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from
Quizapu is relatively small because of the remote location of Cerro Azul. Nevertheless, the size of past eruptions is large enough for scientists to be worried. Evidence of a potentially deadly threat lies in a lahar at Descabezado Grande. Historically, lahars have killed thousands in the Andes. There is, however, a possibility that a large reservoir of rhyodacite magma may exist under the Azul–Descabezado complex. If this is the case, all previous eruptions in 1846–1967 were only preliminary, preclimactic leaks from the large magma chamber beneath, and a large caldera-forming eruption may be expected in the future.
131:
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496:, more than 70 of Chile's stratovolcanoes and volcanic fields that have been active in the Quaternary, and hundreds of minor eruptive centres. The South Volcanic Zone is the most volcanically active region in Chile, and produces around one eruption per year. Its largest historical eruption was at Quizapu Crater, located on the north side of Cerro Azul's summit (see below), and its most active volcanoes are
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552:
and 9,800 ft) in elevation, except
Quizapu, which is 3,292 meters (10,801 ft) up the volcano. The summit of Cerro Azul is crowned by an asymmetric crater about 500 meters (1,640 ft) in diameter. Pleistocene glacial activity is evident in the form of 500 meter (1,640 ft) deep struts in the volcanoes' sides. These deep cuts have revealed strata of older rock.
36:
900:) has occurred at some point in the range. Cerro Azul itself has experienced phreatic, Strombolian, and Plinian activity in human history. The type of eruption tends to correspond with lava composition. Strombolian eruptions at Llaima, Antuco, Villarrica, and elsewhere have been produced by basaltic to basaltic–andesitic activity. Dacitic to
602:
floor, which is the current inner vent, is around 150 meters (500 ft), while the radius of its rim is 300–350 meters (980–1,150 ft). The crater floor lies at 2,928 meters (9,606 ft), and the rim lies 150–300 meters (500–1,000 ft) above that, giving the walls an average slope of 34–35 degrees (close to the
696:). One, who was camped in a valley approximately 7 kilometers (4 mi) east of Quizapu, heard "a great noise and a cloud of ash" emanate from the mountain in the late afternoon. No precursor activity was reported, and the herdsman claimed that there were no earthquakes during the late afternoon eruption.
827:
saw a large black cloud over the summit. By 9 April, the volcano emitted green gas and started to "bellow like a bull". On April 10, Cerro Azul finally erupted, releasing a towering column or plume of white gas. After 10 AM, the plume turned black with ash and began to form an umbrella shape. The ash
679:
have also been observed as a result of some of these explosive eruptions. The earliest recorded eruption began on
November 26, 1846, while the volcano's last eruption began on August 9, 1967. The volcano has produced two of the largest eruptions in South America in recorded history, in 1846 and 1932.
904:
lavas have been linked to subplinian and
Plinian eruptions, such as those at Quizapu (1932) and Hudson (1991). Because of this variability, volcanic hazards from Cerro Azul and the surrounding region could come in many different forms. Historical eruptions typically have produced lahars, lava flows,
551:
have originated from
Quizapu Crater on the northern flank of Cerro Azul's cone. Other craters lying on the flanks of the main cone are Caracol ("Snail"), Crater los Quillayes, Crater la Resolana, and Crater sin Nombre ("Nameless Crater"). All of the craters lie between 2,000 and 3,000 meters (6,600
925:
Past eruptions of
Quizapu Crater ejected enormous amounts of ash that traveled as far as Brazil. After the 1932 eruption, the local vegetation was devastated, and the area remained barren until the 1990s, though human life was not impacted. Despite the extent of its eruptions, the threat to humans
740:
Cerro Azul was quiet from 1846 to the beginning of the 20th century. After a possible precursor explosive event in 1903, Cerro Azul once again erupted in 1907. Between 1907 and 1914, plumes and clouds of ash frequently rose out of the caldera, and at least a few of these events were explosive. On
601:
The
Quizapu Crater is almost perfectly circular, and rises to a prominence of 150 to 250 meters (490 to 820 ft) above the surrounding portions of the volcano. Cresting at 3,292 meters (10,801 ft) in elevation, Quizapu is one of the highest known Plinian craters. The radius of the crater
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The volcano also erupted phreatically several times, as recorded by Vogel in 1913 and 1920, with its activity increasing from 1916 to 1926. During these years, the eruptions grew more frequent and more violent. A major outburst on
November 2, 1927 started a period of nearly continuous violent
316:
volcanism between 1907 and 1932 excavated this crater. In 1932, one of the largest explosive eruptions of the 20th century occurred at
Quizapu Crater and sent 9.5 cubic kilometers (2.3 cu mi) of ash into the atmosphere. The volcano's most recent eruption was in 1967.
