1105:(1998), Arthur Jensen cited data which showed that IQ was generally negatively associated with crime among people of all races, peaking between 80 and 90. Learning disability is a substantial discrepancy between IQ and academic performance and is associated with crime. Slow reading development may be particularly relevant. It has also been shown, however, that the effect of IQ is heavily dependent on socioeconomic status and that it cannot be easily controlled away, with many methodological considerations being at play. Indeed, there is evidence that the small relationship is mediated by well-being, substance abuse, and other confounding factors that prohibit simple causal interpretation. A recent meta-analysis has shown that the relationship is only observed in higher risk populations such as those in poverty without direct effect, but without any causal interpretation. A nationally representative longitudinal study has shown that this relationship is entirely mediated by school performance.
1035:
religiosity has been operationalized in varying ways, impacting the results of the findings. Additionally, 1995 paper stated that "lthough a few researchers have found that religion's influence is noncontingent, most have found support—especially among youths—for effects that vary by denomination, type of offense, and social and/or religious context," suggesting a complex relationship between religiosity and crime. They also "found that, among our religiosity measures, participation in religious activities was a persistent and noncontingent inhibiter of adult crime" when controlling for other factors, such as social ecology and secular constraints.
1147:(usually measured using the three variables income or wealth, occupational level, and years of education) correlates negatively with criminality, except for self-reported illegal drug use. Higher parental socioeconomic status probably has an inverse relationship with crime. Unstable employment and high frequency of unemployment correlate positively with criminality. Low socioeconomic status is thought to be positively correlated with higher levels of stress, and therefore the mental and psychological ill-effects of stress. These higher stress levels would probably be correlated positively with the propensity to commit a crime.
1039:
criminality, with the exception of property damage. Other meta-analysis research suggests that those who subscribe to more orthodox religious beliefs are less likely to engage in criminal behavior than those who do not. A 2012 study suggested that belief in hell decreases crime rates, while belief in heaven increases them, and indicated that these correlations were stronger than other correlates like national wealth or income inequality.
962:
propensity for immigrants to commit more or less crime than the native-born population also varies geographically. For instance within the United States, census data shows that immigrants are less likely to be incarcerated for a crime than residents who were born within the United States. The census includes both legal and illegal immigrants, as it counts the total number of people residing in an area regardless of citizenship status.
1043:
insufficient data to indicate any correlation between religiosity and crime. Furthermore, any possible correlations may not apply universally to all relatively nonreligious groups, as there is some evidence self-identified atheists have had significantly lower incarceration rates than the general public in the United States. Most studies examining correlation to date do not distinguish between different types of low religiosity.
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46:
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found, "religious beliefs and behaviors exert a moderate deterrent effect on individuals' criminal behavior", but that "studies have systematically varied in their estimation of the religion-on-crime effect due to differences in both their conceptual and methodological approaches". This suggests that
961:
found higher rates of crime among these populations; these rates vary according to the country of origin (immigrants from some regions having lower crime rates than the native-born population). Notions about the propensity for immigrants to commit crime vary among geographical regions. Likewise, the
930:
in cases where other factors are present. Ferguson stated, 'a large percentage of our behaviour in terms of violence or aggression is influenced by our biology - our genes - and our brain anatomy.' Schnupp stated, 'To call these alleles "genes for violence" would therefore be a massive exaggeration.
1055:
is moderately correlated with involvement in non-violent crime, among white individuals and particularly among white women. It suggests that liberal self-classification can, among some groups, be positively associated with non-violent criminal behavior compared to conservative self-classification.
1170:
As Levi (1997: 860) noted, macrolevel accounts ‘seldom generate anything close to a causal account which makes sense of nonviolence as well as of violence’. Put another way, the vast majority of individuals who live in conditions of poverty or disadvantage do not resort to violence at any time.
803:
relationship was identified across multiple studies. The authors claim that the review summarizes most of what is currently known about the variables associated with criminality. Writing in 2019, criminologist Greg
Ridgeway argued that criminology was still trying to conclusively determine what
1154:
in an area with more crime in said area. A 2013 study from Sweden argued that there was little effect of neighbourhood deprivation on criminality per se and rather that the higher rates of crime were due to observed and unobserved family and individual level factors, indicating that high-risk
1042:
A 1997 study of six public high schools found no statistically significant negative correlations between religiosity and crime, or religiosity and drug use, and the only relationship between religiosity and alcohol was statistically significant. A more recent review concludes that there are
1272:
are connected, with increases in the latter causing increases in the former, has attracted much scientific analysis. In 2011, a report published by the official United
Nations News Centre remarked, "Ridding the world of leaded petrol, with the United Nations leading the effort in developing
1038:
An individual with high religious saliency (i.e. expressing the high importance of religion in their life) is less likely to be associated with criminal activities; similarly, an individual who regularly attends religious services or is highly involved in them tends to be less involved in
1192:
Children whose parents did not want children are more likely to commit crimes. Such children are less likely to succeed in school, and are more likely to live in poverty. They tend to have lower mother–child relationship quality.
