832:. The bacteria will attach to many of the plant cells exposed by the cut. The plant cells secrete wound-related phenolic compounds which in turn act to upregulate the virulence operon of the Agrobacterium. The virulence operon includes many genes that encode for proteins that are part of a Type IV secretion system that exports from the bacterium proteins and DNA (delineated by specific recognition motifs called border sequences and excised as a single strand from the virulence plasmid) into the plant cell through a structure called a pilus. The transferred DNA (called T-DNA) is piloted to the plant cell nucleus by nuclear localization signals present in the Agrobacterium protein VirD2, which is covalently attached to the end of the T-DNA at the Right border (RB). Exactly how the T-DNA is integrated into the host plant genomic DNA is an active area of plant biology research. Assuming that a selection marker (such as an antibiotic resistance gene) was included in the T-DNA, the transformed plant tissue can be cultured on selective media to produce shoots. The shoots are then transferred to a different medium to promote root formation. Once roots begin to grow from the transgenic shoot, the plants can be transferred to soil to complete a normal life cycle (make seeds). The seeds from this first plant (called the T1, for first transgenic generation) can be planted on a selective (containing an antibiotic), or if an
1052:. The cells are incubated on ice with the DNA, and then briefly heat-shocked (e.g., at 42 °C for 30–120 seconds). This method works very well for circular plasmid DNA. Non-commercial preparations should normally give 10 to 10 transformants per microgram of plasmid; a poor preparation will be about 10/μg or less, but a good preparation of competent cells can give up to ~10 colonies per microgram of plasmid. Protocols, however, exist for making supercompetent cells that may yield a transformation efficiency of over 10. The chemical method, however, usually does not work well for linear DNA, such as fragments of chromosomal DNA, probably because the cell's native
633:
especially effective for repairing double-strand damages, such as double-strand breaks. This process depends on a second homologous chromosome in addition to the damaged chromosome. During logarithmic growth, a DNA damage in one chromosome may be repaired by HRR using sequence information from the other homologous chromosome. Once cells approach stationary phase, however, they typically have just one copy of the chromosome, and HRR requires input of homologous template from outside the cell by transformation.
658:
620:, Charpentier et al. tested 64 toxic molecules to determine which of these induce competence. Of these, only six, all DNA damaging agents, caused strong induction. These DNA damaging agents were mitomycin C (which causes DNA inter-strand crosslinks), norfloxacin, ofloxacin and nalidixic acid (inhibitors of DNA gyrase that cause double-strand breaks), bicyclomycin (causes single- and double-strand breaks), and hydroxyurea (induces DNA base oxidation). UV light also induced competence in
42:
933:, which are, if at all, separated by internal cell walls interrupted by pores big enough to enable nutrients and organelles, sometimes even nuclei, to travel through each hypha. As a result, individual cells usually cannot be separated. This is problematic as neighbouring transformed cells may render untransformed ones immune to selection treatments, e.g. by delivering nutrients or proteins for antibiotic resistance.
4933:
807:, and thus may not be optimal for other species. Even within one species, different strains have different transformation efficiencies, sometimes different by three orders of magnitude. For instance, when S. cerevisiae strains were transformed with 10 ug of plasmid YEp13, the strain DKD-5D-H yielded between 550 and 3115 colonies while strain OS1 yielded fewer than five colonies.
641:
likely HRR. Transformation in bacteria can be viewed as a primitive sexual process, since it involves interaction of homologous DNA from two individuals to form recombinant DNA that is passed on to succeeding generations. Bacterial transformation in prokaryotes may have been the ancestral process that gave rise to meiotic sexual reproduction in eukaryotes (see
879:: Also referred to as particle bombardment, microprojectile bombardment, or biolistics. Particles of gold or tungsten are coated with DNA and then shot into young plant cells or plant embryos. Some genetic material will stay in the cells and transform them. This method also allows transformation of plant plastids. The
689:
bonds by increasing the ratio of ionic to covalent bonds, which increases membrane fluidity, facilitating transformation. The role of lipopolysaccharides here are verified from the observation that shorter O-side chains are more effectively transformed – perhaps because of improved DNA accessibility.
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markers that can compensate for an inability to metabolise certain amino acids, nucleotides, or sugars. This method requires the use of suitably mutated strains that are deficient in the synthesis or utility of a particular biomolecule, and the transformed cells are cultured in a medium that allows
640:
irradiated by UV light as the damaging agent (reviewed by Michod et al. and
Bernstein et al.) The results of these experiments indicated that transforming DNA acts to repair potentially lethal DNA damages introduced by UV light in the recipient DNA. The particular process responsible for repair was
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is the most commonly used marker for prokaryotes. The transforming plasmid contains a gene that confers resistance to an antibiotic that the bacteria are otherwise sensitive to. The mixture of treated cells is cultured on media that contain the antibiotic so that only transformed cells are able to
535:
Natural transformation is a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer that depends on the expression of numerous bacterial genes whose products appear to be responsible for this process. In general, transformation is a complex, energy-requiring developmental process. In order for a bacterium to bind,
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In a cloning experiment, a gene may be inserted into a plasmid used for transformation. However, in such experiment, not all the plasmids may contain a successfully inserted gene. Additional techniques may therefore be employed further to screen for transformed cells that contain plasmid with the
512:
Due to the differences in structure of the cell envelope between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, there are some differences in the mechanisms of DNA uptake in these cells, however most of them share common features that involve related proteins. The DNA first binds to the surface of the
335:
It appears to be an ancient process inherited from a common prokaryotic ancestor that is a beneficial adaptation for promoting recombinational repair of DNA damage, especially damage acquired under stressful conditions. Natural genetic transformation appears to be an adaptation for repair of DNA
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It is suggested that exposing the cells to divalent cations in cold condition may also change or weaken the cell surface structure, making it more permeable to DNA. The heat-pulse is thought to create a thermal imbalance across the cell membrane, which forces the DNA to enter the cells through
632:
process. During logarithmic growth, two or more copies of any particular region of the chromosome may be present in a bacterial cell, as cell division is not precisely matched with chromosome replication. The process of homologous recombinational repair (HRR) is a key DNA repair process that is
550:
the length of the transferred DNA is greater than 1271 kb (more than 1 million bases). The length transferred is likely double stranded DNA and is often more than a third of the total chromosome length of 4215 kb. It appears that about 7-9% of the recipient cells take up an entire chromosome.
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method decreases with plasmid size, and electroporation therefore may be a more effective method for the uptake of large plasmid DNA. Cells used in electroporation should be prepared first by washing in cold double-distilled water to remove charged particles that may create sparks during the
859:): Package the desired genetic material into a suitable plant virus and allow this modified virus to infect the plant. If the genetic material is DNA, it can recombine with the chromosomes to produce transformant cells. However, genomes of most plant viruses consist of single stranded
717:(which also uses these channels) was found to competitively inhibit DNA uptake. Another type of channel implicated in DNA uptake consists of poly (HB):poly P:Ca. In this poly (HB) is envisioned to wrap around DNA (itself a polyphosphate), and is carried in a shield formed by Ca ions.
848:
was isolated from a cherry tree in an orchard at
Cornell University in Ithaca, New York). Though many plants remain recalcitrant to transformation by this method, research is ongoing that continues to add to the list the species that have been successfully modified in this
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on its cell surface, and the DNA is also negatively charged. One function of the divalent cation therefore would be to shield the charges by coordinating the phosphate groups and other negative charges, thereby allowing a DNA molecule to adhere to the cell surface.
682:) under cold conditions, before being exposed to a heat pulse (heat shock). Calcium chloride partially disrupts the cell membrane, which allows the recombinant DNA to enter the host cell. Cells that are able to take up the DNA are called competent cells.
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to emit light. The recombinant DNA may also be detected using other methods such as nucleic acid hybridization with radioactive RNA probe, while cells that expressed the desired protein from the plasmid may also be detected using immunological methods.
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in fungal cells became possible. In 2016 the USDA declared that it will not regulate a white button mushroom strain edited with CRISPR/CAS9 to prevent fruit body browning causing a broad discussion about placing CRISPR/CAS9-edited crops on the
670:
Artificial competence can be induced in laboratory procedures that involve making the cell passively permeable to DNA by exposing it to conditions that do not normally occur in nature. Typically the cells are incubated in a solution containing
1080:
Because transformation usually produces a mixture of relatively few transformed cells and an abundance of non-transformed cells, a method is necessary to select for the cells that have acquired the plasmid. The plasmid therefore requires a
496:
Naturally competent bacteria carry sets of genes that provide the protein machinery to bring DNA across the cell membrane(s). The transport of the exogenous DNA into the cells may require proteins that are involved in the assembly of
944:
Agrobacterium is not only capable of infecting plants but also fungi, however, unlike plants, fungi do not secrete the phenolic compounds necessary to trigger
Agrobacterium so that they have to be added, e.g. in the form of
542:
requires expression of about 40 genes. The DNA integrated into the host chromosome is usually (but with rare exceptions) derived from another bacterium of the same species, and is thus homologous to the resident chromosome.
