1115:(1998), Arthur Jensen cited data which showed that IQ was generally negatively associated with crime among people of all races, peaking between 80 and 90. Learning disability is a substantial discrepancy between IQ and academic performance and is associated with crime. Slow reading development may be particularly relevant. It has also been shown, however, that the effect of IQ is heavily dependent on socioeconomic status and that it cannot be easily controlled away, with many methodological considerations being at play. Indeed, there is evidence that the small relationship is mediated by well-being, substance abuse, and other confounding factors that prohibit simple causal interpretation. A recent meta-analysis has shown that the relationship is only observed in higher risk populations such as those in poverty without direct effect, but without any causal interpretation. A nationally representative longitudinal study has shown that this relationship is entirely mediated by school performance.
1045:
religiosity has been operationalized in varying ways, impacting the results of the findings. Additionally, 1995 paper stated that "lthough a few researchers have found that religion's influence is noncontingent, most have found support—especially among youths—for effects that vary by denomination, type of offense, and social and/or religious context," suggesting a complex relationship between religiosity and crime. They also "found that, among our religiosity measures, participation in religious activities was a persistent and noncontingent inhibiter of adult crime" when controlling for other factors, such as social ecology and secular constraints.
1157:(usually measured using the three variables income or wealth, occupational level, and years of education) correlates negatively with criminality, except for self-reported illegal drug use. Higher parental socioeconomic status probably has an inverse relationship with crime. Unstable employment and high frequency of unemployment correlate positively with criminality. Low socioeconomic status is thought to be positively correlated with higher levels of stress, and therefore the mental and psychological ill-effects of stress. These higher stress levels would probably be correlated positively with the propensity to commit a crime.
1049:
criminality, with the exception of property damage. Other meta-analysis research suggests that those who subscribe to more orthodox religious beliefs are less likely to engage in criminal behavior than those who do not. A 2012 study suggested that belief in hell decreases crime rates, while belief in heaven increases them, and indicated that these correlations were stronger than other correlates like national wealth or income inequality.
972:
propensity for immigrants to commit more or less crime than the native-born population also varies geographically. For instance within the United States, census data shows that immigrants are less likely to be incarcerated for a crime than residents who were born within the United States. The census includes both legal and illegal immigrants, as it counts the total number of people residing in an area regardless of citizenship status.
1053:
insufficient data to indicate any correlation between religiosity and crime. Furthermore, any possible correlations may not apply universally to all relatively nonreligious groups, as there is some evidence self-identified atheists have had significantly lower incarceration rates than the general public in the United States. Most studies examining correlation to date do not distinguish between different types of low religiosity.
1308:
46:
1044:
found, "religious beliefs and behaviors exert a moderate deterrent effect on individuals' criminal behavior", but that "studies have systematically varied in their estimation of the religion-on-crime effect due to differences in both their conceptual and methodological approaches". This suggests that
971:
found higher rates of crime among these populations; these rates vary according to the country of origin (immigrants from some regions having lower crime rates than the native-born population). Notions about the propensity for immigrants to commit crime vary among geographical regions. Likewise, the
940:
in cases where other factors are present. Ferguson stated, 'a large percentage of our behaviour in terms of violence or aggression is influenced by our biology - our genes - and our brain anatomy.' Schnupp stated, 'To call these alleles "genes for violence" would therefore be a massive exaggeration.
1065:
is moderately correlated with involvement in non-violent crime, among white individuals and particularly among white women. It suggests that liberal self-classification can, among some groups, be positively associated with non-violent criminal behavior compared to conservative self-classification.
1180:
As Levi (1997: 860) noted, macrolevel accounts ‘seldom generate anything close to a causal account which makes sense of nonviolence as well as of violence’. Put another way, the vast majority of individuals who live in conditions of poverty or disadvantage do not resort to violence at any time.
813:
relationship was identified across multiple studies. The authors claim that the review summarizes most of what is currently known about the variables associated with criminality. Writing in 2019, criminologist Greg
Ridgeway argued that criminology was still trying to conclusively determine what
1164:
in an area with more crime in said area. A 2013 study from Sweden argued that there was little effect of neighbourhood deprivation on criminality per se and rather that the higher rates of crime were due to observed and unobserved family and individual level factors, indicating that high-risk
1052:
A 1997 study of six public high schools found no statistically significant negative correlations between religiosity and crime, or religiosity and drug use, and the only relationship between religiosity and alcohol was statistically significant. A more recent review concludes that there are
1282:
are connected, with increases in the latter causing increases in the former, has attracted much scientific analysis. In 2011, a report published by the official United
Nations News Centre remarked, "Ridding the world of leaded petrol, with the United Nations leading the effort in developing
1048:
An individual with high religious saliency (i.e. expressing the high importance of religion in their life) is less likely to be associated with criminal activities; similarly, an individual who regularly attends religious services or is highly involved in them tends to be less involved in
1202:
Children whose parents did not want children are more likely to commit crimes. Such children are less likely to succeed in school, and are more likely to live in poverty. They tend to have lower mother–child relationship quality.
1172:
study said, “Crime rates and inequality are positively correlated within countries and, particularly, between countries, and this correlation reflects causation from inequality to crime rates, even after controlling for other crime determinants.”