1162:
study said, “Crime rates and inequality are positively correlated within countries and, particularly, between countries, and this correlation reflects causation from inequality to crime rates, even after controlling for other crime determinants.”
2069:
Ttofi, Maria M.; Farrington, David P.; Piquero, Alex R.; Lösel, Friedrich; DeLisi, Matthew; Murray, Joseph (1 June 2016). "Intelligence as a protective factor against offending: A meta-analytic review of prospective longitudinal studies".
1099:(IQ) and crime was -0.2. This association is generally regarded as small and prone to disappear or be substantially reduced after controlling for the proper covariates, being much smaller than typical sociological correlates. In his book
1285:
argued, "Although this global effort has often flown below the radar of media and global leaders, it is clear that the elimination of leaded petrol is an immense achievement on par with the global elimination of major deadly diseases."
1454:
Tiihonen, J; Rautiainen, M-R; Ollila, H M; Repo-Tiihonen, E; Virkkunen, M; Palotie, A; Pietiläinen, O; Kristiansson, K; Joukamaa, M; Lauerma, H; Saarela, J; Tyni, S; Vartiainen, H; Paananen, J; Goldman, D; Paunio, T (June 2015).
1536:
799:(2009) is a systematic review of 5200 empirical studies on crime that have been published worldwide. A crime consistency score represents the strength of relationships. The scoring depends on how consistently a
2331:
Wright, Bradley R. Entner; Caspi, Avshalom; Moffitt, Terrie E.; Miech, Richard A.; Silva, Phil A. (February 1999). "Reconsidering the relationship between SES and delinquency: Causation but not correlation".
1675:
Evans, T. David; Cullen, Francis T.; Dunaway, R. Gregory; Burton, Velmer S. (May 1995). "Religion and Crime
Reexamined: The Impact of Religion, Secular Controls, and Social Ecology on Adult Criminality".
793:
data; that is, they attempt to identify various factors are associated with specific categories of criminal behavior. Such correlational studies led to hypotheses about the causes of these crimes.
2539:
D'Angelo, Denise V.; Gilbert, Brenda Colley; Rochat, Roger W.; Santelli, John S.; Herold, Joan M. (2004). "Differences
Between Mistimed and Unwanted Pregnancies Among Women Who Have Live Births".
1180:
Associated factors include areas with population size, neighborhood quality, residential mobility, tavern and alcohol density, gambling and tourist density, proximity to the equator, temperature (
957:. In some countries, ethnically/racially diverse geographical areas have higher crime rates compared to homogeneous areas, and in other countries, it is the other way around. Some studies on
931:
In combination with many other factors these genes may make it a little harder for you to control violent urges, but they most emphatically do not predetermine you for a life of crime.'
1527:
2788:
824:
Crime occurs most frequently during the second and third decades of life. Males commit more crime overall and more violent crime than females. They commit more property crime except
2605:
Walton, Kenneth G.; Levitsky, Debra K. (11 August 2003). "Effects of the
Transcendental Meditation Program on Neuroendocrine Abnormalities Associated with Aggression and Crime".
2473:
Cheng, Diana; Schwarz, Eleanor B.; Douglas, Erika; Horon, Isabelle (March 2009). "Unintended pregnancy and associated maternal preconception, prenatal and postpartum behaviors".
1150:
Somewhat inconsistent evidence indicates a positive relationship between low income levels, the percentage of population under the poverty line, low education levels, and high
1218:
field that aims to explain crime and antisocial behavior by exploring both biological factors and environmental factors. While contemporary criminology has been dominated by
2097:
McGloin, Jean Marie; Pratt, Travis C.; Maahs, Jeff (1 September 2004). "Rethinking the IQ-delinquency relationship: A longitudinal analysis of multiple theoretical models".