511:
volcano, is part of the
Descabezado Grande–Cerro Azul eruptive system, a volcanic field that comprises its two large namesake volcanic edifices and several smaller vents, including 12 Holocene calderas. Both volcanoes lie on top of the Casitas Shield, a plateau built of over 100
909:
could wipe out entire cities or towns. Ashfall produced by explosive eruptions could interfere with air traffic. Most threatening of all is the risk of pyroclastic flows or avalanches, which have historically traversed as far as 100 kilometers (62 mi) in the region.
630:
are strongly dependent on topography. In the Andes the annual average maximum temperatures lie in the range 20 to 25 °C (68 to 77 °F), while minimum temperatures are below 0 °C (32 °F). Annual precipitation is up to 800 mm (31.5 inches).
589:
in 1932. The volume of lava ejected during this single event is roughly equal to that ejected during the rest of the eruptive history at Quizapu, since its formation in 1846. Although 9.5 cubic kilometers (2.3 cu mi) of material was ejected, no
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Pre-1932 volcanism was largely phreatic or fumarolic, as evidenced by the lack of tephra generated by these eruptions. Photographs from 1912 show vapor plumes containing little ash, rising 1–2 kilometers (0.6–1.2 mi) above the crater.
728:. By November 28, the volcano appeared at rest, and the herdsman returned to the place of first observation. There, they found a blocky lava field. The lava was still hot, fuming and crackling with gas and flame. Fascinated by the volcano,
699:
That night, two herdsmen near the site heard a continuous roar, punctuated by loud bangs and crackling sounds "like that of great rockslides". Lightning and thunder accompanied the spectacle. They saw many blue flames, and were choked by
598:, a Plinian eruption excavates a circular crater. As the earlier eruptions had already formed an approximately circular caldera, the Plinian eruption was able to proceed efficiently, with minimal drag and minimal reshaping of the crater.
822:
By 1932, Quizapu had produced many phreatic events and one effusive eruption, but no large Plinian eruptions. This frequency of minor eruptive activity proved to be a precursor for a major eruption. On 25 January 1932, observers in
749:
eruptions that lasted until 1929. During this period, Cerro Azul sometimes erupted daily, sending columns of ash as far as 6 or 7 kilometers (about 4 mi) into the air. Quizapu Crater grew slightly during this eruptive period.
708:
85 kilometers (53 mi) away heard the eruption noises, and the sulfurous odors reached them the day after the eruption. None of the reports mention earthquakes or ash fall, though the crackling and banging sounds could be from
568:
Quizapu, which formed during the 1846 eruption, is the most prominent crater. It is also known as Cerro del Medio ("Middle Hill") or Volcan Nuevo ("New Volcano"). The volcanic vent formed during an effusive eruption involving
328:—could pose a significant risk to humans and wildlife. Despite its inactivity, Cerro Azul could again produce a major eruption; if this were to happen, relief efforts would probably be quickly organized. Teams such as the
941:, and responded to the 1991 eruption of Mount Hudson in Chile. The team's stated aim is to "reduce eruption-caused fatalities and economic losses in developing countries". Made up of various USGS offices (such as the
842:
Cerro Azul's April 1932 eruption was one of the largest of the 20th century. Releasing 9.5 cubic kilometers (2 cu mi) of lava, the volcano ejected primarily dacitic tephra, accompanied by
854:
scoria. At least one eruptive period lasted for 18 hours, creating an "exceptionally uniform" deposit. Eruption columns, extending 27–30 kilometers (17–19 mi) into the air, were sighted.
881:, Llaima, and Villarrica. Villarrica and Llaima together have more than 80 reported episodes of volcanism since 1558, and at least 40 South Volcanic Zone volcanoes have had Holocene-age eruptions.
123:
949:), the team is outfitted with equipment capable of monitoring any volcano. This equipment allows them to predict volcanic eruptions effectively and rapidly, and to evacuate nearby homes.