2079:
Ttofi, Maria M.; Farrington, David P.; Piquero, Alex R.; Lösel, Friedrich; DeLisi, Matthew; Murray, Joseph (1 June 2016). "Intelligence as a protective factor against offending: A meta-analytic review of prospective longitudinal studies".
1109:(IQ) and crime was -0.2. This association is generally regarded as small and prone to disappear or be substantially reduced after controlling for the proper covariates, being much smaller than typical sociological correlates. In his book
1295:
argued, "Although this global effort has often flown below the radar of media and global leaders, it is clear that the elimination of leaded petrol is an immense achievement on par with the global elimination of major deadly diseases."
1464:
Tiihonen, J; Rautiainen, M-R; Ollila, H M; Repo-Tiihonen, E; Virkkunen, M; Palotie, A; Pietiläinen, O; Kristiansson, K; Joukamaa, M; Lauerma, H; Saarela, J; Tyni, S; Vartiainen, H; Paananen, J; Goldman, D; Paunio, T (June 2015).
1546:
809:(2009) is a systematic review of 5200 empirical studies on crime that have been published worldwide. A crime consistency score represents the strength of relationships. The scoring depends on how consistently a
2341:
Wright, Bradley R. Entner; Caspi, Avshalom; Moffitt, Terrie E.; Miech, Richard A.; Silva, Phil A. (February 1999). "Reconsidering the relationship between SES and delinquency: Causation but not correlation".
1685:
Evans, T. David; Cullen, Francis T.; Dunaway, R. Gregory; Burton, Velmer S. (May 1995). "Religion and Crime
Reexamined: The Impact of Religion, Secular Controls, and Social Ecology on Adult Criminality".
803:
data; that is, they attempt to identify various factors are associated with specific categories of criminal behavior. Such correlational studies led to hypotheses about the causes of these crimes.
2549:
D'Angelo, Denise V.; Gilbert, Brenda Colley; Rochat, Roger W.; Santelli, John S.; Herold, Joan M. (2004). "Differences
Between Mistimed and Unwanted Pregnancies Among Women Who Have Live Births".
1190:
Associated factors include areas with population size, neighborhood quality, residential mobility, tavern and alcohol density, gambling and tourist density, proximity to the equator, temperature (
967:. In some countries, ethnically/racially diverse geographical areas have higher crime rates compared to homogeneous areas, and in other countries, it is the other way around. Some studies on
941:
In combination with many other factors these genes may make it a little harder for you to control violent urges, but they most emphatically do not predetermine you for a life of crime.'
1537:
2798:
834:
Crime occurs most frequently during the second and third decades of life. Males commit more crime overall and more violent crime than females. They commit more property crime except
2615:
Walton, Kenneth G.; Levitsky, Debra K. (11 August 2003). "Effects of the
Transcendental Meditation Program on Neuroendocrine Abnormalities Associated with Aggression and Crime".
2483:
Cheng, Diana; Schwarz, Eleanor B.; Douglas, Erika; Horon, Isabelle (March 2009). "Unintended pregnancy and associated maternal preconception, prenatal and postpartum behaviors".
1160:
Somewhat inconsistent evidence indicates a positive relationship between low income levels, the percentage of population under the poverty line, low education levels, and high
1228:
field that aims to explain crime and antisocial behavior by exploring both biological factors and environmental factors. While contemporary criminology has been dominated by
2107:
McGloin, Jean Marie; Pratt, Travis C.; Maahs, Jeff (1 September 2004). "Rethinking the IQ-delinquency relationship: A longitudinal analysis of multiple theoretical models".
775:
2220:"The impact of neighbourhood deprivation on adolescent violent criminality and substance misuse: A longitudinal, quasi-experimental study of the total Swedish population"
2765:
2750:
932:
has been found to be negatively correlated with criminality. These tendencies are ostensibly related, as the majority of all individuals who commit severe violent crime
2755:
1181:
Hence, in order to understand the patterns of violence that actually occur, it is imperative to study the social experiences of those who engage in it (Athens 1992).
1429:
2814:
2730:
1283:
countries, has resulted in $ 2.4 trillion in annual benefits, 1.2 million fewer premature deaths, higher overall intelligence and 58 million fewer crimes". The
2909:
1772:
Benda, Brent B. (May 1997). "An
Examination of a Reciprocal Relationship Between Religiosity and Different Forms of Delinquency Within a Theoretical Model".
1968:
Cullen, Francis T.; Gendreau, Paul; Jarjoura, G. Roger; Wright, John Paul (October 1997). "Crime and the Bell Curve: Lessons from
Intelligent Criminology".
2650:
2167:
Baum, Andrew; Garofalo, J. P.; Yali, Ann Marie (December 1999). "Socioeconomic Status and
Chronic Stress: Does Stress Account for SES Effects on Health?".
1111:
1807:
Zuckerman, Phil (December 2009). "Atheism, Secularity, and Well-Being: How the
Findings of Social Science Counter Negative Stereotypes and Assumptions".
1264:
2512:
Kost, Kathryn; Landry, David J.; Darroch, Jacqueline E. (March 1998). "Predicting
Maternal Behaviors During Pregnancy: Does Intention Status Matter?".