765:
2210:"The impact of neighbourhood deprivation on adolescent violent criminality and substance misuse: A longitudinal, quasi-experimental study of the total Swedish population"
2755:
2740:
922:
has been found to be negatively correlated with criminality. These tendencies are ostensibly related, as the majority of all individuals who commit severe violent crime
2745:
1171:
Hence, in order to understand the patterns of violence that actually occur, it is imperative to study the social experiences of those who engage in it (Athens 1992).
1419:
2804:
2720:
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countries, has resulted in $ 2.4 trillion in annual benefits, 1.2 million fewer premature deaths, higher overall intelligence and 58 million fewer crimes". The
2899:
1762:
Benda, Brent B. (May 1997). "An
Examination of a Reciprocal Relationship Between Religiosity and Different Forms of Delinquency Within a Theoretical Model".
1958:
Cullen, Francis T.; Gendreau, Paul; Jarjoura, G. Roger; Wright, John Paul (October 1997). "Crime and the Bell Curve: Lessons from
Intelligent Criminology".
2640:
2157:
Baum, Andrew; Garofalo, J. P.; Yali, Ann Marie (December 1999). "Socioeconomic Status and
Chronic Stress: Does Stress Account for SES Effects on Health?".
1101:
1797:
Zuckerman, Phil (December 2009). "Atheism, Secularity, and Well-Being: How the
Findings of Social Science Counter Negative Stereotypes and Assumptions".
1254:
2502:
Kost, Kathryn; Landry, David J.; Darroch, Jacqueline E. (March 1998). "Predicting
Maternal Behaviors During Pregnancy: Does Intention Status Matter?".
1640:
Baier, Colin J.; Wright, Bradley R. E. (February 2001). "'If You Love Me, Keep My Commandments': A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Religion on Crime".
2778:
2697:
2450:
Logan, Cassandra; Holcombe, Emily; Manlove, Jennifer; Ryan, Suzanne (May 2007). The Consequences of Unintended Childbearing (Report). Child Trends.
1073:
382:
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do so under the influence of alcohol or drugs. The presence of the genetic profile is not determinative, although it increases the likelihood of
1852:
Wright, John Paul; Beaver, Kevin M.; Morgan, Mark Alden; Connolly, Eric J. (February 2017). "Political ideology predicts involvement in crime".
758:
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732:
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1824:
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2419:
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751:
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activity in the brain is associated with criminality. Serotonin levels can be estimated by measuring the levels of the metabolite
2783:
1069:
629:
326:
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566:
546:
120:
2208:
Sariaslan, Amir; Långström, Niklas; D’Onofrio, Brian; Hallqvist, Johan; Franck, Johan; Lichtenstein, Paul (1 August 2013).
1417:
Ridgeway, Greg (2019). "Experiments in Criminology: Improving Our Understanding of Crime and the Criminal Justice System".
2945:
2030:"The relationship between lower intelligence, crime and custodial outcomes: a brief literary review of a vulnerable group"
1838:
727:
722:
576:
2361:"Childhood family income, adolescent violent criminality and substance misuse: Quasi-experimental total population study"
862:, which is associated with lower levels of serotonin transmission in the brain, is associated with greater criminality.
855:, which lowers serotonin levels, has been found to be associated with criminal behavior. In addition, a lower density of
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2955:
2690:
377:
2924:
2919:
1353:
1274:
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and season). The higher crime rate in the southern US largely disappears after controlling for non-climatic factors.
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266:
217:
130:
100:
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1311:
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Associated factors include high alcohol use, alcohol abuse and alcoholism, high illegal drug use and dependence,
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Aggressive behavior has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body:
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75:
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Fajnzylber, Pablo; Lederman, Daniel; Loayza, Norman (April 2002). "Inequality and Violent Crime".
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2010:
1975:
1940:
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331:
281:
237:
145:
1993:
Mears, Daniel P.; Cochran, Joshua C. (November 2013). "What is the effect of IQ on offending?".
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and the number of sexual partners, social isolation, criminal peer groups and gang membership.
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2585:
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2415:
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2311:
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theories, biosocial criminology also recognizes the potential contributions of fields such as
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and drug use in the family, low parental supervision/monitoring, family size and birth order,
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591:
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2614:
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2511:
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2002:
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1590:
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1321:
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1065:
975:
923:
828:, which is about equally distributed between the genders. Males appear to be more likely to
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875:
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336:
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1303:
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Researchers in criminology have argued the effect of poverty upon crime is contextual:
950:
940:
453:
80:
1581:
Monea, Emily; Thomas, Adam (June 2011). "Unintended Pregnancy and Taxpayer Spending".
