Cellulosic ethanol

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are projected to cost 79.25 US dollars, meaning they are 20-40 times more expensive. The cost differences are attributed to quantity required. The cellulase family of enzymes have a one to two order smaller magnitude of efficiency. Therefore, it requires 40 to 100 times more of the enzyme to be present in its production. For each ton of biomass it requires 15-25 kilograms of enzyme. More recent estimates are lower, suggesting 1 kg of enzyme per dry tonne of biomass feedstock. There is also relatively high capital costs associated with the long incubation times for the vessel that perform enzymatic hydrolysis. Altogether, enzymes comprise a significant portion of 20-40% for cellulosic ethanol production. A recent paper estimates the range at 13-36% of cash costs, with a key factor being how the cellulase enzyme is produced. For cellulase produced offsite, enzyme production amounts to 36% of cash cost. For enzyme produced onsite in a separate plant, the fraction is 29%; for integrated enzyme production, the fraction is 13%. One of the key benefits of integrated production is that biomass instead of glucose is the enzyme growth medium. Biomass costs less, and it makes the resulting cellulosic ethanol a 100% second-generation biofuel, i.e., it uses no ‘food for fuel’.

1030:. In the US, about 1.4 billion dry tons of biomass can be sustainably produced annually. About 370 million tons or 30% are forest biomass. Forest biomass has higher cellulose and lignin content and lower hemicellulose and ash content than agricultural biomass. Because of the difficulties and low ethanol yield in fermenting pretreatment hydrolysate, especially those with very high 5 carbon hemicellulose sugars such as xylose, forest biomass has significant advantages over agricultural biomass. Forest biomass also has high density which significantly reduces transportation cost. It can be harvested year around which eliminates long-term storage. The close to zero ash content of forest biomass significantly reduces dead load in transportation and processing. To meet the needs for biodiversity, forest biomass will be an important biomass feedstock supply mix in the future biobased economy. However, forest biomass is much more recalcitrant than agricultural biomass. Recently, the 368:, SPORL ('sulfite pretreatment to overcome recalcitrance of lignocellulose') and SO2-ethanol-water (AVAP®) processes are the three processes that can achieve over 90% cellulose conversion for forest biomass, especially those of softwood species. SPORL is the most energy efficient (sugar production per unit energy consumption in pretreatment) and robust process for pretreatment of forest biomass with very low production of fermentation inhibitors. Organosolv pulping is particularly effective for hardwoods and offers easy recovery of a hydrophobic lignin product by dilution and precipitation.</ref> AVAP® process effectively fractionates all types of lignocellulosics into clean highly digestible cellulose, undegraded hemicellulose sugars, reactive lignin and lignosulfonates, and is characterized by efficient recovery of chemicals. 211:

Germans soon developed an industrial process optimized for yields of around 50 US gallons (190 L) per ton of biomass. This process soon found its way to the US, culminating in two commercial plants operating in the southeast during World War I. These plants used what was called "the American Process" — a one-stage dilute sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Though the yields were half that of the original German process (25 US gallons (95 L) of ethanol per ton versus 50), the throughput of the American process was much higher. A drop in lumber production forced the plants to close shortly after the end of World War I. In the meantime, a small but steady amount of research on dilute acid hydrolysis continued at the

975:, not cellulose. In 2007, the cost of producing ethanol from cellulosic sources was estimated ca. USD 2.65 per gallon (€0.58 per liter), which is around 2–3 times more expensive than ethanol made from corn. However, the cellulosic ethanol market remains relatively small and reliant on government subsidies. The US government originally set cellulosic ethanol targets gradually ramping up from 1 billion liters in 2011 to 60 billion liters in 2022. However, these annual goals have almost always been waived after it became clear there was no chance of meeting them. Most of the plants to produce cellulosic ethanol were canceled or abandoned in the early 2010s. Plants built or financed by 1085:(CRP). CRP is a government program that pays producers a fee for not growing crops on land on which crops recently grew. This program reduces soil erosion, enhances water quality, and increases wildlife habitat. CRP land serves as a habitat for upland game, such as pheasants and ducks, and a number of insects. Switchgrass for biofuel production has been considered for use on Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land, which could increase ecological sustainability and lower the cost of the CRP program. However, CRP rules would have to be modified to allow this economic use of the CRP land. 353:, SO2-ethanol-water fractionation, alkaline wet oxidation and ozone pretreatment. Besides effective cellulose liberation, an ideal pretreatment has to minimize the formation of degradation products because they can inhibit the subsequent hydrolysis and fermentation steps. The presence of inhibitors further complicates and increases the cost of ethanol production due to required detoxification steps. For instance, even though acid hydrolysis is probably the oldest and most-studied pretreatment technique, it produces several potent inhibitors including 1000:

wall tissue cost US$ 0.40 per gallon of ethanol compared to US$ 0.03 for corn. However, cellulosic biomass is cheaper to produce than corn, because it requires fewer inputs, such as energy, fertilizer, herbicide, and is accompanied by less soil erosion and improved soil fertility. Additionally, nonfermentable and unconverted solids left after making ethanol can be burned to provide the fuel needed to operate the conversion plant and produce electricity. Energy used to run corn-based ethanol plants is derived from coal and natural gas. The

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pressure. A decrystallized cellulosic mixture of acid and sugars reacts in the presence of water to complete individual sugar molecules (hydrolysis). The product from this hydrolysis is then neutralized and yeast fermentation is used to produce ethanol. As mentioned, a significant obstacle to the dilute acid process is that the hydrolysis is so harsh that toxic degradation products are produced that can interfere with fermentation.

96:. Since these plants are also used for food products, diverting them for ethanol production can cause food prices to rise; cellulose-based sources, on the other hand, generally do not compete with food, since the fibrous parts of plants are mostly inedible to humans. Another potential advantage is the high diversity and abundance of cellulose sources; grasses, trees and algae are found in almost every environment on Earth. Even 5525: 4789: 1249: 926:

tons of urban wood wastes, 90.5 million dry tons of primary mill residues, 45 million dry tons of forest residues, and 150.7 million dry tons of corn stover and wheat straw. Moreover, even land marginal for agriculture could be planted with cellulose-producing crops, such as switchgrass, resulting in enough production to substitute for all the current oil imports into the United States.

278: 1229:. The projects represent a combined 73 million US gallons (280,000 m) per year production capacity and will begin producing cellulosic ethanol in 2012. The USDA also released a list of advanced biofuel producers who will receive payments to expand the production of advanced biofuels. In July 2011, the US Department of Energy gave in $ 105 million in loan guarantees to 5547: 5535: 3799: 2281: 3806: 675:

to ethanol. Fermentation of glucose, the main product of cellulose hydrolyzate, to ethanol is an already established and efficient technique. However, conversion of xylose, the pentose sugar of hemicellulose hydrolyzate, is a limiting factor, especially in the presence of glucose. Moreover, it cannot

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such as cattle and sheep, where the enzymes are produced by microbes. This process uses several enzymes at various stages of this conversion. Using a similar enzymatic system, lignocellulosic materials can be enzymatically hydrolyzed at a relatively mild condition (50 °C and pH 5), thus enabling

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straw. The sugars are located in the plant's cell walls, which are notoriously difficult to break down. To access these sugars, scientists pretreated the wheat straw with alkaline peroxide, and then used specialized enzymes to break down the cell walls. This method produced 93 US gallons (350 L)

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In order for it to be grown on a large-scale production, cellulose biomass must compete with existing uses of agricultural land, mainly for the production of crop commodities. Of the United States' 2.26 billion acres (9.1 million km) of unsubmerged land, 33% are forestland, 26% pastureland

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The potential raw material is also plentiful. Around 44% of household waste generated worldwide consists of food and greens. An estimated 323 million tons of cellulose-containing raw materials which could be used to create ethanol are thrown away each year in US alone. This includes 36.8 million dry

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Cellulases and hemicellulases used in the production of cellulosic ethanol are more expensive compared to their first generation counterparts. Enzymes required for maize grain ethanol production cost 2.64-5.28 US dollars per cubic meter of ethanol produced. Enzymes for cellulosic ethanol production

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estimates the cost of cellulosic ethanol from the first generation of commercial plants will be in the $ 1.90–$ 2.25 per gallon range, excluding incentives. This compares to the current cost of $ 1.20–$ 1.50 per gallon for ethanol from corn and the current retail price of over $ 4.00 per gallon for