1650:
Baier, Colin J.; Wright, Bradley R. E. (February 2001). "'If You Love Me, Keep My Commandments': A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Religion on Crime".
2788:
2707:
2460:
Logan, Cassandra; Holcombe, Emily; Manlove, Jennifer; Ryan, Suzanne (May 2007). The Consequences of Unintended Childbearing (Report). Child Trends.
1083:
392:
936:
do so under the influence of alcohol or drugs. The presence of the genetic profile is not determinative, although it increases the likelihood of
1862:
Wright, John Paul; Beaver, Kevin M.; Morgan, Mark Alden; Connolly, Eric J. (February 2017). "Political ideology predicts involvement in crime".
768:
2599:
2325:
2919:
2914:
2740:
1288:
115:
2980:
2745:
1098:
742:
596:
1834:
2783:
2677:
2429:
1903:
761:
854:
activity in the brain is associated with criminality. Serotonin levels can be estimated by measuring the levels of the metabolite
2793:
1079:
639:
336:
2904:
576:
556:
120:
2218:
Sariaslan, Amir; Långström, Niklas; D’Onofrio, Brian; Hallqvist, Johan; Franck, Johan; Lichtenstein, Paul (1 August 2013).
1427:
Ridgeway, Greg (2019). "Experiments in Criminology: Improving Our Understanding of Crime and the Criminal Justice System".
2955:
2040:"The relationship between lower intelligence, crime and custodial outcomes: a brief literary review of a vulnerable group"
1848:
737:
732:
586:
2371:"Childhood family income, adolescent violent criminality and substance misuse: Quasi-experimental total population study"
872:, which is associated with lower levels of serotonin transmission in the brain, is associated with greater criminality.
865:, which lowers serotonin levels, has been found to be associated with criminal behavior. In addition, a lower density of
2970:
2965:
2700:
387:
178:
2934:
2929:
1363:
1284:
644:
1194:
and season). The higher crime rate in the southern US largely disappears after controlling for non-climatic factors.
551:
276:
227:
100:
1626:
2760:
1351:
1346:
1321:
1279:
1216:
1024:
Associated factors include high alcohol use, alcohol abuse and alcoholism, high illegal drug use and dependence,
810:
689:
571:
475:
441:
426:
232:
135:
2867:
2735:
2445:
1358:
1247:
Aggressive behavior has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body:
825:
800:
694:
90:
2693:
1241:
929:
581:
416:
222:
145:
2888:
2461:
2276:
747:
509:
130:
2975:
2819:
1341:
1221:
1212:
1106:
981:
964:
954:
699:
649:
546:
499:
421:
382:
356:
303:
125:
70:
65:
2960:
2846:
2176:
1726:
1154:
669:
664:
654:
606:
566:
561:
524:
468:
377:
271:
188:
95:
2466:
2281:
2143:
1013:
714:
591:
514:
504:
308:
75:
2267:
Fajnzylber, Pablo; Lederman, Daniel; Loayza, Norman (April 2002). "Inequality and Violent Crime".
2924:
2841:
2632:
2529:
2471:
2294:
2200:
2124:
2061:
2020:
1985:
1950:
1789:
1667:
1567:
1446:
1062:
1001:
829:
709:
684:
341:
291:
247:
140:
2003:
Mears, Daniel P.; Cochran, Joshua C. (November 2013). "What is the effect of IQ on offending?".
1028:
and the number of sexual partners, social isolation, criminal peer groups and gang membership.
2673:
2595:
2566:
2537:
2500:
2425:
2419:
2400:
2321:
2313:
2249:
2192:
1942:
1899:
1842:
1754:
1608:
1496:
1232:
theories, biosocial criminology also recognizes the potential contributions of fields such as
1225:
1161:
1127:
1087:
1000:
and drug use in the family, low parental supervision/monitoring, family size and birth order,
862:
601:
372:
242:
168:
17:
1442:
2872:
2624:
2558:
2521:
2492:
2390:
2382:
2351:
2286:
2239:
2231:
2184:
2116:
2089:
2051:
2012:
1977:
1932:
1871:
1816:
1781:
1744:
1734:
1695:
1659:
1600:
1486:
1478:
1438:
1331:
1272:
1075:
985:
933:
838:, which is about equally distributed between the genders. Males appear to be more likely to
367:
313:
1889:
1237:
885:
704:
346:
286:
281:
266:
198:
193:
183:
105:
85:
2496:
2180:
1730:
1518:
937:
2716:
2395:
2370:
2355:
2244:
2219:
2188:
1749:
1714:
1699:
1491:
1466:
1313:
1176:
Researchers in criminology have argued the effect of poverty upon crime is contextual:
960:
950:
463:
80:
1591:
Monea, Emily; Thomas, Adam (June 2011). "Unintended Pregnancy and Taxpayer Spending".
2949:
2636:
2128:
2065:
2024:
1989:
1820:
1793:
1671:
1450:
1292:
1257:
1091:
1041:
905:
619:
451:
361:
259:
2298:
2204:
1954:
2651:"Phase-out of leaded petrol brings huge health and cost benefits – UN–backed study"
2475:
2369:
Sariaslan, A.; Larsson, H.; d'Onofrio, B.; Långström, N.; Lichtenstein, P. (2014).