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2626:
2118:
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2014:
1979:
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2641:"Phase-out of leaded petrol brings huge health and cost benefits – UN–backed study"
2465:
2359:
Sariaslan, A.; Larsson, H.; d'Onofrio, B.; Långström, N.; Lichtenstein, P. (2014).
2083:
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1971:
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explore the associations of specific non-criminal factors with specific crimes.
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33:
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17:
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2006:
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2029:
1936:
1748:
1602:
1490:
2618:
2531:
2225:
1705:"Divergent Effects of Beliefs in Heaven and Hell on National Crime Rates"
1223:
1133:
1080:, clinical depression, depression in the family, suicidal tendencies and
995:
899:
849:
448:
395:
37:
1472:
2523:
1181:
1129:
999:
509:
479:
2365:
The British Journal of Psychiatry : The Journal of Mental Science
845:
426:
60:
2552:
2515:
1594:
2280:
1528:"Immigrants less likely to commit crimes than those born in the US"
1155:
individuals were being selected into economically deprived areas.
871:
421:
202:
2675:
1911:"The Population Impact of Severe Mental Illness on Violent Crime"
1197:
Biosocial criminology and other analysis of environmental factors
918:
in the blood, have all also been connected to criminal behavior.
1400:
1398:
1396:
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907:
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887:
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1386:
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1374:
1372:
1370:
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Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by
986:, low parent-child attachment, marital discord/family discord,
848:
in the urine; offenders often have lower levels of 5-HIAA. An
2582:
The Ashgate Research Companion to Biosocial Theories of Crime
1108:
Several personality traits are associated with criminality:
2656:
Ellis, Lee; Beaver, Kevin M.; Wright, John (1 April 2009).
1617:"Sick Kids Are Just the Beginning of America's Lead Crisis"
1265:, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress.
1051:
A 2016 study found statistically significant evidence that
1006:, dropping out of high school and childhood lead exposure.
1558:"Congressional Apportionment - Frequently Asked Questions"
789:
studies the dynamics of crime. Most of these studies use
2306:. In Morgan, Rod; Maguire, Mike; Reiner, Robert (eds.).
1026:
A few studies have found a negative correlation between
2887:
2871:
2850:
2797:
2766:
2713:
2576:Walsh, Anthony; Beaver, Kevin M (28 January 2013).
2302:Brookman, Fiona; Robinson, Amanda (12 April 2012).
1703:Shariff, Azim F.; Rhemtulla, Mijke (18 June 2012).
1827:. Archived from the original on December 12, 2000.
1526:
1404:
874:, a gene previously tied to an increased risk of
1457:"Genetic background of extreme violent behavior"
1825:"Prison Incarceration and Religious Preference"
1420:Annual Review of Statistics and Its Application
2805:Statistical correlations of criminal behaviour
2643:. United Nations News Centre. 27 October 2011.
2541:Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health
2411:21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook
1583:Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health
2691:
759:
8:
2900:British Columbia Civil Liberties Association
1764:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
1642:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
1909:Fazel, Seena; Grann, Martin (August 2006).
1576:
1574:
1102:The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability
2698:
2684:
2676:
2159:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
2134:"Why do Celebrities get away with Crimes?"
1255:hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis
766:
752:
400:
29:
2455:
2384:
2270:
2233:
2045:
1926:
1738:
1728:
1480:
1270:theory that crime rates and lead exposure
2779:Criminal stereotype of African Americans
1885:Crime: public policies for crime control
1433:10.1146/annurev-statistics-030718-105057
1074:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
27:Things associated with unlawful behavior
2436:"Family Planning – Healthy People 2020"
1364:
478:
32:
2774:Black male incarceration and mortality
2408:Miller, J. Mitchell (18 August 2009).
1854:Personality and Individual Differences
1830:
1507:Hogenboom, Melissa (28 October 2014).
878:, has been tied to violent crime. Low
2214:International Journal of Epidemiology
1509:"Two genes linked with violent crime"
1502:
1500:
1064:Associated factors include childhood
1016:early age of first sexual intercourse
7:
2910:National Council for Civil Liberties
2905:Canadian Civil Liberties Association
1095:stated that the correlation between
2487:10.1016/j.contraception.2008.09.009
1072:(also associated with each other),
2607:Journal of Offender Rehabilitation
2346:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1999.tb00483.x
2308:The Oxford Handbook of Criminology
2179:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08111.x
1690:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1995.tb01176.x
1089:American Psychological Association
25:
2034:Vulnerable Groups & Inclusion
1093:Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
972:maternal smoking during pregnancy
2310:. OUP Oxford. pp. 563–594.