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Although its processing costs are higher, the price of cellulose biomass is much cheaper than that of grains or fruits. Moreover, since cellulose is the main component of plants, the whole plant can be harvested, rather than just the fruit or seeds. This results in much better yields; for instance,

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Recently, engineered yeasts have been described efficiently fermenting xylose, and arabinose, and even both together. Yeast cells are especially attractive for cellulosic ethanol processes because they have been used in biotechnology for hundreds of years, are tolerant to high ethanol and inhibitor

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in the 2010s, meant that cellulosic ethanol was not competitive with these established fuels. As a result, most of the new refineries were closed by the mid-2010s and many of the newly founded companies became insolvent. A few still exist, but are mainly used for demonstration or research purposes;

1078:(no tractor for sowing, only for mowing), resistant to many diseases and pests, & can produce high yields with low applications of fertilizer and other chemicals. It is also tolerant to poor soils, flooding, & drought; improves soil quality and prevents erosion due its type of root system. 999:

Currently, cellulose is more difficult and more expensive to process into ethanol than corn or sugarcane. The US Department of Energy estimated in 2007 that it costs about $ 2.20 per gallon to produce cellulosic ethanol, which is 2–3 times much as ethanol from corn. Enzymes that destroy plant cell

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In the traditional methods developed in the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century, hydrolysis is performed by attacking the cellulose with an acid. Dilute acid may be used under high heat and high pressure, or more concentrated acid can be used at lower temperatures and atmospheric

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With the rapid development of enzyme technologies in the last two decades, the acid hydrolysis process has gradually been replaced by enzymatic hydrolysis. Chemical pretreatment of the feedstock is required to hydrolyze (separate) hemicellulose, so it can be more effectively converted into sugars.

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species. These raw materials for ethanol production have the advantage of being abundant and diverse and would not compete with food production, unlike the more commonly used corn and cane sugars. However, they also require more processing to make the sugar monomers available to the microorganisms

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Alternatively, the synthesis gas from gasification may be fed to a catalytic reactor where it is used to produce ethanol and other higher alcohols through a thermochemical process. This process can also generate other types of liquid fuels, an alternative concept successfully demonstrated by the

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to produce synthetic rubber. The Vulcan Copper and Supply Company was contracted to construct and operate a plant to convert sawdust into ethanol. The plant was based on modifications to the original German Scholler process as developed by the Forest Products Laboratory. This plant achieved an

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The first attempt at commercializing a process for ethanol from wood was done in Germany in 1898. It involved the use of dilute acid to hydrolyze the cellulose to glucose, and was able to produce 7.6 liters of ethanol per 100 kg of wood waste (18 US gal (68 L) per ton). The

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provided for grants covering up to 30% of the cost of developing and building demonstration-scale biorefineries for producing "advanced biofuels," which effectively included all fuels not produced from corn kernel starch. It also allowed for loan guarantees of up to $ 250 million for building

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Although lignocellulose is the most abundant plant material resource, its usability is curtailed by its rigid structure. As a result, an effective pretreatment is needed to liberate the cellulose from the lignin seal and its crystalline structure so as to render it accessible for a subsequent

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Sakamoto T, Hasunuma T, Hori Y, Yamada R, Kondo A (April 2012). "Direct ethanol production from hemicellulosic materials of rice straw by use of an engineered yeast strain codisplaying three types of hemicellulolytic enzymes on the surface of xylose-utilizing Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells".

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in 1819. The hydrolyzed sugar could then be processed to form ethanol through fermentation. The first commercialized ethanol production began in Germany in 1898, where acid was used to hydrolyze cellulose. In the United States, the Standard Alcohol Company opened the first cellulosic ethanol

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decision announced January 25, 2013, voiding a requirement imposed on car and truck fuel producers in the United States by the Environmental Protection Agency requiring addition of cellulosic biofuels to their products. These issues, along with many other difficult production challenges, led

528:, approximately 30% of the total fermentable sugars is xylose. As a result, the ability of the fermenting microorganisms to use the whole range of sugars available from the hydrolysate is vital to increase the economic competitiveness of cellulosic ethanol and potentially biobased proteins. 1177:, which started as an enzyme maker in 1991 and re-oriented itself to focus primarily on cellulosic ethanol in 2013, owns many patents for cellulosic ethanol production and provided the technology for the Raízen plant. Other companies developing cellulosic ethanol technology as of 2021 are 1038:

developed efficient technologies that can overcome the strong recalcitrance of forest (woody) biomass including those of softwood species that have low xylan content. Short-rotation intensive culture or tree farming can offer an almost unlimited opportunity for forest biomass production.

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have been targeted through metabolic engineering for cellulosic ethanol production. An attraction towards alternative fermentation organism is its ability to ferment five carbon sugars improving the yield of the feed stock. This ability is often found in bacteria based organisms.

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In 2010, a genetically engineered yeast strain was developed to produce its own cellulose-digesting enzymes. Assuming this technology can be scaled to industrial levels, it would eliminate one or more steps of cellulolysis, reducing both the time required and costs of production.

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The strain was able to convert rice straw hydrolyzate to ethanol, which contains hemicellulosic components. Moreover, it was able to produce 2.5x more ethanol than the control strain, showing the highly effective process of cell surface-engineering to produce ethanol.

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government in particular funded research into its commercialization and set targets for the proportion of cellulosic ethanol added to vehicle fuel. A large number of new companies specializing in cellulosic ethanol, in addition to many existing companies, invested in

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and grassland, and 20% crop land. A study by the U.S. Departments of Energy and Agriculture in 2005 suggested that 1.3 billion dry tons of biomass is theoretically available for ethanol use while maintaining an acceptable impact on forestry, agriculture.

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effective cellulose breakdown without the formation of byproducts that would otherwise inhibit enzyme activity. All major pretreatment methods, including dilute acid, require an enzymatic hydrolysis step to achieve high sugar yield for ethanol fermentation.

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Ohgren K, Bengtsson O, Gorwa-Grauslund MF, Galbe M, Hahn-Hagerdal B, Zacchi G (2006). "Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation of glucose and xylose in steam-pretreated corn stover at high fiber content with Saccharomyces cerevisiae TMB3400".

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grass. Known for its hardiness and rapid growth, this perennial grows during the warm months to heights of 2–6 feet. Switchgrass can be grown in most parts of the United States, including swamplands, plains, streams, and along the shores &

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In the later 2010s, various companies occasionally attempted smaller-scale efforts at commercializing cellulosic ethanol, although such ventures generally remain at experimental scales and often dependent on subsidies. The companies Granbio,

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Ethanol burns more cleanly and more efficiently than gasoline. Because plants consume carbon dioxide as they grow, bioethanol has an overall lower carbon footprint than fossil fuels. Substituting ethanol for oil can also reduce a country's

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components like paper could conceivably be made into ethanol. The main current disadvantage of cellulosic ethanol is its high cost of production, which is more complex and requires more steps than corn-based or sugarcane-based ethanol.

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Paper, cardboard, and packaging comprise around 17% of global household waste; although some of this is recycled. As these products contain cellulose, they are transformable into cellulosic ethanol, which would avoid the production of

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invested in enzyme research. However, most of these plants were canceled or closed in the early 2010s as technical obstacles proved too difficult to overcome. As of 2018, only one cellulosic ethanol plant remained operational.

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Fungal enzymes can be used to hydrolyze cellulose. The raw material (often wood or straw) still has to be pre-treated to make it amenable to hydrolysis. In 2005, Iogen Corporation announced it was developing a process using the

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hydrolysis step. By far, most pretreatments are done through physical or chemical means. To achieve higher efficiency, both physical and chemical pretreatments are required. Physical pretreatment involves reducing biomass

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in 2011, there is no commercially viable bio-refinery in existence to convert lignocellulosic biomass to fuel. Absence of production of cellulosic ethanol in the quantities required by the regulation was the basis of a

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The gasification process does not rely on chemical decomposition of the cellulose chain (cellulolysis). Instead of breaking the cellulose into sugar molecules, the carbon in the raw material is converted into

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From 2006, the US Federal government began promoting the development of ethanol from cellulosic feedstocks. In May 2008, Congress passed a new farm bill that contained funding for the commercialization of

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Commercial production of cellulosic ethanol, which unlike corn and sugarcane would not compete with food production, would be highly attractive since it would alleviate pressure on these foodcrops.

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Sakamoto (2012) et al. show the potential of genetic engineering microbes to express hemicellulase enzymes. The researchers created a recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain that was able to:

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The Energy Department plans to provide a $ 105 million loan guarantee for the expansion of an ethanol factory in Emmetsburg, Iowa, that intends to make motor fuel from corncobs, leaves and husks.