2093:
1229:
1131:
1123:
913:
869:
614:
173:
2667:
2587:
1893:
1739:
2829:
2824:
1981:
1937:
1920:
1785:
1663:
1336:
1119:
1037:
993:
889:
835:
796:
792:
explore the associations of specific non-criminal factors with specific crimes.
659:
446:
351:
298:
150:
110:
33:
1875:
45:
2836:
2386:
2120:
1307:
1303:
1169:
1135:
997:
968:
925:
921:
893:
866:
839:
679:
674:
480:
2016:
2851:
1326:
1251:
1025:
989:
851:
318:
254:
2570:
2504:
2404:
2253:
2196:
2056:
2039:
1946:
1758:
1612:
1500:
2628:
2541:
2235:
1715:"Divergent Effects of Beliefs in Heaven and Hell on National Crime Rates"
1233:
1143:
1090:, clinical depression, depression in the family, suicidal tendencies and
1005:
909:
859:
458:
405:
37:
1482:
2533:
1191:
1139:
1009:
519:
489:
2375:
The British Journal of Psychiatry : The Journal of Mental Science
855:
436:
60:
2562:
2525:
1604:
2290:
1538:"Immigrants less likely to commit crimes than those born in the US"
1165:
individuals were being selected into economically deprived areas.
881:
431:
212:
2685:
1921:"The Population Impact of Severe Mental Illness on Violent Crime"
1207:
Biosocial criminology and other analysis of environmental factors
928:
in the blood, have all also been connected to criminal behavior.
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
917:
901:
897:
2689:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1271:
Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by
996:, low parent-child attachment, marital discord/family discord,
858:
in the urine; offenders often have lower levels of 5-HIAA. An
2592:
The Ashgate Research Companion to Biosocial Theories of Crime
1118:
Several personality traits are associated with criminality:
2666:
Ellis, Lee; Beaver, Kevin M.; Wright, John (1 April 2009).
1627:"Sick Kids Are Just the Beginning of America's Lead Crisis"
1275:, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress.
1061:
A 2016 study found statistically significant evidence that
1016:, dropping out of high school and childhood lead exposure.
1568:"Congressional Apportionment - Frequently Asked Questions"
799:
studies the dynamics of crime. Most of these studies use
2316:. In Morgan, Rod; Maguire, Mike; Reiner, Robert (eds.).
1036:
A few studies have found a negative correlation between
2897:
2881:
2860:
2807:
2776:
2723:
2586:Walsh, Anthony; Beaver, Kevin M (28 January 2013).
2312:Brookman, Fiona; Robinson, Amanda (12 April 2012).
1713:Shariff, Azim F.; Rhemtulla, Mijke (18 June 2012).
1837:. Archived from the original on December 12, 2000.
1536:
1414:
884:, a gene previously tied to an increased risk of
1467:"Genetic background of extreme violent behavior"
1835:"Prison Incarceration and Religious Preference"
1430:Annual Review of Statistics and Its Application
2815:Statistical correlations of criminal behaviour
2653:. United Nations News Centre. 27 October 2011.
2551:Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health
2421:21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook
1593:Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health
2701:
769:
8:
2910:British Columbia Civil Liberties Association
1774:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
1652:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
1919:Fazel, Seena; Grann, Martin (August 2006).
1586:
1584:
1112:The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability
2708:
2694:
2686:
2169:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
2144:"Why do Celebrities get away with Crimes?"
1265:hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis
776:
762:
410:
29:
2465:
2394:
2280:
2243:
2055:
1936:
1748:
1738:
1490:
1280:theory that crime rates and lead exposure
2789:Criminal stereotype of African Americans
1895:Crime: public policies for crime control
1443:10.1146/annurev-statistics-030718-105057
1084:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
27:Things associated with unlawful behavior
2446:"Family Planning – Healthy People 2020"
1374:
488:
32:
2784:Black male incarceration and mortality
2418:Miller, J. Mitchell (18 August 2009).
1864:Personality and Individual Differences
1840:
1517:Hogenboom, Melissa (28 October 2014).
888:, has been tied to violent crime. Low
2224:International Journal of Epidemiology
1519:"Two genes linked with violent crime"
1512:
1510:
1074:Associated factors include childhood
1026:early age of first sexual intercourse
7:
2920:National Council for Civil Liberties
2915:Canadian Civil Liberties Association
1105:stated that the correlation between
2497:10.1016/j.contraception.2008.09.009
1082:(also associated with each other),
2617:Journal of Offender Rehabilitation
2356:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1999.tb00483.x
2318:The Oxford Handbook of Criminology
2189:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08111.x
1700:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1995.tb01176.x
1099:American Psychological Association
25:
2044:Vulnerable Groups & Inclusion
1103:Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
982:maternal smoking during pregnancy
2320:. OUP Oxford. pp. 563–594.
2269:The Journal of Law and Economics
1821:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2009.00247.x
1306:
1008:, school disciplinary problems,
807:The Handbook of Crime Correlates
121:Risk & actuarial criminology
44:
2038:Freeman, James (January 2012).