1202:
Russo, R.M.; Vandecar, John C.; Comte, Diana; Mocanu, Victor I.; Gallego, Alejandro; Murdie, Ruth E. (2010). "Subduction of the Chile Ridge: Upper mantle structure and flow".
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Since the eruption of 1932 Quizapu has been quiet. In 1949 and 1967 small ash clouds were reported, while in the 1980s there were no signs of activity other than fumaroles.
716:
This first recorded eruption of Cerro Azul was effusive, and formed the volcanic vent at Quizapu. Hornblende–dacite lava erupted with small masses of tephra, which had been
1092:
Yáñez, G (2002). "The Challenger Juan Fernández Maipo major tectonic transition of the Nazca Andean subduction system at 33 34°S: geodynamic evidence and implications".
535:. The cone of Cerro Azul has a total volume of about 11 cubic kilometers (3 cu mi), and is a young feature, formed in the Holocene. It is made of agglutinated
1151:
Grove, T. L.; Till, C. B.; Lev, E.; Chatterjee, N.; Médard, E. (2009). "Kinematic variables and water transport control the formation and location of arc volcanoes".
745:
6 or 7 kilometers (about 4 mi) into the air over 8 minutes. By 1916, these eruptions had produced a caldera nearly identical to the one in existence today.
732:
traveled to Chile to study the field and found its width to be 8–9 square kilometers (3.1–3.5 sq mi). By 1992 the field had grown to twice that size.
671:
Cerro Azul has a history of eruptions dating back to at least 1846. The known events include effusive eruptions (lava flows), which created the Quizapu vent,
492:
Cerro Azul is part of the South Volcanic Zone, which runs through central and western Chile and extends south to Argentina. This range includes at least nine
877:
Cerro Azul is in the South Volcanic Zone, where many volcanoes pose a threat to human life. Among the other active volcanoes of the South Volcanic Zone are
653:
1884:
80:
1316:
Wulff, Andrew H. (2003). "Composite Chemostratigraphy of Lavas From the Casitas Shield, Descabezado Grande-Cerro Azul Volcanic Complex, Chilean Andes".
1059:
286:, and is capped by a summit crater that is 500 meters (1,600 ft) wide and opens to the north. Beneath the summit, the volcano features numerous
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in Argentina, about 47 kilometers (29 mi) away, where beginning at 1 PM it rained down for hours. At 4 PM, coarser sandy material and some
2585:
1821:
929:
If Cerro Azul were to erupt, relief efforts could be orchestrated. The Volcanic Disaster Assistance Program (VDAP) formed in response to the
663:. The number of plant species is likely to exceed 2,000, although no comprehensive study of the flora of Central Chile has been undertaken.
516:
that erupted in at least 12 volcanic episodes during the Quaternary period. The upper lava layers are dated at 340,000 years.
329:
862:
and Descabezado Grande volcanoes began erupting, sending clouds of ash 800 kilometers (500 mi) into Argentina. The eruption had a
610:
or an eruption. The crater is surrounded by debris from its 1932 eruption, and topped by layers—50 meters (160 ft) thick—of mafic
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2565:
1850:
917:
Mount Hudson, an active volcano in the SVZ, shortly after an eruption in 1991. The volcano has produced eruptions as powerful as
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1615:
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1063:
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Volcanic Zones (AVZ). The gap that separates the Central and South Volcanic Zones is caused by shallow-angle subduction in the
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634:
Vegetation in the Andes varies with elevation. Above 1,600 meters (5,249 ft) the slopes of mountains are covered by
1877:
1273:
1507:
Ruprecht, P.; Cooper, K.M.; Bergantz, G.W. (2005). "U-series crystal ages in historic eruptions of Volcan Quizapu, Chile".
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692:, adjacent vents, or pre-eruptive activity exists. Most descriptions of the eruption come from the backcountry herdsmen (
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942:
73:
20:
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799:
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of the volcanic deposits, between 5 and 1 centimeter (2.0 and 0.4 in), contradict 1930 estimates by about half.
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Cerro Azul is responsible for several of South America's largest recorded eruptions, in 1846 and 1932. In 1846, an
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On November 26, 1846, Cerro Azul erupted. This was the first report of activity at the volcano, and no trace of
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The South Volcanic Zone has a long history of eruptions and poses a threat to the surrounding region. Any
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332:(VDAP) are prepared to effectively evacuate, assist, and rescue people threatened by volcanic eruptions.