2279:, Retsina T, Pylkkanen V, "Method for the production of fermentable sugars and cellulose from lignocellulosic material", published 2011-10-04, assigned to American Process, Inc. 182: 4061: 914:

switchgrass yields twice as much ethanol per acre as corn. Biomass materials for cellulose production require fewer inputs, such as fertilizer, herbicides, and their extensive roots improve

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Wang GS, Pan XJ, Zhu JY, Gleisner R, Rockwood D (2009). "Sulfite pretreatment to overcome recalcitrance of lignocellulose (SPORL) for robust enzymatic saccharification of hardwoods".

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In January 2011, the USDA approved $ 405 million in loan guarantees through the 2008 Farm Bill to support the commercialization of cellulosic ethanol at three facilities owned by

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uses concentrated acid because it does not produce nearly as many fermentation inhibitors, but must be separated from the sugar stream for recycle to be commercially attractive.

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Most pretreatment processes are not effective when applied to feedstocks with high lignin content, such as forest biomass. These require alternative or specialized approaches.

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The main overall drawback of ethanol fuel is its lower fuel economy compared to gasoline when using ethanol in an engine designed for gasoline with a lower compression ratio.

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production plant in South Carolina in 1910. Later, a second plant was opened in Louisiana. However, both plants were closed after World War I due to economic reasons.

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bacteria. This microorganism will ingest carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen and produce ethanol and water. The process can thus be broken into three steps:

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Iakovlev M, van Heiningen A (2012). "Efficient fractionation of spruce by SO2-Ethanol-Water (SEW) treatment: closed mass balances for carbohydrates and sulfur".

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Mosier N, Wyman C, Dale BE, Elander R, Lee YY, Holtzapple M, Ladisch M (2005). "Features of promising technologies for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass".

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Klinke HB, Thomsen AB, Ahring BK (2004). "Inhibition of ethanol-producing yeast and bacteria by degradation products produced during pre-treatment of biomass".

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Katzen R, Schell DJ (2006). "Lignocellulosic feedstock Biorefinery: History and Plant Development for Biomass Hydrolysis". In Kamm B, Gruber PR, Kamm M (eds.).

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Christian DG, Riche AB, Yates NE (November 2008). "Growth, yield and mineral content of Miscanthus×giganteus grown as a biofuel for 14 successive harvests".

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to provide energy for the process, may not reduce greenhouse gas emissions at all depending on how the starch-based feedstock is produced. According to the

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The main disadvantage of cellulosic ethanol is its high cost and complexity of production, which has been the main impediment to its commercialization.

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awarded $ 385 million in grants aimed at jump-starting ethanol production from nontraditional sources like wood chips, switchgrass, and citrus peels.

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policy researchers to state that "in the short term, ethanol cannot meet the energy security and environmental goals of a gasoline alternative."

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Galazka JM, Tian C, Beeson WT, Martinez B, Glass NL, Cate JH (October 2010). "Cellodextrin transport in yeast for improved biofuel production".

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Zhu JY, Pan XJ, Wang GS, Gleisner R (April 2009). "Sulfite pretreatment (SPORL) for robust enzymatic saccharification of spruce and red pine".

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Saeman JF (1945). "Kinetics of wood saccharification: Hydrolysis of cellulose and decomposition of sugars in dilute acid at high temperature".

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Perlack RD (2005). Biomass as feedstock for a bioenergy and bioproducts Industry: the technical feasibility of a billion-ton annual supply.

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Farrell AE, Plevin RJ, Turner BT, Jones AD, O'Hare M, Kammen DM (January 2006). "Ethanol can contribute to energy and environmental goals".

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of cellulosic ethanol are considerably lower (see chart) and the net energy output is several times higher than that of corn-based ethanol.

4739: 4188: 3255: 1035: 241: 582:, in addition to ethanol, lowering the efficiency of the process. Some research efforts are directed to optimizing ethanol production by 4326: 4084: 3043: 4097: 2943: 2413: 2202:

Lynd LR (1996). "Overview and evaluation of fuel ethanol from cellulosic biomass: technology, economics, the environment, and policy".

1189: 266: 3773: 1714: 4154: 3461: 3371: 1109:. It has high crop yields, is cheap to grow, and thrives in a variety of climates. However, because it is sterile, it also requires 1001: 718: 616:, using what amounts to partial combustion. The carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen may then be fed into a special kind of 244:

developed a sulfite pretreatment to overcome the recalcitrance of lignocellulose for robust enzymatic hydrolysis of wood cellulose.

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Harris EE, Beglinger E, Hajny GJ, Sherrard EC (1945). "Hydrolysis of Wood: Treatment with Sulfuric Acid in a stationary digester".

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Some species of bacteria have been found capable of direct conversion of a cellulose substrate into ethanol. One example is

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ethanol yield of 50 US gal (190 L) per dry ton, but was still not profitable and was closed after the war.

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Foody BE, Foody KJ (1991). "Development of an integrated system for producing ethanol from biomass.". In Klass DL (ed.).

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Solomon BD, Barnes JR, Halvorsen KE (June 2007). "Grain and cellulosic ethanol: History, economics, and energy policy".

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is another viable feedstock for cellulosic ethanol production. This species of grass is native to Asia and is a sterile

1082: 187: 177: 4686: 4017: 1587:"Verwandlungen des Holzstoffs mittelst Schwefelsäure in Gummi, Zucker und eine eigne Säure, und mittelst Kali in Ulmin" 5601: 4818: 4769: 4759: 4228: 3403: 3220: 2164:

Palmqvist E, Hahn-Hägerdal B (2000). "Fermentation of lignocellulosic hydrolysates. I. Inhibition and deoxification".

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be disregarded as hemicellulose will increase the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of cellulosic ethanol production.

637:— Complex carbon-based molecules are broken apart to access the carbon as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen 5092: 1536: 3337: 1430: 1181:(Denmark); companies operating or planning pilot production plants include New Energy Blue (US), Sekab (Sweden) and 5087: 1262: 1206: 1031: 388:

that can be fermented into alcohol. There are two major cellulolysis processes: chemical processes using acids, or

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Rajagopalan S, Datar R, Lewis RS (2002). "Formation of Ethanol from Carbon Monoxide via New Microbial Catalyst".

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bacterium that seems to be twice as efficient in making ethanol from carbon monoxide as the one mentioned above.

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Ethanol Production Could Reach 90 Billion Gallons by 2030 | backed by Sandia National Laboratories and GM Corp.

3148:"Nitrous oxide release from agro-biofuel production negates global warming reduction by replacing fossil fuels" 919: 726: 562: 500: 169: 4062:"Muswellbrook council considering $ 10m grant to early stage bio-fuel plant after Chinese investor withdraws" 3911: 2808: 172:

by 85% over reformulated gasoline. By contrast, starch ethanol (e.g., from corn), which most frequently uses

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each run a pilot-scale facility operate in Brazil, which together produce around 30 million liters in 2019.

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Olsson L, Hahn-Hägerdal B (1996). "Fermentation of lignocellulosic hydrolysates for ethanol fermentation".

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typically used to produce ethanol by fermentation, which drives up the price of cellulos-derived ethanol.

2775: 5571: 5165: 5067: 4963: 4251: 4183: 1843: 1445: 739: 532: 361:. Ammonia Fiber Expansion (AFEX) is an example of a promising pretreatment that produces no inhibitors. 358: 296:

A "pretreatment" phase to make the lignocellulosic material such as wood or straw amenable to hydrolysis

97: 4242: 3774:"Better Bug to Make Cellulosic Ethanol: A new strain of bacteria could make cellulosic ethanol cheaper" 1286:

Ziolkowska JR (2020). "Biofuels technologies: An overview of feedstocks, processes, and technologies".

2716:"Providing for a Sustainable Energy Future by producing clean RENEWABLE liquid energy and green power" 2276: 2257: 4913: 4452: 3191: 3104: 2749: 2602: 2509: 2431:

Jeffries TW, Jin YS (2004). "Metabolic engineering for improved fermentation of pentoses by yeasts".