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that parts of some fungi are in; dikaryotic cells contain two haploid nuclei, one of each parent fungus. If only one of these gets transformed, which is the rule, the percentage of transformed nuclei decreases after each
526:
may be required for competence, but its role is uncertain. The uptake of DNA is generally non-sequence specific, although in some species the presence of specific DNA uptake sequences may facilitate efficient DNA uptake.
517:
via DNA translocase. Only single-stranded DNA may pass through, the other strand being degraded by nucleases in the process. The translocated single-stranded DNA may then be integrated into the bacterial chromosomes by a
867:
and not a real transformation, since the inserted genes never reach the nucleus of the cell and do not integrate into the host genome. The progeny of the infected plants is virus-free and also free of the inserted
3532:
Hayama Y, Fukuda Y, Kawai S, Hashimoto W, Murata K (2002). "Extremely simple, rapid and highly efficient transformation method for the yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae using glutathione and early log phase cells".
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gene, and no functional β-galactosidase can form, resulting in white colonies. Cells containing successfully ligated insert can then be easily identified by its white coloration from the unsuccessful blue ones.
326:, in which a gene is passed through direct contact between bacteria. In transformation, the genetic material passes through the intervening medium, and uptake is completely dependent on the recipient bacterium.
627:
Logarithmically growing bacteria differ from stationary phase bacteria with respect to the number of genome copies present in the cell, and this has implications for the capability to carry out an important
2829:
Albertini S, Chételat AA, Miller B, Muster W, Pujadas E, Strobel R, Gocke E (July 1995). "Genotoxicity of 17 gyrase- and four mammalian topoisomerase II-poisons in prokaryotic and eukaryotic test systems".
828:-mediated transformation is the easiest and most simple plant transformation. Plant tissue (often leaves) are cut into small pieces, e.g. 10x10mm, and soaked for ten minutes in a fluid containing suspended
735:/cm, which is thought to create holes in the cell membrane through which the plasmid DNA may enter. After the electric shock, the holes are rapidly closed by the cell's membrane-repair mechanisms.
787:, and single-stranded DNA. In these protocols, the single-stranded DNA preferentially binds to the yeast cell wall, preventing plasmid DNA from doing so and leaving it available for transformation.
3840:
3056:
2219:
Saito Y, Taguchi H, Akamatsu T (March 2006). "Fate of transforming bacterial genome following incorporation into competent cells of
Bacillus subtilis: a continuous length of incorporated DNA".
557:
Competence for transformation is typically induced by high cell density and/or nutritional limitation, conditions associated with the stationary phase of bacterial growth. Transformation in
138:. Griffith was interested in determining whether injections of heat-killed bacteria could be used to vaccinate mice against pneumonia. However, he discovered that a non-virulent strain of
554:
The capacity for natural transformation appears to occur in a number of prokaryotes, and thus far 67 prokaryotic species (in seven different phyla) are known to undergo this process.
45:
In this image, a gene from one bacterial cell is moved to another bacterial cell. This process of the second bacterial cell taking up new genetic material is called transformation.
616:, ciprofloxacin, which interacts with DNA gyrase and introduces double-strand breaks, induces expression of competence genes, thus enhancing the frequency of transformation Using
2422:
3743:
Rivera, Ana Leonor; Magaña-Ortíz, Denis; Gómez-Lim, Miguel; Fernández, Francisco; Loske, Achim M. (June 2014). "Physical methods for genetic transformation of fungi and yeast".
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Dohmen RJ, Strasser AW, Höner CB, Hollenberg CP (October 1991). "An efficient transformation procedure enabling long-term storage of competent cells of various yeast genera".
104:
virus into the host bacterium). In transformation, the genetic material passes through the intervening medium, and uptake is completely dependent on the recipient bacterium.
522:-dependent process. In Gram-negative cells, due to the presence of an extra membrane, the DNA requires the presence of a channel formed by secretins on the outer membrane.
2485:
Angelov, Angel; Bergen, Paul; Nadler, Florian; Hornburg, Philipp; Lichev, Antoni; Ãœbelacker, Maria; Pachl, Fiona; Kuster, Bernhard; Liebl, Wolfgang (10 February 2015).
803:– Different yeast genera and species take up foreign DNA with different efficiencies. Also, most transformation protocols have been developed for baker's yeast,
4184:
3968:
1553:
Wirth R, Friesenegger A, Fiedler S (March 1989). "Transformation of various species of gram-negative bacteria belonging to 11 different genera by electroporation".
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enzymes rapidly degrade linear DNA. In contrast, cells that are naturally competent are usually transformed more efficiently with linear DNA than with plasmid DNA.
81:, which might occur in nature as a time-limited response to environmental conditions such as starvation and cell density, and may also be induced in a laboratory.
713:
cells is through channels known as zones of adhesion or Bayer's junction, with a typical cell carrying as many as 400 such zones. Their role was established when
474:"Transformation" may also be used to describe the insertion of new genetic material into nonbacterial cells, including animal and plant cells; however, because "
118:"Transformation" may also be used to describe the insertion of new genetic material into nonbacterial cells, including animal and plant cells; however, because "
4122:
152:" from the heat-killed strain was responsible for making the harmless strain virulent. In 1944 this "transforming principle" was identified as being genetic by
906:
most of them being analogous to those used for plants. However, fungi have to be treated differently due to some of their microscopic and biochemical traits:
753:, may be transformed by exogenous DNA in the environment. Several methods have been developed to facilitate this transformation at high frequency in the lab.
4958:
4757:
3413:
Spencer, F.; Ketner, G.; Connelly, C.; Hieter, P. (1 August 1993). "Targeted
Recombination-Based Cloning and Manipulation of Large DNA Segments in Yeast".
2254:
Saito Y, Taguchi H, Akamatsu T (April 2006). "DNA taken into
Bacillus subtilis competent cells by lysed-protoplast transformation is not ssDNA but dsDNA".
536:
take up and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must become competent, that is, enter a special physiological state. Competence development in
310:
that occur in nature among bacteria, in which DNA encoding for a trait passes from one bacterium to another and is integrated into the recipient genome by
922:
Fungal cell walls are quite thick hindering DNA uptake so (partial) removal is often required; complete degradation, which is sometimes necessary, yields
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by the DNA damaging agents mitomycin C (a DNA cross-linking agent) and fluoroquinolone (a topoisomerase inhibitor that causes double-strand breaks). In
168:
and using just this DNA were able to make a harmless strain virulent. They called this uptake and incorporation of DNA by bacteria "transformation" (See
1221:
Johnston C, Martin B, Fichant G, Polard P, Claverys JP (March 2014). "Bacterial transformation: distribution, shared mechanisms and divergent control".
893:: Formation of transient holes in cell membranes using electric pulses of high field strength; this allows DNA to enter as described above for bacteria.
4840:
1149:
cells, they form a functional β-galactosidase. The presence of an active β-galactosidase may be detected when cells are grown in plates containing
836:
gene was used, could alternatively be planted in soil, then later treated with herbicide to kill wildtype segregants. Some plants species, such as
172:) The results of Avery et al.'s experiments were at first skeptically received by the scientific community and it was not until the development of
4630:
3343:
Gietz RD, Schiestl RH, Willems AR, Woods RA (April 1995). "Studies on the transformation of intact yeast cells by the LiAc/SS-DNA/PEG procedure".
2538:"Amino acids as nutritional factors and (p)ppGpp as an alarmone of the stringent response regulate natural transformation in Micrococcus luteus"
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to be used as a convenient host for the manipulation of DNA as well as expressing proteins. Typically plasmids are used for transformation in
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treatment is also effective for transformation of plasmid DNA. The method of transformation by Mandel and Higa was later improved upon by
3940:
3386:
Schiestl, Robert H.; Manivasakam, P.; Woods, Robin A.; Gietzt, R.Daniel (1 August 1993). "Introducing DNA into Yeast by
Transformation".
2642:
Claverys JP, Prudhomme M, Martin B (2006). "Induction of competence regulons as a general response to stress in gram-positive bacteria".
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1141:) in the cell. Both genes by themselves produce non-functional peptides, however, when expressed together, as when a plasmid containing
953:
1883:"Cues and regulatory pathways involved in natural competence and transformation in pathogenic and environmental Gram-negative bacteria"
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Additionally, growth (and thereby mitosis) of these fungi exclusively occurs at the tip of their hyphae which can also deliver issues.
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being created by injecting a gene for a rat growth hormone into a mouse embryo in 1982. In 1897 a bacterium that caused plant tumors,
1776:
Sanford JC, Klein TM, Wolf ED, Allen N (1987). "Delivery of substances into cells and tissues using a particle bombardment process".
197:, a commonly used laboratory organism, was refractory to transformation. However, in 1970, Morton Mandel and Akiko Higa showed that
4797:
4115:
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793:: Formation of transient holes in the cell membranes using electric shock; this allows DNA to enter as described above for bacteria.