2259:The Journal of Law and Economics
1811:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2009.00247.x
1296:
998:, school disciplinary problems,
797:The Handbook of Crime Correlates
121:Risk & actuarial criminology
44:
2028:Freeman, James (January 2012).
1539:from the original on 2022-05-24
1405:Ellis, Beaver & Wright 2009
1070:antisocial personality disorder
935:Race, ethnicity and immigration
2895:American Civil Liberties Union
2084:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.02.003
1915:American Journal of Psychiatry
1:
1995:Criminal Justice and Behavior
1277:did the specific study. Then
2756:Racial bias in criminal news
2659:Handbook of Crime Correlates
2504:Family Planning Perspectives
1730:10.1371/journal.pone.0039048
1268:In environmental terms, the
982:trauma/birth complications,
2925:Southern Poverty Law Center
2920:Coalition for Public Safety
2746:Race and capital punishment
2584:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
2072:Journal of Criminal Justice
1972:10.1177/0011128797043004001
1928:10.1176/ajp.2006.163.8.1397
1882:; Petersilia, Joan (2002).
1776:10.1177/0022427897034002001
1654:10.1177/0022427801038001001
1354:Racial differences in crime
1275:California State University
970:Associated factors include
949:Associated factors include
2987:
2971:Covariance and correlation
1866:10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.062
1281:(UNEP) executive director
1279:U.N. Environment Programme
1200:
1188:Parent–child relationships
938:
813:
101:Expressive function of law
2751:Race and the war on drugs
2377:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.136200
2111:10.1080/07418820400095921
1837:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1342:Lead and crime hypothesis
1337:Environmental criminology
1312:Causes of sexual violence
1207:Environmental criminology
910:levels, and the ratio of
801:statistically significant
2858:Innocence Protection Act
2721:Homicide rate by country
2007:10.1177/0093854813485736
1349:Sex differences in crime
1030:and criminality. A 2001
816:Sex differences in crime
91:Differential association
2578:"Biosocial Criminology"
1960:Crime & Delinquency
1232:evolutionary psychology
920:Physical attractiveness
151:Symbolic interactionism
2879:Katheryn Russell-Brown
2784:Indigenous Australians
2132:Morgan (22 May 2010).
2047:10.3402/vgi.v3i0.14834
1173:
955:status as an immigrant
131:Social disorganization
2810:Immigration and crime
2619:10.1300/J076v36n01_04
1332:Biosocial criminology
1248:catecholamine systems
1212:Biosocial criminology
1203:Biosocial criminology
1168:
1140:Socioeconomic factors
1097:intelligence quotient
945:Immigration and crime
640:Biosocial criminology
347:Uniform Crime Reports
66:Biosocial criminology
2946:Behavioural sciences
2837:Institutional racism
2414:. Sage. p. 57.
1461:Molecular Psychiatry
1145:Socioeconomic status
1060:Psychological traits
515:Solitary confinement
2961:Correlates of crime
2956:Forensic psychology
2171:1999NYASA.896..131B
1721:2012PLoSO...739048S
1473:10.1038/mp.2014.130
1004:grade point average
780:correlates of crime
705:Radical criminology
76:Collective efficacy
2915:Sentencing Project
2832:Crime of Apartheid
2662:. Academic Press.
2226:10.1093/ije/dyt066
1176:Geographic factors
1053:political ideology
1047:Political ideology
992:nocturnal enuresis
984:child maltreatment
820:Genetics and crime
2933:
2932:
2591:978-1-4094-9470-6
2317:978-0-19-959027-8
2099:Justice Quarterly
2001:(11): 1280–1300.
1799:Sociology Compass
1242:serotonin systems
1216:interdisciplinary
1152:income inequality
1118:sensation-seeking
776:
775:
522:
521:
459:Prisoners' rights
363:Positivist school
16:(Redirected from
2978:
2863:Racial profiling
2789:Native Americans
2741:Criminal justice
2700:
2693:
2686:
2677:
2673:
2645:
2644:
2637:
2631:
2630:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2573:
2567:
2564:
2535:
2498:
2469:
2459:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2405:
2399:
2398:
2388:
2356:
2350:
2349:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2299:
2293:
2292:
2274:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2237:
2220:(4): 1057–1066.