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The dilute acid pretreatment is developed based on the early work on acid hydrolysis of wood at the

5311: 4774: 4208: 1185:(in Romania). Abengoa, a Spanish company with cellulosic ethanol assets, became insolvent in 2021. 1099: 706: 621: 617: 583: 469: 406: 1359: 4792: 4593: 4406: 4312: 3874: 3739: 3645: 3610: 3292: 3128: 2456: 2119: 1992: 1941: 1567: 1311: 453: 3259: 2998:"EPA Lifecycle Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Renewable Fuels - Technical Highlights" 2296: 1869:"Study of Chemical and Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Cellulosic Material to Obtain Fermentable Sugars" 468:

pretreatment, providing its technology to Verenium (formerly Celunol Corporation)'s facility in

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Fermentation — Convert the carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen into ethanol using the

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reuters.com, U.S. weekly ethanol margins rise to above break even, Fri Feb 13, 2009 4:01pm EST

3731: 3120: 2899: 2850: 2679: 2628: 2571: 2535: 2448: 2366: 2236: 2111: 2076: 2033: 1984: 1933: 1890: 1816: 1766: 1487: 1301: 1174: 1066: 987:, among many others, were closed or sold. As of 2018, only one major plant remains in the US. 898: 219:. During World War II, the US again turned to cellulosic ethanol, this time for conversion to 3050: 1473: 1192:, along with state and local governments, partially funded a pilot plant in 2017 and 2020 in 202:, was the first to discover that cellulose could be hydrolyzed into sugars by treatment with 5576: 5483: 5478: 5468: 5433: 5387: 5097: 4953: 4858: 4645: 4556: 4396: 4282: 4276: 4252:

reuters.com, New biofuels to come from many sources: conference, Fri Feb 13, 2009 2:50pm EST

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Sainz MB (June 2009). "Commercial cellulosic ethanol: the role of plant-expressed enzymes".

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Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy

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built refineries that can process biomass and turn it into ethanol, while companies such as

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Studies are intensively conducted to develop economic methods to convert both cellulose and

473: 335: 155: 134:, a structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants and is composed mainly of 110: 78: 3628:

Yang B, Wyman CE (2007). "Pretreatment: the key to unlocking low-cost cellulosic ethanol".

3429:"Energy in 2020: Assessing the Economic Effects of Commercialization of Cellulosic Ethanol" 2591:"A modified Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain that consumes L-Arabinose and produces ethanol" 594: 535:

for microorganisms used in fuel ethanol production has shown significant progress. Besides

5498: 5003: 4754: 4616: 4566: 4478: 4246: 4158: 3781: 1729: 1458: 1193: 465: 350: 346: 342: 327: 199: 4151: 2917: 4219: 3548: 3195: 3108: 2753: 2606: 2513: 2177: 2064: 1972: 1921: 1804: 1637: 1602: 1555: 5423: 5402: 5397: 5382: 5273: 5077: 3800:"Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop. National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service" 2997: 2894: 2869: 2674: 2647: 2530: 2497: 2361: 2336: 1297: 980: 385: 252: 70: 66: 2935: 2761: 2623: 2590: 2185: 967:

market is sizable (around 110 billion liters in 2019), the vast majority is made from

5565: 5453: 5372: 5362: 5268: 5223: 5216: 4883: 4764: 4430: 3182:

Solomon BD, Barnes JR, Halvorson KE (2007). "History, economics, and energy policy".

2150: 1571: 1315: 1267: 742: 672: 613: 323: 203: 139: 113:. However, the much cheaper manufacturing of grain-based ethanol, along with the low 105: 4209:

Sandia National Laboratories & GM study: PDF format from hitectransportation.org

3743: 3614: 3576: 3507:"Cellulosic Ethanol Push Stalls In The Midwest Amid Financial, Technical Challenges" 3313: 3132: 3075: 2646:

Karhumaa K, Wiedemann B, Hahn-Hägerdal B, Boles E, Gorwa-Grauslund MF (April 2006).

2614: 2460: 2337:"Fungal bioconversion of lignocellulosic residues; opportunities & perspectives" 2217: 2123: 1945: 1398: 1287: 104:

Cellulosic ethanol received significant attention in the 2000s and early 2010s. The

5357: 5306: 5243: 5180: 4993: 4958: 4948: 4923: 4898: 4706: 4576: 4413: 4371: 4351: 3649: 3203: 2885: 2498:"Functional expression of a bacterial xylose isomerase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae" 1996: 1980: 1812: 1645: 968: 915: 748: 634: 509: 415:

scientists found they can access and ferment almost all of the remaining sugars in

146:. Popular sources of lignocellulose include both agricultural waste products (e.g. 114: 89: 4278:

Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois as Model State

3963:"New Energy Blue converts agricultural waste to alternative fuels, cuts emissions" 3843: 2846: 2567: 1397:. The 15th International Symposium on Alcohol Fuels. San Diego, CA. Archived from 918:, reduce erosion, and increase nutrient capture. The overall carbon footprint and 2697: 2475: 2317: 17: 5503: 5488: 5473: 5137: 5023: 4878: 4749: 4701: 4696: 4681: 4489: 4467: 4440: 4401: 4386: 4361: 1248: 1133: 1129: 881: 867: 785: 579: 567: 552:

concentrations and can grow at low pH values to reduce bacterial contamination.

525: 481: 338:

the lignocellulose so enzymes can access the cellulose for microbial reactions.

173: 147: 82: 277: 5326: 5293: 5175: 5152: 5045: 4968: 4928: 4863: 4640: 4610: 4546: 4391: 4356: 3606: 3225: 2444: 2388: 2107: 1762: 1563: 1244: 686:

assimilate xylose by expression of xylose reductase and xylitol dehydrogenase.

683:

hydrolyze hemicellulase through codisplaying endoxylanase on its cell surface,

602: 599: 458: 377: 365: 300: 281: 160: 74: 4235:

National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Research Advances – Cellulosic Ethanol.

2037: 1894: 1610: 895:

Notes: (1) Dry mill (DM) plants grind the entire kernel and generally produce

5336: 5331: 5211: 5206: 5160: 5142: 5050: 4973: 4918: 4908: 4903: 4734: 4650: 4551: 4376: 4335: 3116: 1929: 1196:

as part of efforts to diversify the regional economy away from coal mining.

1153: 1042: 972: 521: 433: 393: 381: 331: 304: 220: 151: 135: 93: 38: 3992:"Sekab and Vertoro to build large-scale demo plant to produce "Goldilocks"" 3735: 3167: 3124: 3026:"The numbers behind ethanol, cellulosic ethanol, and biodiesel in the U.S." 2903: 2854: 2683: 2664: 2632: 2575: 2539: 2452: 2370: 2115: 2080: 2072: 1988: 1937: 1885: 1868: 1820: 1166: 1081:

Switchgrass is an approved cover crop for land protected under the federal

3396:"Alternative Fuels Data Center: Maps and Data - Global Ethanol Production" 1478:, Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press, p. 3 of "Summary", 1128:

Fueled by subsidies and grants, a boom in cellulosic ethanol research and

73:

offsets some of the carbon dioxide emitted when ethanol made from them is

5509: 5443: 5352: 5321: 5301: 5283: 5263: 5253: 5233: 5185: 5132: 5115: 5055: 5033: 4983: 4634: 4599: 4524: 4514: 4457: 2521: 1182: 1046: 477: 440: 354: 3878: 1699: 1672: 5418: 5392: 5316: 5127: 5120: 5082: 5040: 4541: 4535: 4484: 4366: 4343: 3277: 3025: 2352: 2028: 2011: 1222: 1218: 1178: 1149: 1141: 964: 931: 826: 660: 605: 575: 429: 127: 62: 34: 3912:"Novozymes acquires Iogen Bio-Products - Manure ManagerManure Manager" 3511:

KCUR 89.3 - NPR in Kansas City. Local news, entertainment and podcasts

2719: 504:), has long been used in the brewery industry to produce ethanol from 5377: 5278: 5238: 4943: 4938: 4853: 4842: 4587: 4519: 4435: 4381: 4225: 3870: 3727: 3684: 3667: 3395: 1145: 976: 517: 505: 449: 436: 389: 143: 88:

Interest in cellulosic ethanol is driven by its potential to replace

3668:"Integrated enzyme production lowers the cost of cellulosic ethanol" 2936:"Alternative Fuels Data Center: Ethanol Benefits and Considerations" 2305:] (in French). Translated by Marc de Piolenc F. Paris: Ballière. 1586: 951:

Disadvantages of cellulosic ethanol over corn or sugar-based ethanol

574:

also produces other products during cellulose metabolism, including

3641: 3547:. U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. 2007. Archived from 1483: 1391:

Updated Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Results of Fuel Ethanol

5458: 5190: 5170: 4988: 4888: 4873: 4561: 4504: 4494: 4447: 3280:. January 10, 2008. Archived from the original on January 11, 2008 1117: 1050: 416: 276: 58: 50: 46: 4286: 4262:

wired.com, One Molecule Could Cure Our Addiction to Oil, 09.24.07

1053:

are forest biomass feedstocks for cellulosic ethanol production.