274:. By removing the genes in the plasmid that caused the tumor and adding in novel genes, researchers were able to infect plants with
1803:
Klein RM, Wolf ED, Wu R, Sanford JC (1992). "High-velocity microprojectiles for delivering nucleic acids into living cells. 1987".
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and is measured in colony forming unit (cfu) per μg DNA used. A transformation efficiency of 1×10 cfu/μg for a small plasmid like
642:
636:
To test whether the adaptive function of transformation is repair of DNA damages, a series of experiments were carried out using
478:" has a special meaning in relation to animal cells, indicating progression to a cancerous state, the process is usually called "
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and let the bacteria insert their chosen DNA into the genomes of the plants. Not all plant cells are susceptible to infection by
169:
122:" has a special meaning in relation to animal cells, indicating progression to a cancerous state, the process is usually called "
3302:
Gietz RD, Woods RA (2002). "Transformation of yeast by lithium acetate/single-stranded carrier DNA/polyethylene glycol method".
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that uses cavitation of gas bubbles produced by ultrasound to penetrate the cell membrane, etc. are also applicable to fungi.
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occurs most efficiently at the end of exponential growth as bacterial growth approaches stationary phase. Transformation in
332:
refers to a temporary state of being able to take up exogenous DNA from the environment; it may be induced in a laboratory.
3943:
At the Max Planck
Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology in Potsdam-Golm plant cells are 'bombarded' using a particle gun
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phylum), competence develops during the mid-late exponential growth phase and is also triggered by amino acids starvation.
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1682:"Ti plasmid vector for the introduction of DNA into plant cells without alteration of their normal regeneration capacity"
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4108:
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Solomon JM, Grossman AD (April 1996). "Who's competent and when: regulation of natural genetic competence in bacteria".
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Poyedinok, N. L.; Blume, Ya. B. (March 2018). "Advances, Problems, and
Prospects of Genetic Transformation of Fungi".
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is induced toward the end of logarithmic growth, especially under conditions of amino acid limitation. Similarly, in
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Aspiras MB, Ellen RP, Cvitkovitch DG (September 2004). "ComX activity of Streptococcus mutans growing in biofilms".
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was developed in the late 1980s, increasing the efficiency of in-vitro transformation and increasing the number of
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Inoue H, Nojima H, Okayama H (November 1990). "High efficiency transformation of Escherichia coli with plasmids".
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As of 2014 about 80 species of bacteria were known to be capable of transformation, about evenly divided between
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1598:"Dramatic growth of mice that develop from eggs microinjected with metallothionein-growth hormone fusion genes"
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1451:"Nonchromosomal antibiotic resistance in bacteria: genetic transformation of Escherichia coli by R-factor DNA"
1005:, which allows it to be replicated in the cell independently of the replication of the cell's own chromosome.
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624:. Charpentier et al. suggested that competence for transformation probably evolved as a DNA damage response.
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2291:"Incorporation of the whole chromosomal DNA in protoplast lysates into competent cells of Bacillus subtilis"
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Competence is specifically induced by DNA damaging conditions. For instance, transformation is induced in
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2078:"Low-level pilin expression allows for substantial DNA transformation competence in Neisseria gonorrhoeae"
1517:
1360:"The Transformation of Genetics by DNA: An Anniversary Celebration of AVERY, MACLEOD and MCCARTY(1944) in
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The efficiency with which a competent culture can take up exogenous DNA and express its genes is known as
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that could be transformed. Transformation of animal and plant cells was also investigated with the first
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Palmiter RD, Brinster RL, Hammer RE, Trumbauer ME, Rosenfeld MG, Birnberg NC, Evans RM (December 1982).
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3147:"Transformation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other fungi: methods and possible underlying mechanism"
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2782:"Antibiotics and UV radiation induce competence for natural transformation in Legionella pneumophila"
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It has been found that growth of Gram-negative bacteria in 20 mM Mg reduces the number of protein-to-
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allows the cells to take up plasmid DNA. Later protocols adapted this transformation method, using
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115:; the number might be an overestimate since several of the reports are supported by single papers.
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He, Liya; Feng, Jiao; Lu, Sha; Chen, Zhiwen; Chen, Chunmei; He, Ya; Yi, Xiuwen; Xi, Liyan (2017).
2926:"Hydroxyurea induces site-specific DNA damage via formation of hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide"
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1999:
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is another method of promoting competence. In this method the cells are briefly shocked with an
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created an efficient and convenient procedure for transforming bacteria which allows for simpler
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88:, in which exogenous genetic material passes from one bacterium to another, the other two being
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Michod RE, Bernstein H, Nedelcu AM (May 2008). "Adaptive value of sex in microbial pathogens".
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which replicates in the cytoplasm of infected cell. For such genomes this method is a form of
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Case, Christine; Funke, Berdell; Tortora, Gerard. Microbiology An Introduction(tenth edition)
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Schematic of bacterial transformation – for which artificial competence must first be induced
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Thanks to development of an expression system for small RNAs in fungi the introduction of a
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As stated earlier, an array of methods used for plant transformation do also work in fungi:
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Enzymatic digestion or agitation with glass beads may also be used to transform yeast cells.
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569:, as well as in many other streptococci, occurs at high cell density and is associated with
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Keen EC, Bliskovsky VV, Malagon F, Baker JD, Prince JS, Klaus JS, Adhya SL (January 2017).
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2978:"Chapter 1: DNA repair as the primary adaptive function of sex in bacteria and eukaryotes"
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2595:"Novel "Superspreader" Bacteriophages Promote Horizontal Gene Transfer by Transformation"
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3057:"Large-volume transformation with high-throughput efficiency chemically competent cells"
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1001:. In order to be stably maintained in the cell, a plasmid DNA molecule must contain an
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Transformation in bacteria was first demonstrated in 1928 by the British bacteriologist
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2703:
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2594:
2570:
2537:
2513:
2486:
2364:
2339:
1697:
1630:
1597:
1388:
1359:
1323:
1298:
1085:
such that those cells without the plasmid may be killed or have their growth arrested.
946:
844:, typically strain C58 (C=Cherry, 58=1958, the year in which this particular strain of
728:
585:
445:
287:
266:, was discovered and in the early 1970s the tumor-inducing agent was found to be a DNA
161:
66:
3909:
3884:
3546:
3311:
3279:
3254:
3230:
3195:
2462:
2437:
2161:
2126:
2102:
2077:
2053:
2018:
1706:
1681:
1531:
1508:
Hanahan D (June 1983). "Studies on transformation of Escherichia coli with plasmids".
1485:
1450:
148:
after being exposed to heat-killed virulent strains. Griffith hypothesized that some "
4947:
4905:
4782:
4720:
4537:
4426:
4313:
3817:
2197:
2093:
2019:"Role of a deoxyribonuclease in the genetic transformation of Diplococcus pneumoniae"
2003:
1902:
1424:
1267:
1100:
824:
698:
593:
514:
319:
238:
101:
77:(s). For transformation to take place, the recipient bacterium must be in a state of
74:
70:
3372:
3131:
2324:
1582:
1250:
1016:
is roughly equivalent to 1 in 2000 molecules of the plasmid used being transformed.
991:
The discovery of artificially induced competence in bacteria allow bacteria such as
4694:
4593:
4572:
4421:
4243:
4084:
4031:
3623:
3518:
2679:"DNA repair and the evolution of transformation in the bacterium Bacillus subtilis"
974:
961:
864:
479:
206:
202:
153:
123:
3270:
1411:
Mandel M, Higa A (October 1970). "Calcium-dependent bacteriophage DNA infection".
3457:
3033:
2744:
2536:
Lichev, Antoni; Angelov, Angel; Cucurull, Inigo; Liebl, Wolfgang (30 July 2019).
2453:
2400:
1948:
1931:
1856:
1379:
4557:
4220:
4089:
4046:
3764:
2694:
1104:
1053:
758:
506:
4932:
3200:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2871:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2561:
2131:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2023:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1455:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1271:
840:
can be transformed by dipping the flowers or whole plant, into a suspension of
27:
Genetic alteration of a cell by uptake of genetic material from the environment
4598:
4261:
3994:
3712:
3687:
3607:
3113:
2843:
1789:
1314:
1182:
1158:
1109:
1091:
923:
887:-mediated transformation, but most plants can be transformed with this method.
757:
Yeast cells may be treated with enzymes to degrade their cell walls, yielding
714:
629:
271:
3885:"A rapid alkaline extraction procedure for screening recombinant plasmid DNA"
3721:
3664:
3615:
2503:
1974:
Chen I, Dubnau D (March 2004). "DNA uptake during bacterial transformation".