2082:
2042:
623:
376:
368:
2405:
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829:
438:
1808:; Clavero, Jorge E.; Lara, Luis E.; Naranjo, José A.; Parada, Miguel A.; Skewes, M. Alexandra (2007).
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2019:
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on the northern flank of Cerro Azul and sent lava flowing down the sides of the volcano, creating a
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1228:(2005). "Seismic ridge subduction and topography: Foreland deformation in the Patagonian Andes".
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468:-age) independent volcanoes exist in the country, in addition to 60 volcanic complexes and
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2450:
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1964:
1929:
1914:
1846:
1817:
1809:
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578:
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systems. Of the 200 historically active volcanoes in the Andean Range, 36 are found in Chile.
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zone, characterized by hot and dry summers but mild and wet winters. The temperatures and
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eruptions between 1907 and 1932. Pent-up pressure within the volcano spawned an enormous
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606:). The western wall is cut by two long, dacitic lava flows: probably the remnants of a
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The mountain with the appearance of a truncated cone, at the centre of the image, is
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Both released 4–5 cubic kilometers (1.0–1.2 cu mi) of the dacitic magma.
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Offshore volcanism also occurs in Chile. Intraplate volcanism generated from the
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subducts under the South American continent. This buoyant region prevents the
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lavas. The cone has a few volcanic craters; the majority of its eruptions in
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This article is about the volcano in Chile. For the volcano in Ecuador, see
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1816:. London, United Kingdom: Geological Society of London. pp. 149–180.
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2004:
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1696:"VDAP Brings Nations Together in Volcanic Crisis Management and Response"
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1858:(in Spanish; also includes volcanoes of Argentina, Bolivia, and Peru)
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were similar to the effusive eruption in 1846. Soon after, both the
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1989:
1437:"Mediterranean region and la Campana national Park, Central Chile"
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1845:. Santiago, Chile: Instituto Geográfico Militar. p. 640 pp.
1612:"Deadly Lahars from Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia: November 13, 1985"
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Major Chilean volcanoes are marked by red triangles on this map.
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As with the majority of the Andean volcanoes, Cerro Azul is a
395:, where the heat and pressure would destabilize the mineral
143:
Chile and adjacent lands, showing the location of Cerro Azul
2530:
Note: volcanoes are ordered by latitude from north to south
1643:"Volcanism and associated hazards: the Andean perspective"
415:, though it is less clear whether this gap also is due to
391:(subducting tectonic plate) from diving deep into the
507:
Cerro Azul, just 7 kilometers (4.3 mi) south of
488:
volcano, and close to it is the pyramidal Cerro Azul.
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8–9 square kilometres (3–3.5 square miles) in area.
282:, its summit is 3,788 meters (12,428 ft) above
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2306:
2033:
1900:
1725:"The USGS/OFDA Volcano Disaster Assistance Program"
1583:. Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution
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594:was detected from the removal of magma. Because of
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720:shortly before the eruption. Lava flowed over the
741:September 8, 1914, an explosive eruption sent a
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437:has formed many Chilean islands, including
399:, releasing water that would in turn cause
300:formed the vent at the site of present-day
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1812:. In Moreno, Teresa; Gibbons, Wes (eds.).
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945:; CVO that are responsible for monitoring
25:
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1121:
850:, and minuscule amounts of andesitic and
523:, meaning that it consists of layers, or
1753:Hildreth, Wes; Drake, Robert E. (1992).
1509:American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting
1431:
1429:
1318:American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting
1094:Journal of South American Earth Sciences
40:Aerial view of Cerro Azul from the west.
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1133:
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1581:"Cerro Hudson » Eruptive History"
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449:. Underwater volcanism occurs due to
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7:
1700:Volcanic Disaster Assistance Program
1618:. September 30, 1999. Archived from
330:Volcano Disaster Assistance Program
301:
577:, and the crater was excavated by
367:. Volcanoes in Chile occur in the
130:
16:Mountain in Curicó Province, Chile
14:
1702:. United States Geological Survey
1372:. United States Geological Survey
642:, while below there are zones of
1685:Hildreth and Drake, pp. 122–123.
959:
324:—ranging from minor ashfalls to
129:
122:
34:
1841:González-Ferrán, Óscar (1995).