713:

Advantages of cellulosic ethanol over corn or sugar-based ethanol

4893: 4834: 4803: 4529: 4499: 1230: 1137: 811: 754: 255:

announced a proposed mandate for 35 billion US gallons (130

229: 212: 54: 42: 4807: 4308: 292:

The stages to produce ethanol using a biological approach are:

77:, so cellulosic ethanol fuel has the potential to have a lower 5248: 4509: 4234: 3258:. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Archived from 2783: 2318:"Cellulosic Ethanol: Expanding Options, Identifying Obstacles" 903:(2) Best case plants produce wet distillers grains co-product. 439:. This reaction occurs at body temperature in the stomachs of 4304: 3545:"Cellulosic Ethanol: Benefits and Challenges. Genomics: GTL" 2698:"Genome Sequencing Reveals Key to Viable Ethanol Production" 1472:

National Research Council of the National Academies (2011),

719:

Environmental and social impacts of ethanol fuel in the U.S.

41:(the stringy fiber of a plant) rather than from the plant's 4239: 3761:. Chicago: Institute of Gas Technology. pp. 1225–1243. 3477:"BP Plant Cancellation Darkens Cellulosic Ethanol's Future" 984: 457:

to secrete "specially engineered enzymes" for an enzymatic

183:

United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia

4152:

Cellulosic Ethanol Path is Paved With Various Technologies

61:, or other plants. It is generally discussed for use as a 4194:

Shell fuels cellulosic ethanol push with new Codexis deal

4098:"USDA approves loan guarantees for 3 cellulosic projects" 3898:

US Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service

570:

to break down cellulose and synthesize ethanol. However,

3454:"U.S. Will Be Hard-Pressed to Meet Its Biofuel Mandates" 3146:

Crutzen, PJ, Mosier AR, Smith KA, Winiwarter W (2008).

2385:"Iogen technology makes it possible (process overview)" 2010:

Taylor MJ, Alabdrabalameer HA, Skoulou V (2019-06-30).

118:

as of 2021, none produces cellulosic ethanol at scale.

4229:

Office of Biological and Environmental Research (OBER)

1867:

Amezcua-Allieri MA, Sánchez Durán T, Aburto J (2017).

1757:. Vol. 1. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 129–138. 586:

bacteria that focus on the ethanol-producing pathway.

508:(six-carbon sugars). Due to the complex nature of the 3595:

In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant

3249: 3247: 2414:"Sunopta updates current cellulosic ethanol projects" 4169:

USDA & DOE Release National Biofuels Action Plan

4117:"U.S. Backs Project to Produce Fuel From Corn Waste" 4037:"Spanish Renewable Energy Firm Files for Insolvency" 3701:

Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report ORNL/TM-2005/66

1330:"The pros and cons of biofuels - Cellulosic ethanol" 313:

Distillation and dehydration to produce pure alcohol

5411: 5345: 5292: 5199: 5151: 5108: 5002: 4841: 4727: 4659: 4575: 4466: 4342: 2969:"Advantages & Disadvantages of Ethanol Biofuel" 2259:

SO2-Ethanol-Water Fractionation of Lignocellulosics

4189:More U.S. backing seen possible for ethanol plants 3857:Lugar RG, Woolsey RJ (1999). "The New Petroleum". 3372:"Cellulosic Ethanol Falling Far Short Of The Hype" 1005:regular gasoline (which is subsidized and taxed). 265: L) of ethanol by 2017. Later that year, the 4199:Enerkem to build cellulosic ethanol plant in U.S. 3703:(Report). Oak Ridge, TN: US Department of Energy. 3274:"Switchgrass Fuel Yields Bountiful Energy: Study" 1755:Biorefineries - Industrial processes and Products 1429:(2). Environment California. 2007. Archived from 934:, a potent greenhouse gas, during decomposition. 4184:Poet Producing Cellulosic Ethanol on Pilot Scale 2827: 2825: 1523:wishful thinking rather than realistic estimates 4667:Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels 2335:Dashtban M, Schraft H, Qin W (September 2009). 1132:occurred in the early 2000s. Companies such as 476:, and a China Resources Alcohol Corporation in 3933:"Raízen planeja mais três usinas de etanol 2G" 2718:. Bioengineering Resources Inc. Archived from 1022:In general there are two types of feedstocks: 647:Distillation — Ethanol is separated from water 590:Gasification process (thermochemical approach) 4819: 4320: 3534:The World Fact Book, www.cia.org, 01 May 2008 8: 2341:International Journal of Biological Sciences 723:Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels 620:. Instead of sugar fermentation with yeast, 310:Microbial fermentation of the sugar solution 4275:Mansoori GA, Enayati N, Agyarko LB (2016). 4164:The Transition to Second Generation Ethanol 3793: 3791: 2205:Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 1508:"Court Overturns E.P.A.'s Biofuels Mandate" 4826: 4812: 4804: 4327: 4313: 4305: 4085:Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 3044:"Cellulosic ethanol: bioethanol in Kansas" 2874:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 2868:Demain AL, Newcomb M, Wu JH (March 2005). 2476:"Xylose Fermentation to Ethanol: A Review" 2265:(Ph.D. thesis). 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Archived from 2673: 2663: 2622: 2529: 2360: 2231:Macfarlane AL, Farid MM, Chen JJ (2010). 2027: 1884: 1836:"Gasification may be key to U.S. Ethanol" 1233:for a commercial-scale plant to be built 1120:may become a valuable source of biomass. 341:Chemical pretreatment techniques include 326:by mechanical processing methods such as 307:) to break down the molecules into sugars 4220:Ethanol From Cellulose: A General Review 4214:Switchgrass Fuel Yields Bountiful Energy 1535:Somma D, Lobkowicz H, Deason JP (2010). 1360:"The Disadvantages of Cellulose Biofuel" 733: 730: 593: 464:Another Canadian company, SunOpta, uses 2197: 2195: 1278: 663:at their facility in Westbury, Quebec. 349:, ammonia fiber expansion, organosolv, 3290: 3076:"Storing Carbon in Soil: Why and How?" 1786: 1784: 1782: 1454: 1443: 1289:Biofuels for a More Sustainable Future 3672:Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining 3661: 3659: 3630:Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining 3422: 3420: 3402:. US Department of Energy. May 2020. 3365: 3363: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3331: 3329: 3215: 3213: 2962: 2960: 2918:"Ethanol Benefits and Considerations" 2702:University of Rochester Press Release 2496:Brat D, Boles E, Wiedemann B (2009). 1862: 1860: 7: 5534: 4740:Cellulosic ethanol commercialization 2870:"Cellulase, clostridia, and ethanol" 2483:National Renewable Energy Laboratory 2298:Distillerie Agricole et Industrielle 2233:Organosolv delignification of willow 1688:Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 1661:Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 1209:, including cellulosic ethanol. The 1124:Cellulosic ethanol commercialization 840:Corn ethanol (biomass dry mill with 735:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 556:Combined hydrolysis and fermentation 480:. The CRAC production facility uses 428:Cellulose chains can be broken into 5546: 2322:Agricultural Research Service (ARS) 420:of ethanol per ton of wheat straw. 5607:Renewable energy commercialization 4174:Commercializing Cellulosic Ethanol 3575:. ILSR Daily. 2007. Archived from 3221:"Trends in Solid Waste Management" 1298:10.1016/b978-0-12-815581-3.00001-4 1190:Australian Renewable Energy Agency 995:Comparison with corn-based ethanol 700:General advantages of ethanol fuel 334:. Chemical pretreatment partially 251:on January 23, 2007, US President 25: 4096:Bevill, Kris (January 20, 2011). 3155:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2324:. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1002:Institute for Local Self-Reliance 651:A recent study has found another 5545: 5533: 5524: 5523: 4788: 4787: 4115:Matthew L. Wald (July 6, 2011). 3961:Rischar H (September 19, 2020). 3024:Montenegro M (5 December 2006). 1247: 1214:commercial-scale biorefineries. 755:indirect land use change effects 126:Cellulosic ethanol is a type of 5073:Oriented structural straw board 4240:USDA Forest Products Laboratory 4022:Chemical & Engineering News 3973:from the original on 2020-10-02 3943:from the original on 2021-03-18 3517:from the original on 2020-12-03 3487:from the original on 2020-08-12 3406:from the original on 2013-09-19 3233:from the original on 2018-09-25 2979:from the original on 2017-04-01 2946:from the original on 2012-07-18 2615:10.1128/AEM.69.7.4144-4150.2003 2218:10.1146/annurev.energy.21.1.403 1370:from the original on 2017-03-13 1171:Centro de Tecnologia Canavieira 1045:from slashes and tree tops and 1036:University of Wisconsin–Madison 1032:USDA Forest Products Laboratory 242:University of Wisconsin–Madison 27:Ethanol produced from cellulose 4016:Scott A (September 30, 2018). 3204:10.1016/j.biombioe.2007.01.023 2886:10.1128/MMBR.69.1.124-154.2005 1981:10.1016/j.biortech.2004.06.025 1813:10.1016/j.biortech.2008.10.057 1646:10.1016/j.biombioe.2007.01.023 799:Corn ethanol (Best case NG DM) 498:Traditionally, baker's yeast ( 168:Cellulosic ethanol can reduce 37:(ethyl alcohol) produced from 1: 4035:Garcia Perez I (2021-02-23). 3844:10.1016/j.indcrop.2008.02.009 3832:Industrial Crops and Products 3759:Energy from Biomass and Waste 2922:Alternative Fuels Data Center 2847:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2011.06.025 2776:"Power Energy Fuels Homepage" 2762:10.1016/s0961-9534(02)00071-5 2568:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2006.05.001 2186:10.1016/s0960-8524(99)00160-1 1713:Conner AH, Lorenz LF (1986). 1358:Markings S (April 25, 2017). 897:only one primary co-product: 413:Agricultural Research Service 111:pilot-scale production plants 3772:Patel P (9 September 2008). 3319:National Geographic Magazine 3256:"Biomass Resource Estimates" 2485:. U.S. Department of Energy. 2474:McMillan JD (January 1993). 2151:10.1016/0141-0229(95)00157-3 1728:(2): 248–263. Archived from 1506:Wald ML (January 25, 2013). 1113:, making it more expensive. 1083:Conservation Reserve Program 751:and discount rate approaches 188:George Washington University 178:National Academy of Sciences 4770:Issues relating to biofuels 4760:Energy return on investment 4147:List of U.S. Ethanol Plants 3434:. US Department of Commerce 3427:Osborne S (November 2007). 3312:McKibben B (October 2007). 2942:. US Department of Energy. 1292:. Elsevier. pp. 1–19. 1116:It has been suggested that 854:Brazilian sugarcane ethanol 5623: 5464:Non-timber forest products 5088:Structural insulated panel 3475:Bullis K (November 2012). 3338:"Stop the Ethanol Madness" 2589:Becker J, Boles E (2003). 2235:. Lambert Academic Press. 1544:Clean Techn Environ Policy 1263:Second generation biofuels 1227:INEOS New Planet BioEnergy 1207:second-generation biofuels 716: 598:Fluidized Bed Gasifier in 516:, a significant amount of 491: 249:State of the Union Address 238:Forest Products Laboratory 234:Forest Products Laboratory 217:Forest Products Laboratory 49:. It can be produced from 5519: 4783: 4745:Energy content of biofuel 4102:Ethanol Producer Magazine 4060:Kirkwood I (2020-05-25). 3666:Johnson E (18 Feb 2016). 3607:10.1007/s11627-009-9210-1 3297:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 3254:Walsh M (10 April 2000). 2445:10.1007/s00253-003-1450-0 2433:Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2108:10.1007/s00253-004-1642-2 2096:Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1763:10.1002/9783527619849.ch6 1564:10.1007/s10098-009-0234-3 1388:Wang M (September 2005). 1106:Miscanthus sacchariflorus 893: 707:dependence on oil imports 539:, microorganisms such as 5429:Destructive distillation 4719:Thermal depolymerization 4692:Industrial biotechnology 2967:Beck K (November 2019). 2835:Journal of Biotechnology 2652:Microbial Cell Factories 2502:Appl. Environ. Microbiol 2316:Perry A (9 April 2010). 1834:Lammers D (2007-03-04). 1611:10.1002/andp.18190631202 1423:"Clean cars, cool fuels" 920:global warming potential 880:Cellulosic ethanol from 866:Cellulosic ethanol from 842:combined heat and power) 727:Low-carbon fuel standard 667:Hemicellulose to ethanol 563:Clostridium thermocellum 537:Saccharomyces cerevisiae 501:Saccharomyces cerevisiae 472:, Abengoa's facility in 170:greenhouse gas emissions 5449:Green building and wood 4687:Fischer–Tropsch process 4677:Biomass heating systems 3996:Bioenergy International 3452:Orcutt M (9 May 2012). 