1549:from the original on 2022-05-24
1415:Ellis, Beaver & Wright 2009
1080:antisocial personality disorder
945:Race, ethnicity and immigration
2905:American Civil Liberties Union
2094:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.02.003
1925:American Journal of Psychiatry
18:Causes and correlates of crime
1:
2005:Criminal Justice and Behavior
1287:did the specific study. Then
2766:Racial bias in criminal news
2669:Handbook of Crime Correlates
2514:Family Planning Perspectives
1740:10.1371/journal.pone.0039048
1278:In environmental terms, the
992:trauma/birth complications,
2935:Southern Poverty Law Center
2930:Coalition for Public Safety
2756:Race and capital punishment
2594:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
2082:Journal of Criminal Justice
1982:10.1177/0011128797043004001
1938:10.1176/ajp.2006.163.8.1397
1892:; Petersilia, Joan (2002).
1786:10.1177/0022427897034002001
1664:10.1177/0022427801038001001
1364:Racial differences in crime
1285:California State University
980:Associated factors include
959:Associated factors include
2997:
2981:Covariance and correlation
1876:10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.062
1291:(UNEP) executive director
1289:U.N. Environment Programme
1210:
1198:Parent–child relationships
948:
823:
101:Expressive function of law
2761:Race and the war on drugs
2387:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.136200
2121:10.1080/07418820400095921
1847:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1352:Lead and crime hypothesis
1347:Environmental criminology
1322:Causes of sexual violence
1217:Environmental criminology
920:levels, and the ratio of
811:statistically significant
2868:Innocence Protection Act
2731:Homicide rate by country
2017:10.1177/0093854813485736
1359:Sex differences in crime
1040:and criminality. A 2001
826:Sex differences in crime
91:Differential association
2588:"Biosocial Criminology"
1970:Crime & Delinquency
1242:evolutionary psychology
930:Physical attractiveness
146:Symbolic interactionism
2889:Katheryn Russell-Brown
2794:Indigenous Australians
2142:Morgan (22 May 2010).
2057:10.3402/vgi.v3i0.14834
1183:
965:status as an immigrant
2820:Immigration and crime
2629:10.1300/J076v36n01_04
1342:Biosocial criminology
1258:catecholamine systems
1222:Biosocial criminology
1213:Biosocial criminology
1178:
1150:Socioeconomic factors
1107:intelligence quotient
955:Immigration and crime
650:Biosocial criminology
357:Uniform Crime Reports
66:Biosocial criminology
2956:Behavioural sciences
2847:Institutional racism
2424:. Sage. p. 57.
1471:Molecular Psychiatry
1155:Socioeconomic status
1070:Psychological traits
525:Solitary confinement
189:Alexandre Lacassagne
2971:Correlates of crime
2966:Forensic psychology
2181:1999NYASA.896..131B
1731:2012PLoSO...739048S
1483:10.1038/mp.2014.130
1014:grade point average
790:correlates of crime
715:Radical criminology
76:Collective efficacy
2925:Sentencing Project
2842:Crime of Apartheid
2672:. Academic Press.
2236:10.1093/ije/dyt066
1186:Geographic factors
1063:political ideology
1057:Political ideology
1002:nocturnal enuresis
994:child maltreatment
830:Genetics and crime
2943:
2942:
2601:978-1-4094-9470-6
2327:978-0-19-959027-8
2109:Justice Quarterly
2011:(11): 1280–1300.
1809:Sociology Compass
1252:serotonin systems
1226:interdisciplinary
1162:income inequality
1128:sensation-seeking
786:
785:
532:
531:
469:Prisoners' rights
373:Positivist school
16:(Redirected from
2988:
2873:Racial profiling
2799:Native Americans
2751:Criminal justice
2710:
2703:
2696:
2687:
2683:
2655:
2654:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2583:
2577:
2574:
2545:
2508:
2479:
2469:
2455:
2453:
2452:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2398:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2284:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2247:
2230:(4): 1057–1066.
2215:
2209:
2208:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2148:www.knowswhy.com
2139:
2133:
2132:
2104:
2098:
2097:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2059:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1940:
1931:(8): 1397–1403.
1916:
1910:
1909:
1890:Wilson, James Q.
1886:
1880:
1879:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1846:
1838:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1752:
1742:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1637:
1623:
1617:
1616:
1588:
1579:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1564:
1558:
1557:
1555:
1554:
1540:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1514:
1505:
1504:
1494:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1332:Crime statistics
1316:
1311:
1310:
1076:conduct disorder
1004:or bed wetting,
986:low birth weight
778:
771:
764:
411:
368:Crime statistics
294:
48:
30:
21:
2996:
2995:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2946:
2945:
2944:
2939:
2893:
2877:
2856:
2803:
2772:
2719:
2714:
2680:
2665:
2663:
2658:
2649:
2648:
2644:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2602:
2585:
2584:
2580:
2563:10.1363/3619204
2548:
2526:10.2307/2991664
2511:
2482:
2467:10.1.1.365.2689
2459:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2432:
2417:
2416:
2412:
2368:
2367:
2363:
2340:
2339:
2335:
2328:
2314:"Violent Crime"
2311:
2310:
2306:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2217:
2216:
2212:
2166:
2165:
2161:
2152:
2150:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2106:
2105:
2101:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2037:
2036:
2032:
2002:
2001:
1997:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1918:
1917:
1913:
1906:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1861:
1860:
1856:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1828:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1771:
1770:
1766:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1684:
1683:
1679:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1635:
1633:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1605:10.1363/4308811
1590:
1589:
1582:
1572:
1570:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1552:
1550:
1543:The Independent
1535:
1534:
1530:
1516:
1515:
1508:
1463:
1462:
1458:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1413:
1376:
1372:
1312:
1305:
1302:
1238:neuropsychology
1219:
1211:Main articles:
1209:
1200:
1188:
1152:
1101:'s 1995 report
1072:
1059:
1034:
1022:
978:
957:
949:Main articles:
947:
886:substance abuse
878:
848:
832:
824:Main articles:
820:
818:Sex and biology
814:causes crime.