1181:(GFP), which produces cells that glow green under blue light, and the enzyme
4910:
4877:
4752:
4411:
4404:
4343:
4338:
4297:
4279:
4023:
3071:
2891:
1186:
502:
145:
3900:
3772:
3729:
3672:
3554:
3426:
3399:
3329:
3220:
3180:
3162:
3041:
2959:
2910:
2815:
2763:
2663:
2628:
2579:
2522:
2471:
2408:
2373:
2316:
2275:
2240:
2111:
2043:
1995:
1957:
1911:
1864:
1715:
1475:
1332:
1242:
453:
with respect to transformation are the medically important human pathogens
383:. It has also been studied in Gram-negative species found in soil such as
3825:
3655:
3638:
3510:
3502:
3475:
3364:
3356:
3288:
2851:
2712:
2610:
2355:
2205:
2151:
2062:
1816:
1680:
Zambryski P, Joos H, Genetello C, Leemans J, Montagu MV, Schell J (1983).
1639:
1574:
1539:
1494:
1432:
1397:
4900:
4867:
4670:
4665:
4542:
3977:
3918:
3239:
2170:
911:
876:
815:
A number of methods are available to transfer DNA into plant cells. Some
672:
242:
209:
after treatment with calcium chloride solution. Two years later in 1972,
2797:
2267:
2232:
1234:
4895:
4872:
4452:
4353:
4202:
4174:
4169:
2307:
2290:
1987:
1566:
1049:
776:
772:
646:
570:
267:
93:
4100:
2076:
Long CD, Tobiason DM, Lazio MP, Kline KA, Seifert HS (November 2003).
761:. These cells are very fragile but take up foreign DNA at a high rate.
4333:
4271:
1932:"Natural genetic transformation: prevalence, mechanisms and function"
1621:
903:
768:
765:
675:
35:
2340:"Studies on transformations of Hemophilus influenzae. I. Competence"
612:, transformation is increased by UV light, a DNA damaging agent. In
290:. Particle bombardment was made possible with the invention of the
4650:
4071:
3255:"Transformation of intact yeast cells treated with alkali cations"
1150:
1013:
930:
916:
744:
523:
498:
3568:
V.Singh and D.K.Jain (2014). "Applications of recombinant DNA".
960:
Physical methods like electroporation, biolistics ("gene gun"),
732:
519:
4104:
3950:
3304:
Guide to Yeast Genetics and Molecular and Cell Biology - Part B
1655:"Agrobacterium: The Natural Genetic Engineer (100 Years Later)"
1023:, the cells are prepared by chilling cells in the presence of
860:
2924:
Sakano K, Oikawa S, Hasegawa K, Kawanishi S (November 2001).
2728:"DNA damage triggers genetic exchange in Helicobacter pylori"
2487:"Novel Flp pilus biogenesis-dependent natural transformation"
3858:(3): 77–78. Archived from the original on September 3, 2011.
2127:"Sequence-specific DNA uptake in Haemophilus transformation"
1731:"Transforming Plants - Basic Genetic Engineering Techniques"
2780:
Charpentier X, Kay E, Schneider D, Shuman HA (March 2011).
1362:
Anecdotal, Historical and Critical Commentaries on Genetics
449:
distributed in several different classes. The best studied
2867:"Transcription termination maintains chromosome integrity"
2726:
Dorer MS, Fero J, Salama NR (July 2010). Blanke SR (ed.).
1270:, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002).
513:
competent cells on a DNA receptor, and passes through the
3306:. Methods in Enzymology. Vol. 350. pp. 87–96.
2677:
Michod RE, Wojciechowski MF, Hoelzer MA (January 1988).
1121:. This method of screening relies on the principle of α-
1090:
grow. Another method of selection is the use of certain
981:
Practical aspects of transformation in molecular biology
973:
Introduction of DNA into animal cells is usually called
413:
has been studied in medically important species such as
176:
and the discovery of other methods of genetic transfer (
3442:"Transformation of yeast by agitation with glass beads"
1930:
Johnsborg O, Eldholm V, Håvarstein LS (December 2007).
343:
Transformation has been studied in medically important
245:, and it is now a routinely used laboratory procedure.
2438:"Requirements for Transformation in Bacillus Subtilis"
653:
Methods and mechanisms of transformation in laboratory
443:. It has also been reported in at least 30 species of
229:. The discovery of artificially induced competence in
84:
Transformation is one of three processes that lead to
69:
resulting from the direct uptake and incorporation of
4921:
1153:, forming characteristic blue colonies. However, the
4185:
List of varieties of genetically modified maize/corn
3253:
Ito H, Fukuda Y, Murata K, Kimura A (January 1983).
30:
Not to be confused with an unrelated process called
4860:
4814:
4796:
4743:
4713:
4681:
4618:
4611:
4581:
4528:
4519:
4482:
4435:
4385:
4376:
4306:
4288:
4270:
4252:
4229:
4211:
4193:
4160:
4151:
4138:
4070:
4021:
3992:
3688:"Gene-edited CRISPR mushroom escapes US regulation"
1756:"Biologists invent gun for shooting cells with DNA"
96:between two bacterial cells in direct contact) and
3643:The International Journal of Developmental Biology
3145:Kawai S, Hashimoto W, Murata K (1 November 2010).
2984:. Nova Sci. Publ., Hauppauge, N.Y. pp. 1–49.
592:By releasing intact host and plasmid DNA, certain
2421:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
1169:gene. Successful ligation therefore disrupts the
1076:Selection and screening in plasmid transformation
977:, and is discussed in the corresponding article.
3005:Michod RE, Bernstein H, Nedelcu AM (May 2008).
2017:Lacks S, Greenberg B, Neuberger M (June 1974).
1925:
1923:
1921:
1133:) in the plasmid can complement another mutant
1048:solution), making the cell become permeable to
600:Transformation, as an adaptation for DNA repair
3007:"Adaptive value of sex in microbial pathogens"
2775:
2773:
164:. They isolated DNA from a virulent strain of
4116:
3962:
3090:
3088:
1778:Journal of Particulate Science and Technology
902:There are some methods to produce transgenic
596:are thought to contribute to transformation.
282:, so other methods were developed, including
8:
3066:. Vol. 20, no. 2. pp. 54–56.
2976:Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE (2012).
2971:
2969:
721:either cell pores or the damaged cell wall.
4758:Detection of genetically modified organisms
2295:Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry
1276:. New York: Garland Science. p. G:35.
1095:only cells containing the plasmid to grow.
583:(a representative of the less well studied
4615:
4525:
4382:
4157:
4148:
4123:
4109:
4101:
3969:
3955:
3947:
3194:Hinnen A, Hicks JB, Fink GR (April 1978).
2865:Washburn RS, Gottesman ME (January 2011).
2436:Anagnostopoulos C, Spizizen J (May 1961).
1216:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1202:
3908:
3711:
3654:
3465:
3278:
3229:
3219:
3170:
2949:
2900:
2890:
2805:
2753:
2743:
2702:
2618:
2569:
2512:
2502:
2461:
2363:
2306:
2160:
2150:
2101:
2052:
2042:
1947:
1901:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1705:
1629:
1521:
1484:
1474:
1387:
1322:
1262:
1260:
213:, Annie Chang and Leslie Hsu showed that
3535:Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering
2256:Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering
2221:Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering
1876:
1874:
1661:. The American Phytopathological Society
1299:"The Significance of Pneumococcal Types"
1059:The transformation efficiency using the
656:
306:Transformation is one of three forms of
188:that Avery's experiments were accepted.
40:
4928:
3839:Donahue RA, Bloom FR (September 1998).
1969:
1967:
1198:
1177:Other commonly used reporter genes are
3861:
3845:electroporated with large plasmid DNA"
2656:10.1146/annurev.micro.60.080805.142139
2414:
929:Mycelial fungi consist of filamentous
3883:Birnboim HC, Doly J (November 1979).
3589:
3587:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3579:
3440:Costanzo MC, Fox TD (November 1988).
3081:on 2013-03-06 – via Invitrogen.
2338:Goodgal SH, Herriott RM (July 1961).
509:complex at the cytoplasmic membrane.
486:Natural competence and transformation
7:
2289:Akamatsu T, Taguchi H (April 2001).
2125:Sisco KL, Smith HO (February 1979).
437:and in Gram-positive soil bacterium
4959:Modification of genetic information
2930:Japanese Journal of Cancer Research
201:may be induced to take up DNA from
34:which occurs in the progression of
4788:Genetic use restriction technology
3055:Donahue RA, Bloom FR (July 1998).
2942:10.1111/j.1349-7006.2001.tb02136.x
1698:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1983.tb01715.x
1185:, which catalyzes a reaction with
1157:, where a gene of interest may be
872:Some vector-less methods include:
292:Biolistic Particle Delivery System
73:from its surroundings through the
25:
3639:"Genetic transformation of fungi"
3014:Infection, Genetics and Evolution
2980:. In Kimura S, Shimizu S (eds.).
2344:The Journal of General Physiology
1837:Infection, Genetics and Evolution
1449:, Chang AC, Hsu L (August 1972).
4931:
3572:. Nageen Prakashan. p. 840.