3336:Loyola M (2019-11-23). 3117:10.1126/science.1121416 1930:10.1126/science.1192838 1255:Renewable energy portal 659:Montreal-based company 642:Clostridium ljungdahlii 627:Clostridium ljungdahlii 584:genetically engineering 566:, which uses a complex 514:lignocellulosic biomass 267:US Department of Energy 5093:Wood–plastic composite 5019:Glued laminated timber 5014:Cross-laminated timber 4281:. World Sci. Pub. Co. 3716:Biotechnology Progress 3505:Mayer A (2018-01-02). 3168:10.5194/acp-8-389-2008 2665:10.1186/1475-2859-5-18 2595:Appl Environ Microbiol 2391:. 2005. Archived from 2073:10.1002/cssc.201100600 1793:Bioresource Technology 1722:Wood and Fiber Science 1453:Cite journal requires 1111:vegetative propagation 1090:Miscanthus × giganteus 1024:forest (woody) Biomass 608: 488:Microbial fermentation 372:Cellulolytic processes 289: 90:ethanol made from corn 5166:Corrugated fiberboard 5068:Oriented strand board 3778:MIT Technology Review 3481:MIT Technology Review 3458:MIT Technology Review 2418:Sunopta press release 2295:Boullanger E (1924). 2277:US patent 8030039 2139:Enzyme Microb Technol 1626:Biomass and Bioenergy 1200:US Government support 943:General disadvantages 597: 533:metabolic engineering 359:hydroxymethylfurfural 280: 98:municipal solid waste 5551:WikiProject Forestry 2742:Biomass & Energy 2522:10.1128/AEM.02522-08 1886:10.1155/2017/5680105 1873:Journal of Chemistry 1585:Braconnot H (1819). 1049:from saw mills, and 1028:agricultural biomass 963:Although the global 901:with solubles (DGS). 572:C. thermocellum 494:Ethanol fermentation 424:Enzymatic hydrolysis 351:sulfite pretreatment 198:The French chemist, 5597:Biofuels technology 5312:Ramial chipped wood 4775:Sustainable biofuel 4222:— P.C. Badger, 2002 3798:Rinehart L (2006). 3314:"Carbon's New Math" 3196:2007BmBe...31..416S 3109:2006Sci...311..506F 2754:2002BmBe...23..487R 2607:2003ApEnM..69.4144B 2514:2009ApEnM..75.2304B 2256:Iakovlev M (2011). 2178:2000BiTec..74...17P 2065:2012ChSCh...5.1625I 1973:2005BiTec..96..673M 1922:2010Sci...330...84G 1805:2009BiTec.100.2411Z 1700:10.1021/ie50421a005 1673:10.1021/ie50421a009 1638:2007BmBe...31..416S 1603:1819AnP....63..347B 1556:2010CTEP...12..373S 1100:Miscanthus sinensis 1072:interstate highways 1009:Enzyme-cost barrier 470:Jennings, Louisiana 407:BlueFire Renewables 400:Chemical hydrolysis 154:) and grasses like 71:absorb as they grow 5602:Energy development 5229:Cellulosic ethanol 4245:2010-01-06 at the 4157:2010-10-28 at the 4121:The New York Times 3914:. 11 February 2013 2805:"Westbury, Quebec" 2353:10.7150/ijbs.5.578 2029:10.3390/su11133604 1591:Annalen der Physik 1512:The New York Times 1034:together with the 609: 454:Trichoderma reesei 290: 286:cellulosic ethanol 273:Production methods 240:together with the 31:Cellulosic ethanol 5559: 5558: 5494:Wood preservation 5439:Engineered bamboo 5259:Pyroligneous acid 4801: 4800: 4714:Sabatier reaction 4296:978-981-4704-00-7 3892:Barros S (2020). 3464:on 29 April 2014. 3184:Biomass Bioenergy 3042:Nelson R (2007). 2242:978-3-8383-9155-7 2166:Bioresour Technol 1961:Bioresour Technol 1772:978-3-527-61984-9 1493:978-0-309-18751-0 1307:978-0-12-815581-3 1067:tallgrass prairie 908: 907: 904: 899:distillers grains 745:reduction results 541:Zymomonas mobilis 531:In recent years, 484:as raw material. 18:Cellulose ethanol 16:(Redirected from 5614: 5549: 5548: 5537: 5536: 5527: 5526: 5484:Timber recycling 5479:Reclaimed lumber 5469:Natural building 5434:Dry distillation 5388:Split-rail fence 4828: 4821: 4814: 4805: 4791: 4790: 4635:Pongamia pinnata 4329: 4322: 4315: 4306: 4300: 4135: 4134: 4129: 4127: 4112: 4106: 4105: 4093: 4087: 4082: 4076: 4075: 4073: 4072: 4066:Newcastle Herald 4057: 4051: 4050: 4048: 4047: 4032: 4026: 4025: 4013: 4007: 4006: 4004: 4003: 3988: 3982: 3981: 3979: 3978: 3958: 3952: 3951: 3949: 3948: 3929: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3919: 3908: 3902: 3901: 3889: 3883: 3882: 3871:10.2307/20020241 3854: 3848: 3847: 3827: 3821: 3820: 3818: 3817: 3811: 3805:. Archived from 3804: 3795: 3786: 3785: 3780:. Archived from 3769: 3763: 3762: 3754: 3748: 3747: 3728:10.1002/btpr.206 3711: 3705: 3704: 3696: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3685:10.1002/bbb.1634 3663: 3654: 3653: 3625: 3619: 3618: 3590: 3584: 3583: 3581: 3574: 3566: 3560: 3559: 3557: 3556: 3541: 3535: 3532: 3526: 3525: 3523: 3522: 3502: 3496: 3495: 3493: 3492: 3472: 3466: 3465: 3460:. Archived from 3449: 3443: 3442: 3440: 3439: 3433: 3424: 3415: 3414: 3412: 3411: 3392: 3386: 3385: 3383: 3382: 3367: 3352: 3351: 3349: 3348: 3333: 3324: 3323: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3296: 3288: 3286: 3285: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3251: 3242: 3241: 3239: 3238: 3217: 3208: 3207: 3179: 3173: 3172: 3170: 3152: 3143: 3137: 3136: 3092: 3086: 3085: 3083: 3082: 3074:Rice CW (2002). 3071: 3065: 3064: 3062: 3061: 3055: 3049:. Archived from 3048: 3039: 3033: 3032: 3021: 3015: 3010: 3008: 3007: 3002: 2994: 2988: 2987: 2985: 2984: 2964: 2955: 2954: 2952: 2951: 2932: 2926: 2925: 2914: 2908: 2907: 2897: 2865: 2859: 2858: 2829: 2820: 2819: 2817: 2816: 2807:. Archived from 2801: 2795: 2794: 2792: 2791: 2772: 2766: 2765: 2737: 2731: 2730: 2728: 2727: 2712: 2706: 2705: 2694: 2688: 2687: 2677: 2667: 2643: 2637: 2636: 2626: 2586: 2580: 2579: 2550: 2544: 2543: 2533: 2508:(8): 2304–2311. 2493: 2487: 2486: 2480: 2471: 2465: 2464: 2428: 2422: 2421: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2401: 2400: 2381: 2375: 2374: 2364: 2332: 2326: 2325: 2313: 2307: 2306: 2292: 2286: 2285: 2284: 2280: 2273: 2267: 2266: 2264: 2253: 2247: 2246: 2228: 2222: 2221: 2199: 2190: 2189: 2161: 2155: 2154: 2134: 2128: 2127: 2091: 2085: 2084: 2059:(8): 1625–1637. 2048: 2042: 2041: 2031: 2007: 2001: 2000: 1956: 1950: 1949: 1905: 1899: 1898: 1888: 1864: 1855: 1854: 1852: 1851: 1842:. Archived from 1831: 1825: 1824: 1788: 1777: 1776: 1750: 1744: 1743: 1741: 1740: 1734: 1719: 1710: 1704: 1703: 1683: 1677: 1676: 1656: 1650: 1649: 1621: 1615: 1614: 1582: 1576: 1575: 1541: 1532: 1526: 1525: 1520: 1518: 1503: 1497: 1496: 1469: 1463: 1462: 1456: 1451: 1449: 1441: 1439: 1438: 1419: 1413: 1412: 1410: 1409: 1403: 1396: 1385: 1379: 1378: 1376: 1375: 1355: 1349: 1348: 1346: 1345: 1336:. Archived from 1326: 1320: 1319: 1283: 1257: 1252: 1251: 1235:Emmetsburg, Iowa 1062:Panicum virgatum 1051:waste paper pulp 894: 731: 545:Escherichia coli 474:Salamanca, Spain 392:reactions using 261: 260: 236:. Recently, the 79:carbon footprint 21: 5622: 5621: 5617: 5616: 5615: 5613: 5612: 5611: 5592:Renewable fuels 5562: 5561: 5560: 5555: 5515: 5499:Wood processing 5407: 5341: 5288: 5195: 5147: 5104: 5034:parallel strand 5005: 4998: 4846: 4837: 4832: 4802: 4797: 4779: 4755:Energy forestry 4723: 4655: 4617:Jatropha curcas 4578: 4571: 4479:Camelina sativa 4469: 4462: 4338: 4333: 4303: 4297: 4274: 4270: 4268:Further reading 4247:Wayback Machine 4159:Wayback Machine 4143: 4138: 4125: 4123: 4114: 4113: 4109: 4095: 4094: 4090: 4083: 4079: 4070: 4068: 4059: 4058: 4054: 4045: 4043: 4034: 4033: 4029: 4015: 4014: 4010: 4001: 3999: 3990: 3989: 3985: 3976: 3974: 3960: 3959: 3955: 3946: 3944: 3931: 3930: 3926: 3917: 3915: 3910: 3909: 3905: 3894:Biofuels Annual 3891: 3890: 3886: 3859:Foreign Affairs 3856: 3855: 3851: 3829: 3828: 3824: 3815: 3813: 3809: 3802: 3797: 3796: 3789: 3784:on 8 June 2011. 3771: 3770: 3766: 3756: 3755: 3751: 3713: 3712: 3708: 3698: 3697: 3693: 3665: 3664: 3657: 3627: 3626: 3622: 3592: 3591: 3587: 3579: 3572: 3568: 3567: 3563: 3554: 3552: 3543: 3542: 3538: 3533: 3529: 3520: 3518: 3504: 3503: 3499: 3490: 3488: 3474: 3473: 3469: 3451: 3450: 3446: 3437: 3435: 3431: 3426: 3425: 3418: 3409: 3407: 3400:afdc.energy.gov 3394: 3393: 3389: 3380: 3378: 3369: 3368: 3355: 3346: 3344: 3335: 3334: 3327: 3311: 3310: 3306: 3289: 3283: 3281: 3272: 3271: 3267: 3253: 3252: 3245: 3236: 3234: 3219: 3218: 3211: 3181: 3180: 3176: 3150: 3145: 3144: 3140: 3103:(5760): 506–8. 3094: 3093: 3089: 3080: 3078: 3073: 3072: 3068: 3059: 3057: 3053: 3046: 3041: 3040: 3036: 3023: 3022: 3018: 3005: 3003: 3000: 2996: 2995: 2991: 2982: 2980: 2966: 2965: 2958: 2949: 2947: 2940:afdc.energy.gov 2934: 2933: 2929: 2916: 2915: 2911: 2867: 2866: 2862: 2831: 2830: 2823: 2814: 2812: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2789: 2787: 2774: 2773: 2769: 2739: 2738: 2734: 2725: 2723: 2714: 2713: 2709: 2704:. 2 March 2007. 