1755:"Volcán Quizapu, Chilean Andes"
1729:United States Geological Survey
1616:United States Geological Survey
1278:United States Geological Survey
1064:United States Geological Survey
1060:"Chile Volcanoes and Volcanics"
1465:Hildreth and Drake, pp. 97–98.
1370:"Principal Types of Volcanoes"
884:Every known type of eruption (
684:First record of activity, 1846
346:Volcanism in the Chilean Andes
1:
1359:Hildreth and Drake 1992, p.96
1114:10.1016/S0895-9811(02)00004-4
905:and ashfalls. Lava flows and
573:–dacite flows accompanied by
56:3,788 m (12,428 ft)
2586:20th-century volcanic events
1405:Hildreth and Drake, pp.96–98
943:Cascades Volcano Observatory
622:Cerro Azul is situated in a
254:), sometimes referred to as
21:Cerro Azul (Ecuador volcano)
1561:Hildreth and Drake, p. 101.
1423:Hildreth and Drake, p. 103.
1414:Hildreth and Drake, p. 108.
1250:10.1016/j.tecto.2004.12.016
764:1932 eruption of Cerro Azul
2602:
1655:European Geosciences Union
1497:Hildreth and Drake, p. 99.
1481:Hildreth and Drake, p. 98.
1303:Stern et al., pp. 154–156.
980:List of volcanoes in Chile
919:Volcanic Explosivity Index
864:Volcanic Explosivity Index
675:, and phreatic eruptions.
67:List of volcanoes in Chile
18:
2581:Volcanoes of Maule Region
2527:
1672:10.5194/adgeo-22-125-2009
1274:"South America Volcanoes"
828:was carried by wind into
381:Pampean flat-slab segment
116:
33:
2566:Stratovolcanoes of Chile
1031:Global Volcanism Program
888:, Strombolian, Plinian,
873:Threats and preparedness
787:April 21, 1932
772:April 10, 1932
1806:López-Escobar, Leopoldo
1760:Bulletin of Volcanology
1647:Advances in Geosciences
1441:Smithsonian Institution
1036:Smithsonian Institution
453:along the Chile Ridge.
435:Juan Fernández hotspots
409:Patagonian Volcanic Gap
383:where the more buoyant
270:, immediately south of
2307:Southern Volcanic Zone
2093:Andagua volcanic field
1901:Northern Volcanic Zone
1810:"5. Chilean Volcanoes"
1641:Tilling, R.I. (2009).
922:
724:and westward into the
618:Climate and vegetation
560:
489:
447:Juan Fernández Islands
426:instead of volcanoes.
239:Spanish pronunciation:
2485:Austral Volcanic Zone
2411:Puyehue-Cordón Caulle
2083:Huambo volcanic field
2034:Central Volcanic Zone
1535:"Irrepressible Andes"
1141:Stern et al., p. 147.
916:
866:(VEI) of at least 5.
726:Río Blanquillo Valley
722:Estero Barroso Valley
624:Mediterranean climate
558:
483:
336:Geography and geology
2571:Subduction volcanoes
2020:Licto volcanic field
1601:Stern et al., p.101.
1570:Stern et al., p.154.
931:famous 1985 eruption
757:Major eruption, 1932
417:flat-slab subduction
385:Juan Fernández Ridge
365:South American Plate
243:[ˈseroaˈsul]
2561:South Volcanic Zone
1800:Stern, Charles R.;
1773:1992BVol...54...93H
1663:2009AdG....22..125T
1521:2005AGUFM.V13B0529R
1330:2003AGUFM.V32H..07W
1280:. February 28, 2002
1242:2005Tectp.399...73R
1173:10.1038/nature08044
1165:2009Natur.459..694G
1106:2002JSAES..15...23Y
673:explosive eruptions
276:South Volcanic Zone
217:South Volcanic Zone
92: /
2556:Mountains of Chile
2406:Carrán-Los Venados
2351:Nevados de Chillán
2336:Descabezado Grande
1781:10.1007/BF00278002
1447:on October 8, 2009
1212:10.1130/GSATG61A.1
923:
736:Early 20th century
561:
509:Descabezado Grande
490:
486:Descabezado Grande
451:seafloor spreading
439:Isla Salas y Gómez
272:Descabezado Grande
46:Highest point
2536:
2535:
2346:Nevado de Longaví
2288:Cueros de Purulla
2268:Cordón del Azufre
1930:Nevado del Tolima
1859:
1843:Volcanes de Chile
1823:978-1-86239-219-9
830:Puesto El Tristan
820:
819:
677:Pyroclastic flows
494:caldera complexes
326:pyroclastic flows
298:effusive eruption
293:and flank vents.