2094:10.1128/iai.71.11.6279-6291.2003
1903:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2012.00353.x
1881:Seitz P, Blokesch M (May 2013).
1555:Molecular & General Genetics
693:The surface of bacteria such as
643:Evolution of sexual reproduction
170:Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment
4806:Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
1021:calcium chloride transformation
764:Exposing intact yeast cells to
191:It was originally thought that
100:(injection of foreign DNA by a
3841:"Transformation efficiency of
1805:Biotechnology (Reading, Mass.)
1:
4568:Somatic cell nuclear transfer
3547:10.1016/s1389-1723(02)80138-4
3312:10.1016/S0076-6879(02)50957-5
3271:10.1128/JB.153.1.163-168.1983
2644:Annual Review of Microbiology
1532:10.1016/S0022-2836(83)80284-8
1273:Molecular Biology of the Cell
697:is negatively charged due to
3818:10.1016/0378-1119(90)90336-P
3034:10.1016/j.meegid.2008.01.002
2745:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001026
2454:10.1128/JB.81.5.741-746.1961
2401:10.1016/j.femsle.2004.07.032
2198:10.1016/0168-9525(96)10014-7
1976:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
1949:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.09.004
1857:10.1016/j.meegid.2008.01.002
1510:Journal of Molecular Biology
1425:10.1016/0022-2836(70)90051-3
1413:Journal of Molecular Biology
1223:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
318:, carried out by means of a
3765:10.1016/j.plrev.2014.01.007
3686:Waltz, Emily (April 2016).
336:damage that also generates
4980:
3458:10.1093/genetics/120.3.667
2562:10.1038/s41598-019-47423-x
1380:10.1093/genetics/136.2.423
1125:, where a fragment of the
984:
489:
71:exogenous genetic material
29:
18:Cell transformation, viral
4891:
4626:Genetically modified food
4057:Sister chromatid exchange
3935:Bacterial Transformation
3868:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
3713:10.1038/nature.2016.19754
3608:10.3103/S009545271802007X
3196:"Transformation of yeast"
3114:10.1007/978-81-322-1090-0
2695:10.1093/genetics/118.1.31
2491:Frontiers in Microbiology
2389:FEMS Microbiology Letters
1890:FEMS Microbiology Reviews
1790:10.1080/02726358708904533
1765:. 14 May 1987. p. 3.
1315:10.1017/s0022172400031879
1179:green fluorescent protein
1072:electroporation process.
1010:transformation efficiency
987:Transformation efficiency
881:transformation efficiency
842:Agrobacterium tumefaciens
573:formation. Competence in
263:Agrobacterium tumefaciens
4052:Horizontal gene transfer
3982:homologous recombination
3786:Bacterial Transformation
2982:DNA Repair: New Research
2504:10.3389/fmicb.2015.00084
1936:Research in Microbiology
1165:, is located within the
750:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
606:Streptococcus pneumoniae
503:type II secretion system
416:Streptococcus pneumoniae
312:homologous recombination
308:horizontal gene transfer
141:Streptococcus pneumoniae
86:horizontal gene transfer
32:malignant transformation
3986:mobile genetic elements
3745:Physics of Life Reviews
3259:Journal of Bacteriology
2892:10.1073/pnas.1009564108
2844:10.1093/mutage/10.4.343
2786:Journal of Bacteriology
2442:Journal of Bacteriology
2403:(inactive 2024-09-17).
819:-mediated methods are:
434:Streptococcus sanguinis
409:. Transformation among
3889:Nucleic Acids Research
3427:10.1006/meth.1993.1021
3400:10.1006/meth.1993.1011
3221:10.1073/pnas.75.4.1929
3163:10.4161/bbug.1.6.13257
2082:Infection and Immunity
2044:10.1073/pnas.71.6.2305
1476:10.1073/pnas.69.8.2110
1303:The Journal of Hygiene
1145:is transformed into a
662:
618:Legionella pneumophila
560:Haemophilus influenzae
531:Natural transformation
462:Haemophilus influenzae
411:Gram-positive bacteria
400:Ralstonia solanacearum
374:Haemophilus influenzae
362:Neisseria meningitidis
356:Legionella pneumophila
345:Gram-negative bacteria
150:transforming principle
113:Gram-negative bacteria
46:
4239:Roundup ready soybean
4037:Chromosomal crossover
3656:10.1387/ijdb.160026lh
3596:Cytology and Genetics
3503:10.1002/yea.320070704
3357:10.1002/yea.320110408
3095:Srivastava S (2013).
2611:10.1128/mBio.02115-16
2356:10.1085/jgp.44.6.1201
2152:10.1073/pnas.76.2.972
1155:multiple cloning site
1113:gene which codes for
1087:Antibiotic resistance
1003:origin of replication
985:Further information:
910:A major issue is the
660:
456:Neisseria gonorrhoeae
428:Staphylococcus aureus
368:Neisseria gonorrhoeae
248:Transformation using
44:
4778:Reverse transfection
4553:Genetic transduction
3901:10.1093/nar/7.6.1513
3098:Genetics of Bacteria
1119:blue-white screening
853:Viral transformation
838:Arabidopsis thaliana
834:herbicide resistance
566:Streptococcus mutans
515:cytoplasmic membrane
422:Streptococcus mutans
393:, and Gram-negative
391:Acinetobacter baylyi
386:Pseudomonas stutzeri
314:; the other two are
211:Stanley Norman Cohen
4768:Genetics in fiction
4700:Genetic enhancement
4502:Hepatitis B vaccine
4132:Genetic engineering
3941:"Ready, aim, fire!"
3937:(a Flash Animation)
3757:2014PhLRv..11..184R
3704:2016Natur.532..293W
3212:1978PNAS...75.1929H
3026:2008InfGE...8..267M
2883:2011PNAS..108..792W
2798:10.1128/JB.01146-10
2554:2019NatSR...911030L
2268:10.1263/jbb.101.334
2233:10.1263/jbb.101.257
2143:1979PNAS...76..972S
2035:1974PNAS...71.2305L
1849:2008InfGE...8..267M
1614:1982Natur.300..611P
1467:1972PNAS...69.2110C
1297:Griffith F (1928).
1235:10.1038/nrmicro3199
785:polyethylene glycol
703:lipopolysaccharides
614:Helicobacter pylori
468:Helicobacter pylori
350:Helicobacter pylori
205:without the use of
4878:Stem cell research
4497:Ice-minus bacteria
3791:2010-06-10 at the
3151:Bioengineered Bugs
2542:Scientific Reports
2308:10.1271/bbb.65.823
2186:Trends in Genetics
1988:10.1038/nrmicro844
1567:10.1007/BF00332248
954:CRISPR/CAS9-system
687:lipopolysaccharide
663:
580:Micrococcus luteus
492:Natural competence
406:Xylella fastidiosa
136:Frederick Griffith
47:
4964:Molecular biology
4919:
4918:
4883:Synthetic biology
4773:Human enhancement
4763:Genetic pollution
4739:
4738:
4607:
4606:
4515:
4514:
4478:
4477:
4372:
4371:
4098:
4097:
3123:978-81-322-1089-4
2991:978-1-62100-808-8
1763:Cornell Chronicle
1735:Access Excellence
1356:Lederberg, Joshua
1283:978-0-8153-4072-0
1161:into the plasmid
1083:selectable marker
883:is lower than in
771:such as those of
539:Bacillus subtilis
505:, as well as DNA
440:Bacillus subtilis
338:genetic diversity
254:bacterial strains
235:molecular cloning
51:molecular biology
16:(Redirected from
4971:
4936:
4935:
4927:
4656:Dow AgroSciences
4616:
4526:
4383:
4158:
4149:
4125:
4118:
4111:
4102:
3971:
3964:
3957:
3948:
3923:
3922:
3912:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3867:
3859:
3849:
3836:
3830:
3829:
3801:
3795:
3783:
3777:
3776:
3740:
3734:
3733:
3715:
3683:
3677:
3676:
3658:
3649:(6–7): 375–381.
3634:
3628:
3627:
3591:
3574:
3573:
3565:
3559:
3558:
3529:
3523:
3522:
3486:
3480:
3479:
3469:
3437:
3431:
3430:
3410:
3404:
3403:
3383:
3377:
3376:
3340:
3334:
3333:
3299:
3293:
3292:
3282:
3250:
3244:
3243:
3233:
3223:
3191:
3185:
3184:
3174:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3103:
3092:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3074:. Archived from
3061:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3011:
3002:
2996:
2995:
2973:
2964:
2963:
2953:
2921:
2915:
2914:
2904:
2894:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2826:
2820:
2819:
2809:
2777:
2768:
2767:
2757:
2747:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2706:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2622:
2605:(1): e02115–16.