2696: 2695: 2691: 2645: 2644: 2640: 2588: 2587: 2583: 2552: 2551: 2547: 2495: 2494: 2490: 2478: 2473: 2472: 2468: 2430: 2429: 2425: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2398: 2396: 2383: 2382: 2378: 2334: 2333: 2329: 2315: 2314: 2310: 2294: 2293: 2289: 2282: 2275: 2274: 2270: 2262: 2255: 2254: 2250: 2243: 2230: 2229: 2225: 2201: 2200: 2193: 2163: 2162: 2158: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2093: 2092: 2088: 2050: 2049: 2045: 2009: 2008: 2004: 1958: 1957: 1953: 1907: 1906: 1902: 1866: 1865: 1858: 1849: 1847: 1833: 1832: 1828: 1790: 1789: 1780: 1773: 1752: 1751: 1747: 1738: 1736: 1732: 1717: 1712: 1711: 1707: 1685: 1684: 1680: 1658: 1657: 1653: 1623: 1622: 1618: 1584: 1583: 1579: 1539: 1534: 1533: 1529: 1516: 1514: 1505: 1504: 1500: 1494: 1471: 1470: 1466: 1452: 1442: 1436: 1434: 1421: 1420: 1416: 1407: 1405: 1401: 1394: 1387: 1386: 1382: 1373: 1371: 1357: 1356: 1352: 1343: 1341: 1328: 1327: 1323: 1308: 1285: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1253: 1246: 1243: 1202: 1194:New South Wales 1126: 1020: 1011: 997: 961: 953: 945: 940: 902: 896: 841: 775: 773: 768: 766: 752: 746: 737: 729: 715: 702: 697: 669: 592: 558: 496: 490: 466:steam explosion 426: 402: 374: 347:steam explosion 343:acid hydrolysis 275: 258: 256: 200:Henri Braconnot 196: 124: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5620: 5618: 5610: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5564: 5563: 5557: 5556: 5554: 5553: 5543: 5531: 5520: 5517: 5516: 5514: 5513: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5424:Certified wood 5421: 5415: 5413: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5405: 5400: 5398:Timber framing 5395: 5390: 5385: 5383:Sawdust brandy 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5349: 5347: 5343: 5342: 5340: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5298: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5274:Sandalwood oil 5271: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5220: 5219: 5209: 5203: 5201: 5197: 5196: 5194: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5157: 5155: 5149: 5148: 5146: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5124: 5123: 5112: 5110: 5106: 5105: 5103: 5102: 5101: 5100: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5078:Particle board 5075: 5070: 5065: 5064: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5043: 5038: 5037: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5016: 5010: 5008: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4906: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4850: 4848: 4839: 4838: 4833: 4831: 4830: 4823: 4816: 4808: 4799: 4798: 4796: 4795: 4784: 4781: 4780: 4778: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4731: 4729: 4725: 4724: 4722: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4710: 4709: 4704: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4663: 4661: 4657: 4656: 4654: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4631: 4620: 4613: 4608: 4606:Chinese tallow 4603: 4596: 4591: 4583: 4581: 4573: 4572: 4570: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4474: 4472: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4460: 4455: 4453:Water hyacinth 4450: 4445: 4444: 4443: 4433: 4428: 4427: 4426: 4421: 4411: 4410: 4409: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4348: 4346: 4340: 4339: 4334: 4332: 4331: 4324: 4317: 4309: 4302: 4301: 4295: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4265: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4237: 4232: 4223: 4217: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4149: 4142: 4141:External links 4139: 4137: 4136: 4107: 4088: 4077: 4052: 4027: 4008: 3983: 3953: 3939:. 2021-03-18. 3924: 3903: 3884: 3849: 3838:(3): 320–327. 3822: 3787: 3764: 3749: 3722:(4): 1086–93. 3706: 3691: 3678:(2): 164–174. 3655: 3642:10.1002/bbb.49 3620: 3585: 3582:on 2006-09-27. 3561: 3536: 3527: 3497: 3467: 3444: 3416: 3387: 3353: 3325: 3304: 3265: 3262:on 2008-02-09. 3243: 3209: 3190:(6): 416–425. 3174: 3161:(2): 389–395. 3138: 3087: 3066: 3034: 3016: 2989: 2956: 2927: 2909: 2860: 2821: 2796: 2767: 2748:(6): 487–493. 2732: 2707: 2689: 2638: 2601:(7): 4144–50. 2581: 2545: 2488: 2466: 2439:(5): 495–509. 2423: 2405: 2376: 2327: 2308: 2287: 2268: 2248: 2241: 2223: 2191: 2156: 2129: 2086: 2043: 2016:Sustainability 2002: 1967:(6): 673–686. 1951: 1916:(6000): 84–6. 1900: 1856: 1826: 1778: 1771: 1745: 1705: 1678: 1651: 1632:(6): 416–425. 1616: 1577: 1550:(4): 373–380. 1527: 1498: 1492: 1484:10.17226/13105 1464: 1455:|journal= 1414: 1380: 1350: 1321: 1306: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1271: 1270: 1265: 1259: 1258: 1242: 1239: 1201: 1198: 1125: 1122: 1065:) is a native 1019: 1016: 1010: 1007: 996: 993: 981:General Motors 960: 957: 952: 949: 944: 941: 939: 936: 906: 905: 891: 890: 887: 884: 877: 876: 873: 870: 863: 862: 859: 856: 850: 849: 846: 843: 837: 836: 833: 830: 825:Corn ethanol ( 822: 821: 818: 815: 810:Corn ethanol ( 807: 806: 803: 800: 796: 795: 792: 789: 778: 777: 770: 763: 759: 758: 747:for different 714: 711: 701: 698: 696: 693: 688: 687: 684: 668: 665: 649: 648: 645: 638: 591: 588: 557: 554: 492:Main article: 489: 486: 425: 422: 401: 398: 380:of cellulose ( 373: 370: 315: 314: 311: 308: 297: 274: 271: 253:George W. Bush 195: 192: 132:lignocellulose 130:produced from 123: 120: 67:carbon dioxide 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5619: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5582:Wood products 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5552: 5544: 5542: 5541: 5532: 5530: 5522: 5521: 5518: 5512: 5511: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5454:List of woods 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5416: 5414: 5410: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5363:Billet (wood) 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5350: 5348: 5344: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5297: 5295: 5291: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5224:Hemicellulose 5222: 5218: 5215: 5214: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5198: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5154: 5150: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5122: 5119: 5118: 5117: 5114: 5113: 5111: 5107: 5099: 5096: 5095: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5048: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5021: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5011: 5009: 5007: 5001: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4949:Railroad ties 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4851: 4849: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4835:Wood products 4829: 4824: 4822: 4817: 4815: 4810: 4809: 4806: 4794: 4786: 4785: 4782: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4765:Food vs. fuel 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4732: 4730: 4726: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4699: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4664: 4662: 4658: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4636: 4632: 4630: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4619: 4618: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4601: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4589: 4585: 4584: 4582: 4580: 4574: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4537: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4480: 4476: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4465: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4442: 4439: 4438: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4425: 4422: 4420: 4417: 4416: 4415: 4412: 4408: 4407:vegetable oil 4405: 4404: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4349: 4347: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4330: 4325: 4323: 4318: 4316: 4311: 4310: 4307: 4298: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4279: 4273: 4272: 4267: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4244: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4230: 4227: 4224: 4221: 4218: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4156: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4122: 4118: 4111: 4108: 4103: 4099: 4092: 4089: 4086: 4081: 4078: 4067: 4063: 4056: 4053: 4042: 4041:Bloomberg.com 4038: 4031: 4028: 4023: 4019: 4012: 4009: 3997: 3993: 3987: 3984: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3957: 3954: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3928: 3925: 3913: 3907: 3904: 3900:. p. 33. 3899: 3895: 3888: 3885: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3865:(1): 88–102. 3864: 3860: 3853: 3850: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3826: 3823: 3812:on 2007-07-15 3808: 3801: 3794: 3792: 3788: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3768: 3765: 3760: 3753: 3750: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3710: 3707: 3702: 3695: 3692: 3686: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3662: 3660: 3656: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3621: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3601:(3): 314–29. 3600: 3596: 3589: 3586: 3578: 3571: 3565: 3562: 3551:on 2007-12-21 3550: 3546: 3540: 3537: 3531: 3528: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3501: 3498: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3471: 3468: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3448: 3445: 3430: 3423: 3421: 3417: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3391: 3388: 3377: 3373: 3366: 3364: 3362: 3360: 3358: 3354: 3343: 3339: 3332: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3320: 3315: 3308: 3305: 3300: 3294: 3279: 3275: 3269: 3266: 3261: 3257: 3250: 3248: 3244: 3232: 3228: 3227: 3222: 3216: 3214: 3210: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3178: 3175: 3169: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3149: 3142: 3139: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3091: 3088: 3077: 3070: 3067: 3056:on 2008-09-10 3052: 3045: 3038: 3035: 3030: 3027: 3020: 3017: 3013: 2999: 2993: 2990: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2963: 2961: 2957: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2931: 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