782:
753:
752:
728:
720:
719:
645:Anthropological
635:
627:
626:
542:
534:
533:
408:
398:
397:
347:Critical theory
332:
324:
323:
304:State-corporate
292:
215:
204:
203:
199:Archibald Reiss
194:Cesare Lombroso
184:Michel Foucault
164:
163:Major theorists
156:
155:
131:Social learning
116:Rational choice
106:Labeling theory
86:Criminalization
56:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2994:
2992:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2948:
2947:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2901:
2899:
2895:
2894:
2892:
2891:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2878:
2876:
2875:
2870:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2833:
2832:
2822:
2817:
2811:
2809:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2780:
2778:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2743:
2741:United Kingdom
2738:
2733:
2727:
2725:
2721:
2720:
2717:Race and crime
2715:
2713:
2712:
2705:
2698:
2690:
2678:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2656:
2642:
2623:(1–4): 67–87.
2607:
2600:
2578:
2576:
2575:
2557:(5): 192–197.
2546:
2509:
2491:(3): 194–198.
2480:
2437:
2430:
2410:
2381:(4): 286–290.
2361:
2350:(1): 175–194.
2333:
2326:
2304:
2291:10.1086/338347
2282:10.1.1.559.483
2259:
2210:
2175:(1): 131–144.
2159:
2134:
2115:(3): 603–635.
2099:
2071:
2030:
1995:
1976:(4): 387–411.
1960:
1911:
1904:
1881:
1854:
1826:
1815:(6): 949–971.
1799:
1780:(2): 163–186.
1764:
1705:
1694:(2): 195–224.
1677:
1642:
1618:
1580:
1559:
1545:. 2017-01-27.
1528:
1506:
1477:(6): 786–792.
1456:
1419:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1355:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1318:
1317:
1314:Society portal
1301:
1298:
1269:
1268:
1261:
1255:
1208:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1187:
1184:
1151:
1148:
1086:(ADHD), minor
1071:
1068:
1058:
1055:
1033:
1030:
1021:
1020:Adult behavior
1018:
977:
974:
961:race and crime
951:Race and crime
946:
943:
877:
874:
847:
844:
819:
816:
784:
783:
781:
780:
773:
766:
758:
755:
754:
751:
750:
745:
740:
735:
729:
726:
725:
722:
721:
718:
717:
712:
707:
702:
700:Organizational
697:
692:
687:
682:
677:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
647:
642:
636:
633:
632:
629:
628:
625:
624:
623:
622:
617:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
554:
549:
543:
540:
539:
536:
535:
530:
529:
528:
527:
522:
517:
512:
510:Transformative
507:
502:
494:
493:
486:
485:
484:
483:
478:
476:Rehabilitation
473:
472:
471:
466:
464:Prisoner abuse
456:
455:
454:
449:
444:
434:
429:
427:Incapacitation
424:
419:
409:
404:
403:
400:
399:
396:
395:
390:
385:
380:
375:
370:
365:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
333:
330:
329:
326:
325:
322:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
289:
284:
279:
274:
269:
264:
263:
262:
252:
251:
250:
245:
237:
236:
235:
230:
225:
216:
210:
209:
206:
205:
202:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
169:Émile Durkheim
165:
162:
161:
158:
157:
154:
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
128:
126:Social control
123:
118:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
81:Crime analysis
78:
73:
71:Broken windows
68:
63:
57:
54:
53:
50:
49:
41:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2993:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2953:
2951:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2898:Organizations
2896:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2806:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2747:
2746:United States
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2728:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2711:
2706:
2704:
2699:
2697:
2692:
2691:
2688:
2684:
2681:
2679:9780123736123
2675:
2671:
2670:
2660:
2652:
2646:
2643:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2611:
2608:
2603:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2582:
2579:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2485:Contraception
2481:
2477:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2457:
2456:Which cites:
2447:
2441:
2438:
2433:
2431:9781412960199
2427:
2423:
2422:
2414:
2411:
2406:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2365:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2337:
2334:
2329:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2308:
2305:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2263:
2260:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2214:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2163:
2160:
2149:
2145:
2138:
2135:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2100:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2075:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2034:
2031:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
1999:
1996:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1964:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1912:
1907:
1905:9781558155091
1901:
1898:. ICS Press.
1897:
1896:
1891:
1885:
1882:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1858:
1855:
1850:
1844:
1836:
1830:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1768:
1765:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1725:(6): e39048.