2590:
2584:
2583:
2573:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2516:
2506:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2465:
2433:
2427:
2426:
2420:
2412:
2384:
2378:
2377:
2367:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2310:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2251:
2245:
2244:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2181:
2175:
2174:
2164:
2154:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2105:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2056:
2046:
2014:
2008:
2007:
1971:
1962:
1961:
1951:
1927:
1916:
1915:
1905:
1887:
1878:
1869:
1868:
1832:
1821:
1820:
1800:
1794:
1793:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1760:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1729:Peters, Pamela.
1726:
1720:
1719:
1709:
1686:The EMBO Journal
1677:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1653:Nester, Eugene.
1650:
1644:
1643:
1633:
1622:10.1038/300611a0
1593:
1587:
1586:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1525:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1488:
1478:
1443:
1437:
1436:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1391:
1352:
1346:
1343:
1337:
1336:
1326:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1264:
1255:
1254:
1218:
1070:
1069:
1068:
1047:
1045:
1044:
1033:
1032:
1031:
994:Escherichia coli
912:dikaryotic state
743:Most species of
680:calcium chloride
347:species such as
258:transgenic mouse
224:
223:
222:
194:Escherichia coli
186:Joshua Lederberg
94:genetic material
65:alteration of a
21:
4979:
4978:
4974:
4973:
4972:
4970:
4969:
4968:
4944:
4943:
4942:
4930:
4922:
4920:
4915:
4887:
4856:
4810:
4792:
4745:
4735:
4709:
4705:Genetic testing
4687:
4677:
4603:
4589:Recombinant DNA
4577:
4548:Electroporation
4511:
4507:Oncolytic virus
4486:
4474:
4431:
4417:Herman the Bull
4368:
4302:
4284:
4266:
4248:
4225:
4207:
4189:
4143:
4141:
4134:
4129:
4099:
4094:
4080:Antigenic shift
4066:
4042:Gene conversion
4017:
3988:
3975:
3931:
3926:
3882:
3881:
3877:
3860:
3847:
3838:
3837:
3833:
3803:
3802:
3798:
3793:Wayback Machine
3784:
3780:
3742:
3741:
3737:
3685:
3684:
3680:
3636:
3635:
3631:
3593:
3592:
3577:
3567:
3566:
3562:
3531:
3530:
3526:
3488:
3487:
3483:
3439:
3438:
3434:
3412:
3411:
3407:
3385:
3384:
3380:
3342:
3341:
3337:
3322:
3301:
3300:
3296:
3252:
3251:
3247:
3193:
3192:
3188:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3124:
3106:Springer-Verlag
3101:
3094:
3093:
3086:
3078:
3059:
3054:
3053:
3049:
3009:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2992:
2975:
2974:
2967:
2936:(11): 1166–74.
2923:
2922:
2918:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2828:
2827:
2823:
2779:
2778:
2771:
2738:(7): e1001026.
2725:
2724:
2720:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2641:
2640:
2636:
2592:
2591:
2587:
2535:
2534:
2530:
2484:
2483:
2479:
2435:
2434:
2430:
2413:
2386:
2385:
2381:
2337:
2336:
2332:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2218:
2217:
2213:
2183:
2182:
2178:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2088:(11): 6279–91.
2075:
2074:
2070:
2016:
2015:
2011:
1973:
1972:
1965:
1929:
1928:
1919:
1885:
1880:
1879:
1872:
1834:
1833:
1824:
1802:
1801:
1797:
1775:
1774:
1770:
1758:
1754:
1753:
1749:
1739:
1737:
1728:
1727:
1723:
1692:(12): 2143–50.
1679:
1678:
1674:
1664:
1662:
1652:
1651:
1647:
1608:(5893): 611–5.
1595:
1594:
1590:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1523:10.1.1.460.2021
1507:
1506:
1502:
1445:
1444:
1440:
1410:
1409:
1405:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1284:
1266:
1265:
1258:
1220:
1219:
1200:
1196:
1123:complementation
1115:β-galactosidase
1103:can be used as
1078:
1067:
1064:
1063:
1062:
1060:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1038:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1024:
989:
983:
971:
900:
891:Electroporation
813:
791:Electroporation
781:lithium acetate
741:
725:Electroporation
709:DNA entry into
668:
655:
602:
533:
494:
488:
395:plant pathogens
380:Vibrio cholerae
304:
288:micro-injection
284:electroporation
250:electroporation
227:Douglas Hanahan
221:
218:
217:
216:
214:
203:bacteriophage λ
174:genetic markers
132:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4977:
4975:
4967:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4946:
4945:
4941:
4940:
4917:
4916:
4914:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4892:
4889:
4888:
4886:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4864:
4862:
4861:Similar fields
4858:
4857:
4855:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4818:
4816:
4812:
4811:
4809:
4808:
4802:
4800:
4794:
4793:
4791:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4749:
4747:
4741:
4740:
4737:
4736:
4734:
4733:
4731:Gene targeting
4728:
4726:Gene knockdown
4723:
4717:
4715:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4691:
4689:
4679:
4678:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4661:DuPont Pioneer
4658:
4653:
4648:
4640:
4635:
4634:
4633:
4622:
4620:
4619:In agriculture
4613:
4609:
4608:
4605:
4604:
4602:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4585:
4583:
4579:
4578:
4576:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4563:Microinjection
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4534:
4532:
4523:
4517:
4516:
4513:
4512:
4510:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4493:
4491:
4480:
4479:
4476:
4475:
4473:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4461:
4460:
4455:
4445:
4439:
4437:
4433:
4432:
4430:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4408:
4407:
4402:
4400:Knockout mouse
4391:
4389:
4380:
4374:
4373:
4370:
4369:
4367:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4310:
4308:
4304:
4303:
4301:
4300:
4294:
4292:
4286:
4285:
4283:
4282:
4276:
4274:
4268:
4267:
4265:
4264:
4258:
4256:
4250:
4249:
4247:
4246:
4241:
4235:
4233:
4227:
4226:
4224:
4223:
4217:
4215:
4209:
4208:
4206:
4205:
4199:
4197:
4191:
4190:
4188:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4172:
4166:
4164:
4155:
4146:
4136:
4135:
4130:
4128:
4127:
4120:
4113:
4105:
4096:
4095:
4093:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4076:
4074:
4068:
4067:
4065:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4028:
4026:
4019:
4018:
4016:
4015:
4013:Transformation
4010:
4005:
3999:
3997:
3990:
3989:
3976:
3974:
3973:
3966:
3959:
3951:
3945:
3944:
3938:
3930:
3929:External links
3927:
3925:
3924:
3895:(6): 1513–23.
3875:
3831:
3796:
3778:
3751:(2): 184–203.
3735:
3678:
3629:
3602:(2): 139–154.
3575:
3560:
3524:
3481:
3432:
3421:(2): 161–175.
3405:
3378:
3335:
3320:
3294:
3245:
3206:(4): 1929–33.
3186:
3157:(6): 395–403.
3137:
3122:
3084:
3047:
2997:
2990:
2965:
2916:
2857:
2821:
2792:(5): 1114–21.
2769:
2732:PLOS Pathogens
2718:
2669:
2634:
2585:
2528:
2477:
2428:
2379:
2350:(6): 1201–27.
2330:
2281:
2246:
2211:
2176:
2117:
2068:
2009:
1963:
1942:(10): 767–78.
1917:
1870:
1822:
1795:
1768:
1747:
1721:
1672:
1645:
1588:
1545:
1500:
1438:
1403:
1347:
1338:
1289:
1282:
1256:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1107:, such as the
1101:Reporter genes
1077:
1074:
1065:
1041:
1029:
982:
979:
970:
967:
966:
965:
958:
950:
947:acetosyringone
938:
937:
934:
927:
920:
899:
896:
895:
894:
888:
870:
869:
850:
846:A. tumefaciens
812:
809:
798:
797:
794:
788:
762:
740:
737:
729:electric field
667:
664:
654:
651:
622:L. pneumophila
601:
598:
594:bacteriophages
586:Actinomycetota
532:
529:
490:Main article:
487:
484:
476:transformation
451:Pseudomonadota
446:Pseudomonadota
303:
300:
298:in the 1980s.