2205:
2199:
2198:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2145:
2144:
2138:www.knowswhy.com
2129:
2123:
2122:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2049:
2025:
2019:
2018:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1930:
1921:(8): 1397–1403.
1906:
1900:
1899:
1880:Wilson, James Q.
1876:
1870:
1869:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1836:
1828:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1742:
1732:
1700:
1694:
1693:
1672:
1666:
1665:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1628:
1627:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1578:
1569:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1554:
1548:
1547:
1545:
1544:
1530:
1523:
1517:
1516:
1504:
1495:
1494:
1484:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1414:
1408:
1402:
1322:Crime statistics
1306:
1301:
1300:
1066:conduct disorder
994:or bed wetting,
976:low birth weight
768:
761:
754:
401:
358:Crime statistics
284:
48:
30:
21:
2986:
2985:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2929:
2883:
2867:
2846:
2793:
2762:
2709:
2704:
2670:
2655:
2653:
2648:
2639:
2638:
2634:
2604:
2603:
2599:
2592:
2575:
2574:
2570:
2553:10.1363/3619204
2538:
2516:10.2307/2991664
2501:
2472:
2457:10.1.1.365.2689
2449:
2440:
2438:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2407:
2406:
2402:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2330:
2329:
2325:
2318:
2304:"Violent Crime"
2301:
2300:
2296:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2207:
2206:
2202:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2142:
2140:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2096:
2095:
2091:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2027:
2026:
2022:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1896:
1878:
1877:
1873:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1796:
1795:
1791:
1761:
1760:
1756:
1702:
1701:
1697:
1674:
1673:
1669:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1625:
1623:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1595:10.1363/4308811
1580:
1579:
1572:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1555:
1551:
1542:
1540:
1533:The Independent
1525:
1524:
1520:
1506:
1505:
1498:
1453:
1452:
1448:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1366:
1362:
1302:
1295:
1292:
1228:neuropsychology
1209:
1201:Main articles:
1199:
1190:
1178:
1142:
1091:'s 1995 report
1062:
1049:
1024:
1012:
968:
947:
939:Main articles:
937:
876:substance abuse
868:
838:
822:
814:Main articles:
810:
808:Sex and biology
804:causes crime.
772:
743:
742:
718:
710:
709:
635:Anthropological
625:
617:
616:
532:
524:
523:
398:
388:
387:
337:Critical theory
322:
314:
313:
294:State-corporate
282:
205:
194:
193:
189:Archibald Reiss
184:Cesare Lombroso
169:
168:Major theorists
161:
160:
136:Social learning
116:Rational choice
106:Labeling theory
86:Criminalization
56:
28:
23:
22:
18:Causes of crime
15:
12:
11:
5:
2984:
2982:
2974:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2938:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2891:
2889:
2885:
2884:
2882:
2881:
2875:
2873:
2869:
2868:
2866:
2865:
2860:
2854:
2852:
2848:
2847:
2845:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2823:
2822:
2812:
2807:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2763:
2761:
2760:
2759:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2733:
2731:United Kingdom
2728:
2723:
2717:
2715:
2711:
2710:
2707:Race and crime
2705:
2703:
2702:
2695:
2688:
2680:
2668:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2646:
2632:
2613:(1–4): 67–87.
2597:
2590:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2547:(5): 192–197.
2536:
2499:
2481:(3): 194–198.
2470:
2427:
2420:
2400:
2371:(4): 286–290.
2351:
2340:(1): 175–194.
2323:
2316:
2294:
2281:10.1086/338347
2272:10.1.1.559.483
2249:
2200:
2165:(1): 131–144.
2149:
2124:
2105:(3): 603–635.
2089:
2061:
2020:
1985:
1966:(4): 387–411.
1950:
1901:
1894:
1871:
1844:
1816:
1805:(6): 949–971.
1789:
1770:(2): 163–186.
1754:
1695:
1684:(2): 195–224.
1667:
1632:
1608:
1570:
1549:
1535:. 2017-01-27.
1518:
1496:
1467:(6): 786–792.
