 3902:(and 3894:is a 3876:Archi 3747:-PRES 3719:read- 3651:read- 3648:yom-u 3460:is a 3353:-lsaˑ 3345:'utuˑ 3335:-lsaˑ 3307:Nivkh 3291:Karbi 2958:make+ 2955:ferai 2882:cakes 2848:make+ 2845:ferai 2773:make+ 2770:ferai 2706:Kammu 2654:(iii) 2648:Qiang 2617:Nivkh 2440:Hindi 2363:Chrau 2350:Kammu 2316:Chrau 2295:Hindi 2287:Nivkh 2177:Creek 2086:Malay 1962:bread 1877:comer 1851:bread 1836:comer 1587:cakes 1584:bolos 1565:comer 1545:make+ 1516:-CAUS 1514:1SG.O 1510:1SG.S 1354:force 1350:allow 1346:order 1342:cause 1285:Kiowa 1237:cakes 1203:make+ 1200:ferai 1179:faire 1135:carry 1121:learn 1119:, or 1098:faint 1008:-kam- 973:enter 966:gǝbba 931:shout 840:xarab 754:tìkti 719:ampu- 711:Yimas 680:raise 646:, or 628:march 598:(3b) 586:(3a) 572:smash 568:spill 554:(2b) 542:(2a) 536:spill 511:(1b) 499:(1a) 470:awake 462:break 460:like 355:agent 294:cause 290:cause 282:cause 227:raise 7421:ISSN 7390:by. 7377:link 7363:2022 7352:ISSN 7252:ISBN 6997:and 6972:have 6968:make 6952:ISBN 6811:pura 6794:-ig- 6770:CAUS 6763:iish 6735:CAUS 6730:PRES 6723:iish 6695:CAUS 6668:CAUS 6663:PRES 6661:she- 6622:PRES 6527:-ik- 6523:-ik- 6516:make 6512:have 6493:CAUS 6486:eesh 6458:CAUS 6453:PRES 6446:eesh 6404:PRES 6373:CAUS 6366:iish 6346:CAUS 6340:-ije 6338:iish 6304:PRES 6253:many 6211:she- 6203:girl 6171:many 6100:-go- 6048:left 6025:-go- 5986:and 5901:-te- 5814:Hupa 5808:Hupa 5767:qui- 5748:-tia 5691:The 5681:pu'ã 5661:puka 5650:mbo- 5648:The 5627:-yka 5623:-uka 5621:The 5591:baru 5573:baik 5550:per- 5525:kain 5502:and 5413:olla 5349:pcum 5335:coap 5236:The 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