294:(gene gun) by
280:A. tumefaciens
276:A. tumefaciens
219:
162:Maclyn McCarty
144:could be made
131:
128:
120:transformation
59:transformation
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4976:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4954:Gene delivery
4952:
4951:
4949:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4925:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4906:Biotechnology
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4893:
4890:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4865:
4863:
4859:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4847:South America
4845:
4842:
4838:
4837:North America
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4819:
4817:
4813:
4807:
4804:
4803:
4801:
4799:
4795:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4783:Transhumanism
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4750:
4748:
4742:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4721:Gene knockout
4719:
4718:
4716:
4712:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4643:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4632:
4631:Controversies
4629:
4628:
4627:
4624:
4623:
4621:
4617:
4614:
4610:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4535:
4533:
4531:
4530:Inserting DNA
4527:
4524:
4522:
4518:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4494:
4492:
4490:
4485:
4481:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4451:
4450:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4440:
4438:
4436:Other animals
4434:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4397:
4396:
4393:
4392:
4390:
4388:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4375:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4311:
4309:
4305:
4299:
4296:
4295:
4293:
4291:
4287:
4281:
4278:
4277:
4275:
4273:
4269:
4263:
4260:
4259:
4257:
4255:
4251:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4236:
4234:
4232:
4228:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4216:
4214:
4210:
4204:
4201:
4200:
4198:
4196:
4192:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4167:
4165:
4163:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4137:
4133:
4126:
4121:
4119:
4114:
4112:
4107:
4106:
4103:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4077:
4075:
4073:
4069:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4029:
4027:
4025:
4020:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3996:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3972:
3967:
3965:
3960:
3958:
3953:
3952:
3949:
3942:
3939:
3936:
3933:
3932:
3928:
3920:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3879:
3876:
3871:
3865:
3857:
3853:
3846:
3844:
3835:
3832:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3800:
3797:
3794:
3790:
3787:
3782:
3779:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3739:
3736:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3698:(7599): 293.
3697:
3693:
3689:
3682:
3679:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3633:
3630:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3590:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3582:
3580:
3576:
3571:
3564:
3561:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3541:(2): 166–71.
3540:
3536:
3528:
3525:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3485:
3482:
3477:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3452:(3): 667–70.
3451:
3447:
3443:
3436:
3433:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3409:
3406:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3382:
3379:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3351:(4): 355–60.
3350:
3346:
3339:
3336:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3321:9780121822538
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3298:
3295:
3290:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3249:
3246:
3241:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3190:
3187:
3182:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3138:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3100:
3099:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3058:
3051:
3048:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3020:(3): 267–85.
3019:
3015:
3008:
3001:
2998:
2993:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2961:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2920:
2917:
2912:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2861:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2838:(4): 343–51.
2837:
2833:
2825:
2822:
2817:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2776:
2774:
2770:
2765:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2722:
2719:
2714:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2673:
2670:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2638:
2635:
2630:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2589:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2532:
2529:
2524:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2481:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2432:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2395:(1): 167–74.
2394:
2390:
2383:
2380:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2334:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2285:
2282:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2250:
2247:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2227:(3): 257–62.
2226:
2222:
2215:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2180:
2177:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2121:
2118:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2069:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2029:(6): 2305–9.
2028:
2024:
2020:
2013:
2010:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1896:(3): 336–63.
1895:
1891:
1884:
1877:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1843:(3): 267–85.
1842:
1838:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1799:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1772:
1769:
1764:
1757:
1751:
1748:
1736:
1732:
1725:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1676:
1673:
1660:
1656:
1649:
1646:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1592:
1589:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1549:
1546:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1516:(4): 557–80.
1515:
1511:
1504:
1501:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1461:(8): 2110–4.
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1442:
1439:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1419:(1): 159–62.
1418:
1414:
1407:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1363:
1357:
1351:
1348:
1342:
1339:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1309:(2): 113–59.
1308:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1290:
1285:
1279:
1275:
1274:
1269:
1263:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1229:(3): 181–96.
1228:
1224:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1175:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1111:
1106:
1102:
1096:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1075:
1073:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1046:
1022:
1017:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1004:
1000:
996:
995:
988:
980:
978:
976:
968:
963:
959:
955:
951:
948:
943:
942:
941:
935:
932:
928:
925:
921:
918:
913:
909:
908:
907:
905:
897:
892:
889:
886:
885:Agrobacterium
882:
878:
875:
874:
873:
866:
862:
858:
854:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
830:Agrobacterium
827:
826:
825:Agrobacterium
822:
821:
820:
818:
810:
808:
806:
805:S. cerevisiae
802:
795:
792:
789:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
767:
763:
760:
756:
755:
754:
752:
751:
746:
738:
736:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
716:
712:
707:
704:
700:
699:phospholipids
696:
691:
688:
683:
681:
677:
674:
665:
659:
652:
650:
648:
644:
639:
634:
631:
625:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
599:
597:
595:
590:
588:
587:
582:
581:
576:
572:
568:
567:
562:
561:
555:
552:
549:
544:
541:
540:
530:
528:
525:
521:
516:
510:
508:
504:
500:
493:
485:
483:
481:
477:
472:
470:
469:
464:
463:
458:
457:
452:
448:
447:
442:
441:
436:
435:
430:
429:
424:
423:
418:
417:
412:
408:
407:
402:
401:
396:
392:
388:
387:
382:
381:
376:
375:
370:
369:
364:
363:
358:
357:
352:
351:
346:
341:
339:
333:
331:
327:
325:
321:
320:bacteriophage
317:
313:
309:
301:
299:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
264:
259:
255:
251:
246:
244:
240:
239:biotechnology
236:
232:
228:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
195:
189:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
166:S. pneumoniae
163:
159:
158:Colin MacLeod
155:
151:
147:
143:
142:
137:
129:
127:
125:
121:
116:
114:
110:
109:Gram-positive
105:
103:
102:bacteriophage
99:
95:
92:(transfer of
91:
87:
82:
80:
76:
75:cell membrane
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
43:
37:
33:
19:
4695:Gene therapy
4594:Transgenesis
4573:Transfection
4538:Agrobacteria
4422:Knockout rat
4244:Vistive Gold
4140:Genetically
4085:Reassortment
4032:Transfection
4008:Transduction
3892:
3888:
3878:
3864:cite journal
3855:
3851:
3842:
3834:
3809:
3805:
3799:
3781:
3748:
3744:
3738:
3695:
3691:
3681:
3646:
3642:
3632:
3599:
3595:
3569:
3563:
3538:
3534:
3527:
3497:(7): 691–2.
3494:
3490:
3484:
3449:
3445:
3435:
3418:
3414:
3408:
3394:(2): 79–85.
3391:
3387:
3381:
3348:
3344:
3338:
3303:
3297:
3265:(1): 163–8.
3262:
3258:
3248:
3203:
3199:
3189:
3154:
3150:
3140:
3097:
3076:the original
3063:
3050:
3017:
3013:
3000:
2981:
2933:
2929:
2919:
2877:(2): 792–7.
2874:
2870:
2860:
2835:
2831:
2824:
2789:
2785:
2735:
2731:
2721:
2686:
2682:
2672:
2647:
2643:
2637:
2602:
2598:
2588:
2548:(1): 11030.
2545:
2541:
2531:
2494:
2490:
2480:
2448:(5): 741–6.
2445:
2441:
2431:
2417:cite journal
2392:
2388:
2382:
2347:
2343:
2333:
2301:(4): 823–9.
2298:
2294:
2284:
2262:(4): 334–9.
2259:
2255:
2249:
2224:
2220:
2214:
2192:(4): 150–5.
2189:
2185:
2179:
2137:(2): 972–6.
2134:
2130:
2120:
2085:
2081:
2071:
2026:
2022:
2012:
1982:(3): 241–9.
1979:
1975:
1939:
1935:
1893:
1889:
1840:
1836:
1808:
1804:
1798:
1781:
1777:
1771:
1762:
1750:
1738:. Retrieved
1734:
1724:
1689:
1685:
1675:
1663:. Retrieved
1658:
1648:
1605:
1601:
1591:
1561:(1): 175–7.
1558:
1554:
1548:
1513:
1509:
1503:
1458:
1454:
1441:
1416:
1412:
1406:
1374:(2): 423–6.
1371:
1367:
1361:
1350:
1341:
1306:
1302:
1292:
1272:
1226:
1222:
1176:
1170:
1166:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1108:
1097:
1079:
1058:
1018:
1007:
998:
992:
990:
975:transfection
972:
962:sonoporation
939:
901:
884:
871:
865:transfection
857:transduction
845:
841:
837:
829:
823:
814:
804:
800:
799:
759:spheroplasts
748:
747:, including
742:
723:
719:
710:
708:
694:
692:
684:
669:
637:
635:
626:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
603:
591:
584:
578:
574:
564:
558:
556:
553:
547:
545:
537:
534:
511:
499:type IV pili
495:
480:transfection
473:
466:
460:
454:
450:
444:
438:
432:
426:
420:
414:
404:
398:
390:
384:
378:
372:
366:
360:
354:
348:
342:
334:
328:
316:transduction
305:
296:John Sanford
279:
275:
261:
247:
230:
207:helper phage
198:
192:
190:
184:in 1953) by
182:transduction
180:in 1947 and
165:
154:Oswald Avery
139:
133:
124:transfection
117:
106:
98:transduction
83:
58:
48:
4714:In research
4688:diagnostics
4558:Lipofection
4319:Arabidopsis
4221:Golden rice
4090:Viral shift
4047:Fusion gene
4003:Conjugation
3995:prokaryotic
3812:(1): 23–8.
3570:ISC BIOLOGY
2832:Mutagenesis
2689:(1): 31–9.