1724:
1720:
1716:
1709:
1706:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1681:
1678:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1646:
1643:
1632:
1628:
1622:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1569:
1563:
1560:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1532:
1529:
1524:
1520:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1460:
1457:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1431:
1423:
1420:
1416:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1369:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1293:Achim Steiner
1290:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1274:
1266:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1249:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1214:
1206:
1204:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1185:
1182:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1166:
1163:
1158:
1156:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1116:
1114:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1093:
1092:schizophrenia
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1043:
1042:meta-analysis
1039:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
975:
973:
970:
966:
962:
956:
952:
944:
942:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
906:blood glucose
903:
899:
895:
892:levels, slow
891:
887:
883:
880:In addition,
875:
873:
871:
870:binding sites
868:
864:
861:
857:
853:
845:
843:
841:
837:
831:
827:
822:
817:
815:
812:
808:
804:
802:
801:correlational
798:
795:The field of
793:
791:
779:
774:
772:
767:
765:
760:
759:
757:
756:
749:
746:
744:
743:Organizations
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
730:
724:
723:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
690:Environmental
688:
686:
683:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
637:
631:
630:
621:
618:
616:
613:
612:
610:
608:
607:Postmodernist
605:
603:
600:
598:
597:Neo-classical
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
572:Environmental
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
544:
538:
537:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
500:Participatory
498:
497:
496:
495:
491:
487:
482:
479:
477:
474:
470:
467:
465:
462:
461:
460:
457:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
439:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
414:
413:
412:
407:
402:
401:
394:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
363:
362:Crime mapping
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
334:
328:
327:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
309:Transnational
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
277:International
275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
261:
258:
257:
256:
253:
249:
246:
244:
241:
240:
238:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
220:
218:
217:
214:
208:
207:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
166:
160:
159:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
67:
64:
62:
59:
58:
52:
51:
47:
43:
42:
39:
35:
31:
19:
2976:Anthropology
2668:
2664:
2645:
2620:
2616:
2610:
2591:
2581:
2554:
2550:
2520:(2): 79–88.
2517:
2513:
2488:
2484:
2449:. Retrieved
2440:
2420:
2413:
2378:
2374:
2364:
2347:
2343:
2336:
2317:
2307:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2227:
2223:
2213:
2172:
2168:
2162:
2151:. Retrieved
2147:
2137:
2112:
2108:
2102:
2085:
2081:
2074:
2050:(1): 14834.
2047:
2043:
2033:
2008:
2004:
1998:
1973:
1969:
1963:
1928:
1924:
1914:
1894:
1884:
1867:
1863:
1857:
1829:
1812:
1808:
1802:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1722:
1718:
1708:
1691:
1687:
1680:
1655:
1651:
1645:
1634:. Retrieved
1631:Mother Jones
1630:
1621:
1599:(2): 88–93.
1596:
1592:
1573:November 13,
1571:. Retrieved
1562:
1551:. Retrieved
1542:
1531:
1522:
1474:
1470:
1459:
1434:
1428:
1422:
1277:
1270:
1246:
1230:sociological
1220:
1201:
1189:
1179:
1175:
1167:
1159:
1153:
1134:, childhood
1132:self control
1124:psychoticism
1117:
1110:
1102:
1096:
1073:
1060:
1051:
1047:
1035:
1023:
979:
958:
916:, and blood
914:testosterone
879:
863:polymorphism
852:serotonergic
849:
833:
821:
806:
805:
794:
789:
787:
695:Experimental
417:Denunciation
383:Quantitative
293:Public-order
248:White-collar
179:Enrico Ferri
174:Hans Eysenck
2961:Criminology
2830:Blood libel
2825:Racial hoax
2344:Criminology
2275:(1): 1–39.
1870:: 236–241.
1688:Criminology
1658:(1): 3–21.
1337:Criminology
1120:impulsivity
1038:religiosity
1032:Religiosity
938:delinquency
926:amino acids
890:cholesterol
836:shoplifting
797:criminology
685:Development
660:Criminology
582:Integrative
520:Utilitarian
515:Retributive
505:Restorative
492:in penology
378:Qualitative
352:Ethnography
337:Comparative
243:Blue-collar
151:Victimology
111:Psychopathy
34:Criminology
2950:Categories
2837:Hate crime
2724:By country
2451:2011-08-18
2153:2017-03-06
1636:2017-03-06
1553:2017-03-06
1370:References
1170:World Bank
1136:aggression
1088:depression
998:alcoholism
976:Early life
969:immigrants
934:in Finland
922:tryptophan
894:heart rate
867:paroxetine
680:Demography
602:Positivist
481:Recidivism
422:Deterrence
314:Victimless
141:Subculture
2852:Death row
2637:144374302
2462:CiteSeerX
2277:CiteSeerX
2129:143305924
2066:145305072
2025:147219554
1990:145418972
1794:146674490
1672:145779667
1451:158290235
1437:: 37–61.
1327:Causality
990:perinatal
924:to other
846:Serotonin
705:Political
634:Subfields
557:Classical
547:Anarchist
442:abolition
342:Profiling
287:Political
282:Organized
267:Corporate
255:Cold case
211:Types of
2808:Concepts
2571:15519961
2505:19185672
2405:25147371
2299:11378886
2254:24062294
2205:41519491
2197:10681894
2088:: 4–18.