232:
231:
96:35.653°S 70.761°W
2593:
2551:Active volcanoes
2531:
2401:Mocho-Choshuenco
1935:Nevado del Huila
1894:Andean volcanoes
1887:
1880:
1873:
1864:
1857:
1856:
1827:
1814:Geology of Chile
1792:
1741:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1731:. March 21, 2001
1721:
1712:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1692:
1686:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1608:
1602:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1577:
1571:
1568:
1562:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1504:
1498:
1495:
1482:
1479:
1466:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1443:. Archived from
1433:
1424:
1421:
1415:
1412:
1406:
1403:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1366:
1360:
1357:
1334:
1333:
1313:
1304:
1301:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1261:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1148:
1142:
1139:
1128:
1127:
1125:
1089:
1080:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1066:. Archived from
1056:
1047:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1022:
975:Geology of Chile
969:
967:Mountains portal
964:
963:
962:
947:Mount St. Helens
794:
792:
779:
777:
761:
667:Eruptive history
596:aerodynamic drag
587:Plinian eruption
549:recorded history
341:Regional setting
245:
240:
166:
133:
132:
126:
107:
106:
104:
103:
102:
101:-35.653; -70.761
97:
93:
90:
89:
88:
85:
38:
26:
2601:
2600:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2576:VEI-5 volcanoes
2541:
2540:
2537:
2532:
2529:
2523:
2486:
2480:
2308:
2302:
2298:Ojos del Salado
2228:Aguas Calientes
2035:
2029:
1925:Nevado del Ruiz
1902:
1896:
1891:
1853:
1840:
1837:
1835:Further reading
1831:
1824:
1799:
1794:Isopach mapping
1752:
1749:
1744:
1734:
1732:
1723:
1722:
1715:
1705:
1703:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1684:
1680:
1640:
1639:
1635:
1625:
1623:
1622:on May 27, 2010
1610:
1609:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1586:
1584:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1546:
1544:
1543:. 18 April 1932
1533:
1532:
1528:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1485:
1480:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1450:
1448:
1435:
1434:
1427:
1422:
1418:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1368:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1337:
1315:
1314:
1307:
1302:
1293:
1283:
1281:
1272:
1271:
1267:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1201:
1200:
1196:
1159:(7247): 694–7.
1150:
1149:
1145:
1140:
1131:
1091:
1090:
1083:
1073:
1071:
1058:
1057:
1050:
1040:
1038:
1024:
1023:
992:
988:
965:
960:
958:
955:
935:Nevado del Ruiz
894:phreatomagmatic
875:
839:began to fall.
790:
788:
775:
773:
759:
738:
704:. Observers in
686:
669:
620:
604:angle of repose
566:
478:
361:tectonic plates
343:
338:
322:volcanic hazard
258:, is an active
238:
164:
148:
147:
146:
145:
144:
141:
140:
139:
138:
134:
100:
98:
94:
91:
86:
83:
81:
79:
78:
41:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2599:
2597:
2589:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2543:
2542:
2534:
2533:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2490:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2312:
2310:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2218:Purico complex
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2039:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1906:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1892:
1890:
1889:
1882:
1875:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1851:
1836:
1833:
1829:
1828:
1822:
1797:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1713:
1687:
1678:
1633:
1603:
1594:
1572:
1563:
1554:
1526:
1499:
1483:
1467:
1458:
1425:
1416:
1407:
1383:
1361:
1335:
1305:
1291:
1265:
1236:(1–4): 73–86.