1446:
1409:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1345:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1308:
1307:
1304:Society portal
1291:
1288:
1259:
1258:
1251:
1245:
1198:
1195:
1189:
1186:
1177:
1174:
1141:
1138:
1076:(ADHD), minor
1061:
1058:
1048:
1045:
1023:
1020:
1011:
1010:Adult behavior
1008:
967:
964:
951:race and crime
941:Race and crime
936:
933:
867:
864:
837:
834:
809:
806:
774:
773:
771:
770:
763:
756:
748:
745:
744:
741:
740:
735:
730:
725:
719:
716:
715:
712:
711:
708:
707:
702:
697:
692:
690:Organizational
687:
682:
677:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
647:
642:
637:
632:
626:
623:
622:
619:
618:
615:
614:
613:
612:
607:
599:
594:
589:
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
554:
549:
544:
539:
533:
530:
529:
526:
525:
520:
519:
518:
517:
512:
507:
502:
500:Transformative
497:
492:
484:
483:
476:
475:
474:
473:
468:
466:Rehabilitation
463:
462:
461:
456:
454:Prisoner abuse
446:
445:
444:
439:
434:
424:
419:
417:Incapacitation
414:
409:
399:
394:
393:
390:
389:
386:
385:
380:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
349:
344:
339:
334:
329:
323:
320:
319:
316:
315:
312:
311:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
279:
274:
269:
264:
259:
254:
253:
252:
242:
241:
240:
235:
227:
226:
225:
220:
215:
206:
200:
199:
196:
195:
192:
191:
186:
181:
176:
174:Émile Durkheim
170:
167:
166:
163:
162:
159:
158:
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
128:
126:Social control
123:
118:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
81:Crime analysis
78:
73:
71:Broken windows
68:
63:
57:
54:
53:
50:
49:
41:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
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2916:
2913:
2911:
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2906:
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2898:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2888:Organizations
2886:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2874:
2870:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2849:
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2833:
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2828:
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2808:
2806:
2803:
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2800:
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2787:
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2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2769:
2765:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2736:United States
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2701:
2696:
2694:
2689:
2687:
2682:
2681:
2678:
2674:
2671:
2669:9780123736123
2665:
2661:
2660:
2650:
2642:
2636:
2633:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
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2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2475:Contraception
2471:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2447:
2446:Which cites:
2437:
2431:
2428:
2423:
2421:9781412960199
2417:
2413:
2412:
2404:
2401:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
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2355:
2352:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2327:
2324:
2319:
2313:
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2305:
2298:
2295:
2290:
2286:
2282:
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2273:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2253:
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2245:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
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2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2153:
2150:
2139:
2135:
2128:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2093:
2090:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2065:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2024:
2021:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1989:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1902:
1897:
1895:9781558155091
1891:
1888:. ICS Press.
1887:
1886:
1881:
1875:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1845:
1840:
1834:
1826:
1820:
1817:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1793:
1790:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1758:
1755:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1715:(6): e39048.
1714:
1710:
1706:
1699:
1696:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1671:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1636:
1633:
1622:
1618:
1612:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1559:
1553:
1550:
1538:
1534:
1529:
1522:
1519:
1514:
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1483:
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1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1450:
1447:
1442:
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1430:
1426:
1422:
1421:
1413:
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1401:
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1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1309:
1305:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1283:Achim Steiner
1280:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1264:
1256:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1239:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1204:
1196:
1194:
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1183:
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1172:
1167:
1164:
1161:
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1153:
1148:
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1137:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1104:
1103:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1083:
1082:schizophrenia
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1033:
1032:meta-analysis
1029:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
965:
963:
960:
956:
952:
946:
942:
934:
932:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
896:blood glucose
893:
889:
885:
882:levels, slow
881:
877:
873:
870:In addition,
865:
863:
861:
860:binding sites
858:
854:
851:
847:
843:
835:
833:
831:
827:
821:
817:
812:
807:
805:
802:
798:
794:
792:
791:correlational
788:
785:The field of
783:
781:
769:
764:
762:
757:
755:
750:
749:
747:
746:
739:
736:
734:
733:Organizations
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
720:
714:
713:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
681:
680:Environmental
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
631:
628:
627:
621:
620:
611:
608:
606:
603:
602:
600:
598:
597:Postmodernist
595:
593:
590:
588:
587:Neo-classical
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
562:Environmental
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
534:
528:
527:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
490:Participatory
488:
487:
486:
485:
481:
477:
472:
469:
467:
464:
460:
457:
455:
452:
451:
450:
447:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
429:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
405:
404:
403:
402:
397:
392:
391:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
353:
352:Crime mapping
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
324:
318:
317:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
299:Transnational
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
267:International
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
251:
248:
247:
246:
243:
239:
236:
234:
231:
230:
228:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
210:
208:
207:
204:
198:
197:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
171:
165:
164:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
67:
64:
62:
59:
58:
52:
51:
47:
43:
42:
39:
35:
31:
19:
2966:Anthropology
2658:
2654:
2635:
2610:
2606:
2600:
2581:
2571:
2544:
2540:
2510:(2): 79–88.