1092:auxotrophic
1054:exonuclease
1050:plasmid DNA
924:protoplasts
917:sporulation
638:B. subtilis
610:B. subtilis
575:B. subtilis
548:B. subtilis
507:translocase
324:conjugation
302:Definitions
270:called the
237:methods in
178:conjugation
90:conjugation
4948:Categories
4798:Regulation
4642:Companies
4599:Cisgenesis
4543:Biolistics
4349:Sugar beet
4262:Flavr Savr
4162:Maize/corn
4062:Transposon
4024:eukaryotes
4022:Occurs in
3993:Primarily
2650:: 451–75.
1740:28 January
1665:14 January
1194:References
1183:luciferase
801:Efficiency
715:cobalamine
630:DNA repair
330:Competence
272:Ti plasmid
79:competence
4911:Bioethics
4815:Geography
4753:Transgene
4521:Processes
4412:Enviropig
4405:Oncomouse
4344:SmartStax
4280:Bt cotton
4144:organisms
3722:0028-0836
3665:0214-6282
3616:0095-4527
3104:. India:
2004:205499369
1811:: 384–6.
1784:: 27–37.
1518:CiteSeerX
1268:Alberts B
1187:luciferin
731:of 10-20
666:Bacterial
4901:Genetics
4868:Eugenics
4746:articles
4671:Syngenta
4666:Monsanto
4638:Pharming
4484:Bacteria
4180:StarLink
4142:modified
3978:Genetics
3789:Archived
3773:24507729
3730:27111611
3673:27528043
3555:16233287
3446:Genetics
3373:22611810
3330:12073338
3181:21468206
3132:35917467
3072:12352630
3042:18295550
2960:11714440
2911:21183718
2816:21169481
2764:20686662
2683:Genetics
2664:16771651
2629:28096488
2580:31363120
2523:25713572
2472:16561900
2409:15336418
2374:13707010
2325:30118947
2317:11388459
2276:16716942
2241:16716928
2112:14573647
1996:15083159
1958:17997281
1912:22928673
1865:18295550
1716:16453482
1583:25214157
1447:Cohen SN
1368:Genetics
1358:(1994).
1333:20474956
1251:23559881
1243:24509783
1147:lacZΔM15
1139:lacZΔM15
1117:used in
1099:insert.
877:Gene gun
673:divalent
397:such as
243:research
146:virulent
55:genetics
4938:Biology
4896:Biology
4873:Cloning
4852:Oceania
4744:Related
4489:viruses
4453:GloFish
4443:Insects
4387:Mammals
4378:Animals
4364:Mustard
4354:Tobacco
4324:Brinjal
4231:Soybean
4203:Amflora
4175:MON 863
4170:MON 810
3843:E. coli
3826:2265755
3753:Bibcode
3700:Bibcode
3624:4561837
3519:7108750
3511:1776359
3476:3066683
3467:1203545
3415:Methods
3388:Methods
3365:7785336
3289:6336730
3208:Bibcode
3172:3056089
3022:Bibcode
2951:5926660
2902:3021005
2879:Bibcode
2852:7476271
2807:3067580
2755:2912397
2713:8608929
2704:1203263
2620:5241400
2571:6667448
2550:Bibcode
2514:4322843
2365:2195138
2206:8901420
2139:Bibcode
2063:4152205
2031:Bibcode
1845:Bibcode
1817:1422046
1640:6958982
1631:4881848
1610:Bibcode
1575:2659971
1540:6345791
1495:4559594
1463:Bibcode
1433:4922220
1398:8150273
1389:1205797
1324:2167760
1159:ligated
1105:markers
999:E. coli
969:Animals
957:market.
849:manner.
777:lithium
773:caesium
769:cations
711:E. coli
695:E. coli
678:(often
676:cations
647:Meiosis
571:biofilm
268:plasmid
231:E. coli
199:E. coli
130:History
63:genetic
61:is the
4924:Portal
4827:Africa
4822:Europe
4684:humans
4458:Salmon
4427:Rabbit
4334:Papaya
4329:Canola
4272:Cotton
4254:Tomato
4195:Potato
3919:388356
3917:
3910:342324
3907:
3824:
3771:
3728:
3720:
3692:Nature
3671:
3663:
3622:
3614:
3553:
3517:
3509:
3474:
3464:
3371:
3363:
3328:
3318:
3287:
3280:217353
3277:
3240:347451
3238:
3231:392455
3228:
3179:
3169:
3130:
3120:
3070:
3040:
2988:
2958:
2948:
2909:
2899:
2850:
2814:
2804:
2762:
2752:
2711:
2701:
2662:
2627:
2617:
2578:
2568:
2521:
2511:
2497:: 84.
2470:
2463:279084
2460:
2407:
2372:
2362:
2323:
2315:
2274:
2239:
2204:
2171:311478
2169:
2162:383110
2159:
2110:
2103:219589
2100:
2061:
2054:388441
2051:
2002:
1994:
1956:
1910:
1863:
1815:
1714:
1707:555426
1704:
1638:
1628:
1602:Nature
1581:
1573:
1538:
1520:
1493:
1486:426879
1483:
1431:
1396:
1386:
1331:
1321:
1280:
1249:
1241:
1163:vector
1143:lacZ-α
1137:gene (
1129:gene (
931:hyphae
817:vector
811:Plants
766:alkali
465:, and
322:, and
160:, and
36:cancer
4651:Bayer
4582:Types
4470:Frogs
4465:Birds
4395:Mouse
4359:Trees
4314:Apple
4307:Other
4290:Wheat
4153:Crops
4072:Viral
3852:Focus
3848:(PDF)
3620:S2CID
3515:S2CID
3491:Yeast
3369:S2CID
3345:Yeast
3128:S2CID
3102:(PDF)
3079:(PDF)
3064:Focus
3060:(PDF)
3010:(PDF)
2321:S2CID
2000:S2CID
1886:(PDF)
1759:(PDF)
1579:S2CID
1247:S2CID
1171:lacZα
1167:lacZα
1151:X-gal
1131:lacZα
1014:pUC19
904:fungi
898:Fungi
868:gene.
745:yeast
739:Yeast
524:Pilin
4832:Asia
4646:BASF
4612:Uses
4487:and
4448:Fish
4339:Rose
4213:Rice
3915:PMID
3870:link
3822:PMID
3806:Gene
3769:PMID
3726:PMID
3718:ISSN
3669:PMID
3661:ISSN
3612:ISSN
3551:PMID
3507:PMID
3472:PMID
3361:PMID
3326:PMID
3316:ISBN
3285:PMID
3236:PMID
3177:PMID
3118:ISBN
3068:OCLC
3038:PMID
2986:ISBN
2956:PMID
2907:PMID
2848:PMID
2812:PMID
2760:PMID
2709:PMID
2660:PMID
2625:PMID
2599:mBio
2576:PMID
2519:PMID
2468:PMID
2423:link
2405:PMID
2370:PMID
2313:PMID
2272:PMID
2237:PMID
2202:PMID
2167:PMID
2108:PMID
2059:PMID
1992:PMID
1954:PMID
1908:PMID
1861:PMID
1813:PMID
1742:2010
1712:PMID
1667:2011
1636:PMID
1571:PMID
1536:PMID
1491:PMID
1429:PMID
1394:PMID
1329:PMID
1278:ISBN
1239:PMID
1135:lacZ
1127:lacZ
1110:lacZ
1061:CaCl
1037:CaCl
1034:(in
701:and
520:RecA
501:and
431:and
403:and
377:and
286:and
241:and
215:CaCl
111:and
67:cell
53:and
4686:and
4682:In
4298:HB4
3905:PMC
3897:doi
3814:doi
3761:doi
3708:doi
3696:532
3651:doi
3604:doi
3543:doi
3499:doi
3462:PMC
3454:doi
3450:120
3423:doi
3396:doi
3353:doi
3308:doi
3275:PMC
3267:doi
3263:153
3226:PMC
3216:doi
3167:PMC
3159:doi
3110:doi
3030:doi
2946:PMC
2938:doi
2897:PMC
2887:doi
2875:108
2840:doi
2802:PMC
2794:doi
2790:193
2750:PMC
2740:doi
2699:PMC
2691:doi
2687:118
2652:doi
2615:PMC
2607:doi
2566:PMC
2558:doi
2509:PMC
2499:doi
2458:PMC
2450:doi
2397:doi
2393:238
2360:PMC
2352:doi
2303:doi
2264:doi
2260:101
2229:doi
2225:101
2194:doi
2157:PMC
2147:doi
2098:PMC
2090:doi
2049:PMC
2039:doi
1984:doi
1944:doi
1940:158
1898:doi
1853:doi
1786:doi
1702:PMC
1694:doi
1659:APS
1626:PMC
1618:doi
1606:300
1563:doi
1559:216
1528:doi
1514:166
1481:PMC
1471:doi
1421:doi
1384:PMC
1376:doi
1372:136
1319:PMC
1311:doi
1231:doi
1019:In
861:RNA
775:or
649:.)
546:In
482:".
126:".
49:In
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