1230:Tectonophysics
1217:
1194:
1143:
1129:
1081:
1048:
989:
987:
984:
983:
982:
977:
971:
970:
954:
951:
874:
871:
818:
817:
814:
808:
807:
802:
796:
795:
785:
781:
780:
770:
766:
765:
758:
755:
737:
734:
730:Ignacy Domeyko
685:
682:
668:
665:
619:
616:
565:
564:Quizapu Crater
562:
477:
474:
342:
339:
337:
334:
302:Quizapu crater
274:. Part of the
230:
229:
226:
220:
219:
214:
203:
202:
197:
191:
190:
185:
179:
178:
174:
173:
168:
160:
159:
154:
150:
149:
142:
136:
135:
128:
127:
121:
120:
119:
118:
117:
114:
113:
109:
108:
76:
70:
69:
64:
58:
57:
54:
48:
47:
43:
42:
39:
31:
30:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2598:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2539:
2526:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2483:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2441:Michinmahuida
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2305:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2283:San Francisco
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2193:Aucanquilcha
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2073:Hualca Hualca
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2032:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1903:(6° N – 3° S)
1899:
1895:
1888:
1883:
1881:
1876:
1874:
1869:
1868:
1865:
1854:
1852:956-202-054-1
1848:
1844:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1832:
1825:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1798:
1795:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1767:(2): 93–125.
1766:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1701:
1697:
1691:
1688:
1682:
1679:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1637:
1634:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1607:
1604:
1598:
1595:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1567:
1564:
1558:
1555:
1542:
1541:
1536:
1530:
1527:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1500:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1462:
1459:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1417:
1411:
1408:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1371:
1365:
1362:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1312:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1279:
1275:
1269:
1266:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1221:
1218:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1198:
1195:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1147:
1144:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1070:on 2013-02-20
1069:
1065:
1061:
1055:
1053:
1049:
1037:
1033:
1032:
1027:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
997:
995:
991:
985:
981:
978:
976:
973:
972:
968:
957:
952:
950:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
927:
920:
915:
911:
908:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
882:
880:
872:
870:
867:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
840:
838:
835:
831:
826:
815:
813:
809:
806:
803:
801:
797:
786:
782:
771:
767:
762:
756:
754:
750:
746:
744:
735:
733:
731:
727:
723:
719:
714:
712:
707:
703:
702:sulfurous gas
697:
695:
691:
683:
681:
678:
674:
666:
664:
662:
658:
656:
655:Sclerophylous
651:
647:
646:
641:
637:
632:
629:
628:precipitation
625:
617:
615:
613:
609:
605:
599:
597:
593:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
563:
557:
553:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
521:stratovolcano
517:
515:
510:
505:
503:
499:
495:
487:
482:
476:Local setting
475:
473:
471:
467:
463:
459:
454:
452:
448:
444:
443:Easter Island
440:
436:
432:
427:
425:
424:igneous rocks
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
359:
355:
351:
348:is caused by
347:
340:
335:
333:
331:
327:
323:
318:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
294:
292:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
260:stratovolcano
257:
253:
249:
244:
236:
227:
225:
224:Last eruption
221:
218:
215:
213:
209:
204:
201:
200:Stratovolcano
198:
196:
195:Mountain type
192:
189:
186:
184:
180:
175:
172:
169:
167:
161:
158:
155:
151:
125:
115:
110:
105:
77:
75:
71:
68:
65:
63:
59:
55:
53:
49:
44:
37:
32:
27:
22:
2538:
2391:Quetrupillán
2340:
2253:Llullaillaco
2118:Huaynaputina
1842:
1830:
1813:
1802:Moreno, Hugo
1764:
1758:
1747:Bibliography
1735:February 25,
1733:. Retrieved
1704:. Retrieved
1699:
1690:
1681:
1650:
1646:
1636:
1624:. Retrieved
1620:the original
1606:
1597:
1585:. Retrieved
1575:
1566:
1557:
1545:. Retrieved
1538:
1529:
1512:
1508:
1502:
1461:
1451:February 28,
1449:. Retrieved
1445:the original
1419:
1410:
1374:. Retrieved
1364:
1321:
1317:
1282:. Retrieved
1268:
1233:
1229:
1220:
1203:
1197:
1156:
1152:
1146:
1123:10533/173277
1100:(1): 23–38.
1097:
1093:
1072:. Retrieved
1068:the original
1039:. Retrieved
1029:
1026:"Cerro Azul"
928:
924:
892:, phreatic,
883:
879:Mount Hudson
876:
868:
860:Tinguiririca
841:
821:
751:
747:
739:
715:
698:
687:
670:
654:
650:Hygrophilous
649:
643:
633:
621:
600:
567:
529:volcanic ash
518:
506:
491:
455:
428:
344:
319:
295:
264:Maule Region
255:
247:
234:
233:
165:Parent range
2487:(49°–55° S)
2471:Mate Grande
2321:Tupungatito
2309:(33°–46° S)
2188:Olca-Paruma
2183:Irruputuncu
2173:Tata Sabaya
2113:Pichu Pichu
2043:Quimsachata
2036:(14°–27° S)
1920:Cerro Bravo
1706:October 12,
1657:: 125–137.