1955:23042885
1947:16877653
1843:cite web
1759:22723927
1719:PLOS ONE
1613:21651707
1547:Archived
1523:BBC News
1501:25349169
1300:See also
1263:and the
1234:genetics
1144:altruism
1142:and low
1078:, adult
1006:bullying
910:cortisol
860:5-HTTLPR
840:reoffend
738:Journals
665:Critical
655:Conflict
640:American
611:Realism
577:Feminist
567:Critical
562:Conflict
459:Prisoner
406:Penology
272:Juvenile
223:Humanity
219:Against
96:Deviance
38:penology
2777:By race
2661:Sources
2542:9561873
2534:2991664
2476:4682087
2396:4180846
2245:3780994
2177:Bibcode
1750:3377603
1727:Bibcode
1492:4776744
1192:weather
1140:empathy
1010:truancy
670:Culture
592:Marxist
587:Italian
552:Chicago
541:Schools
490:Justice
331:Methods
260:Perfect
2882:People
2736:Brazil
2676:
2635:
2598:
2569:
2540:
2532:
2503:
2474:
2464:
2428:
2403:
2393:
2324:
2297:
2279:
2252:
2242:
2203:
2195:
2127:
2064:
2023:
1988:
1953:
1945:
1902:
1792:
1757:
1747:
1670:
1611:
1499:
1489:
1449:
1273:stress
1224:is an
1138:, low
1130:, low
1012:, low
856:5-HIAA
850:Lower
748:People
727:Browse
710:Public
452:reform
437:Prison
239:Class
228:Person
136:Strain
61:Anomie
55:Theory
2861:Legal
2633:S2CID
2530:JSTOR
2472:S2CID
2295:S2CID
2201:S2CID
2125:S2CID
2062:S2CID
2021:S2CID
1986:S2CID
1951:S2CID
1790:S2CID
1668:S2CID
1447:S2CID
882:CDH13
876:Other
733:Index
675:Cyber
620:Right
432:Trial
393:NIBRS
299:State
233:State
213:crime
2674:ISBN
2596:ISBN
2567:PMID
2538:PMID
2501:PMID
2426:ISBN
2401:PMID
2322:ISBN
2250:PMID
2193:PMID
1943:PMID
1900:ISBN
1849:link
1755:PMID
1609:PMID
1575:2019
1497:PMID
1240:and
1215:and
1097:The
963:and
953:and
918:lead
902:MHPG
898:DHEA
842:.
828:and
788:The
615:Left
447:open
36:and
2625:doi
2559:doi
2522:doi
2493:doi
2391:PMC
2383:doi
2379:205
2352:doi
2287:doi
2240:PMC
2232:doi
2185:doi
2173:896
2117:doi
2090:doi
2052:doi
2013:doi
1978:doi
1933:doi
1929:163
1872:doi
1868:106
1817:doi
1782:doi
1745:PMC
1735:doi
1696:doi
1660:doi
1601:doi
1487:PMC
1479:doi
1439:doi
388:BJS
319:War
2952::
2631:.
2621:36
2619:.
2590:.
2565:.
2555:36
2553:.
2536:.
2528:.
2518:30
2516:.
2499:.
2489:79
2487:.
2470:.
2399:.
2389:.
2377:.
2373:.
2348:37
2346:.
2293:.
2285:.
2273:45
2271:.
2248:.
2238:.
2228:42
2226:.
2222:.
2199:.
2191:.
2183:.
2171:.
2146:.
2123:.
2113:21
2111:.
2086:45
2084:.
2060:.
2046:.
2042:.
2019:.
2009:40
2007:.
1984:.
1974:43
1972:.
1949:.
1941:.
1927:.
1923:.
1866:.
1845:}}
1841:{{
1811:.
1788:.
1778:34
1776:.
1753:.
1743:.
1733:.
1721:.
1717:.
1692:33
1690:.
1666:.
1656:38
1654:.
1629:.
1607:.
1597:43
1595:.
1583:^
1541:.
1521:.
1509:^
1495:.
1485:.
1475:20
1473:.
1469:.
1445:.
1433:.
1377:^
1244:.
1236:,
1168:A
1146:.
1126:,
1122:,
1094:.
988:,
984:,
912:,
908:,
904:,
900:,
896:,
2709:e
2702:t
2695:v
2682:.
2639:.
2627::
2604:.
2573:.
2561::
2544:.
2524::
2507:.
2495::
2478:.
2454:.
2434:.
2407:.
2385::
2358:.
2354::
2330:.
2301:.
2289::
2256:.
2234::
2207:.
2187::
2179::
2156:.
2131:.
2119::
2096:.
2092::
2068:.
2054::
2048:3
2027:.
2015::
1992:.
1980::
1957:.
1935::
1908:.
1878:.
1874::
1851:)
1823:.
1819::
1813:3
1796:.
1784::
1761:.
1737::
1729::
1723:7
1702:.
1698::
1674:.
1662::
1639:.
1615:.
1603::
1577:.
1556:.
1525:.
1503:.
1481::
1453:.
1441::
1435:6
1417:.
1267:.
1260:,
1254:,
777:e
770:t
763:v
364:]
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