2507:
2503:
2478:
2474:
2439:. Retrieved
2430:
2410:
2403:
2368:
2364:
2354:
2337:
2333:
2326:
2307:
2297:
2262:
2258:
2252:
2217:
2213:
2203:
2162:
2158:
2152:
2141:. Retrieved
2137:
2127:
2102:
2098:
2092:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2040:(1): 14834.
2037:
2033:
2023:
1998:
1994:
1988:
1963:
1959:
1953:
1918:
1914:
1904:
1884:
1874:
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1624:. Retrieved
1621:Mother Jones
1620:
1611:
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1586:
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1563:November 13,
1561:. Retrieved
1552:
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1532:
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1220:sociological
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1122:self control
1114:psychoticism
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904:testosterone
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842:serotonergic
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685:Experimental
407:Denunciation
373:Quantitative
283:Public-order
238:White-collar
179:Hans Eysenck
2951:Criminology
2820:Blood libel
2815:Racial hoax
2334:Criminology
2265:(1): 1–39.
1860:: 236–241.
1678:Criminology
1648:(1): 3–21.
1327:Criminology
1110:impulsivity
1028:religiosity
1022:Religiosity
928:delinquency
916:amino acids
880:cholesterol
826:shoplifting
787:criminology
675:Development
650:Criminology
572:Integrative
510:Utilitarian
505:Retributive
495:Restorative
482:in penology
368:Qualitative
342:Ethnography
327:Comparative
233:Blue-collar
156:Victimology
111:Psychopathy
34:Criminology
2940:Categories
2827:Hate crime
2714:By country
2441:2011-08-18
2143:2017-03-06
1626:2017-03-06
1543:2017-03-06
1360:References
1160:World Bank
1126:aggression
1078:depression
988:alcoholism
966:Early life
959:immigrants
924:in Finland
912:tryptophan
884:heart rate
857:paroxetine
670:Demography
592:Positivist
471:Recidivism
412:Deterrence
304:Victimless
146:Subculture
2842:Death row
2627:144374302
2452:CiteSeerX
2267:CiteSeerX
2119:143305924
2056:145305072
2015:147219554
1980:145418972
1784:146674490
1662:145779667
1441:158290235
1427:: 37–61.
1317:Causality
980:perinatal
914:to other
836:Serotonin
695:Political
624:Subfields
547:Classical
537:Anarchist
432:abolition
332:Profiling
277:Political
272:Organized
257:Corporate
245:Cold case
201:Types of
2798:Concepts
2561:15519961
2495:19185672
2395:25147371
2289:11378886
2244:24062294
2195:41519491
2187:10681894
2078:: 4–18.
1945:23042885
1937:16877653
1833:cite web
1749:22723927
1709:PLOS ONE
1603:21651707
1537:Archived
1513:BBC News
1491:25349169
1290:See also
1253:and the
1224:genetics
1134:altruism
1132:and low
1068:, adult
996:bullying
900:cortisol
850:5-HTTLPR
830:reoffend
728:Journals
655:Critical
645:Conflict
630:American
601:Realism
567:Feminist
557:Critical
552:Conflict
449:Prisoner
396:Penology
262:Juvenile
213:Humanity
209:Against
96:Deviance
38:penology
2767:By race
2651:Sources
2532:9561873
2524:2991664
2466:4682087
2386:4180846
2235:3780994
2167:Bibcode
1740:3377603
1717:Bibcode
1482:4776744
1182:weather
1130:empathy
1000:truancy
660:Culture
582:Marxist
577:Italian
542:Chicago
531:Schools
480:Justice
321:Methods
250:Perfect
2872:People
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717:Browse
700:Public
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218:Person
141:Strain
61:Anomie
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2851:Legal
2623:S2CID
2520:JSTOR
2462:S2CID
2285:S2CID
2191:S2CID
2115:S2CID
2052:S2CID
2011:S2CID
1976:S2CID
1941:S2CID
1780:S2CID
1658:S2CID
1437:S2CID
872:CDH13
866:Other
723:Index
665:Cyber
610:Right
422:Trial
383:NIBRS
289:State
223:State
203:crime
2664:ISBN
2586:ISBN
2557:PMID
2528:PMID
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2240:PMID
2183:PMID
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1890:ISBN
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1745:PMID
1599:PMID
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