1587:October 12,
1547:October 12,
1324:: V32H–07.
1259:11336/92808
1074:October 12,
921:degree six.
856:Phenocrysts
711:block lavas
583:Strombolian
462:Pleistocene
456:Nearly 100
413:Chile Ridge
375:(SVZ), and
314:Strombolian
266:of central
228:August 1967
183:Age of rock
99: /
74:Coordinates
2545:Categories
2431:Hornopirén
2416:Casablanca
2386:Villarrica
2381:Sollipulli
2341:Cerro Azul
2213:Licancabur
2208:Sairecabur
2168:Guallatiri
2158:Parinacota
2138:Purupuruni
2048:Auquihuato
2015:Tungurahua
2010:Chimborazo
1970:Reventador
1945:Doña Juana
986:References
890:subplinian
844:rhyodacite
791:1932-04-21
776:1932-04-10
769:Start date
645:Nothofagus
592:subsidence
571:hornblende
537:pyroclasts
533:lava flows
514:lava flows
502:Villarrica
458:Quaternary
445:, and the
363:under the
350:subduction
306:lava field
235:Cerro Azul
188:Quaternary
137:Cerro Azul
87:70°45′40″W
84:35°39′11″S
29:Cerro Azul
2451:Corcovado
2371:Lonquimay
2331:Calabozos
2316:Tupungato
2293:Incahuasi
2258:Lastarria
2238:Chiliques
2078:Sabancaya
2058:Sara Sara
1975:Pichincha
1910:Paipa-Iza
1789:128972435
1626:March 18,
1226:Ramos, V.
1204:GSA Today
902:rhyolitic
898:Vulcanian
690:fumaroles
614:and ash.
539:and some
405:volcanism
358:Antarctic
284:sea level
248:blue hill
206:Volcanic
112:Geography
52:Elevation
2519:Fueguino
2504:Aguilera
2456:Mentolat
2366:Callaqui
2203:Zapaleri
2133:Yucamane
2128:Tutupaca
2098:Chachani
2068:Coropuna
2063:Solimana
2005:Quilotoa
2000:Cotopaxi
1995:Illiniza
1980:Antisana
1515:: 0529.
1376:April 2,
1206:: 4–10.
1181:19494913
953:See also
939:Colombia
886:Hawaiian
852:basaltic
848:andesite
825:Malargue
784:End date
718:degassed
713:(ʻaʻā).
694:arrieros
661:matorral
652:forest,
648:forest,
579:phreatic
545:andesine
466:Holocene
397:chlorite
310:Phreatic
153:Location
2494:Lautaro
2446:Chaitén
2426:Calbuco
2361:Copahue
2278:Peinado
2263:Lazufre
2248:Socompa
2153:Taapaca
2123:Ticsani
1965:Cayambe
1955:Azufral
1950:Galeras
1915:Romeral
1769:Bibcode
1659:Bibcode
1517:Bibcode
1326:Bibcode
1238:Bibcode
1189:4379126
1161:Bibcode
1102:Bibcode
837:lapilli
805:Plinian
789: (
774: (
470:caldera
401:melting
377:Austral
371:(CVZ),
369:Central
352:of the
278:of the
262:in the
256:Quizapu
252:Spanish
177:Geology
62:Listing
2514:Burney
2509:Reclus
2499:Viedma
2476:Hudson
2436:Huequi
2421:Osorno
2376:Llaima
2356:Antuco
2243:Aracar
2233:Lascar
2223:Pacana
2198:Azufre
2178:Isluga
2148:Tacora
2143:Casiri
2108:Ubinas
2088:Ampato
2053:Firura
2025:Sangay
1960:Chiles
1940:Puracé
1849:
1820:
1787:
1284:May 9,
1187:
1179:
1153:Nature
1041:May 9,
907:lahars
896:, and
834:pumice
659:, and
657:forest
640:steppe
638:-like
636:Alpine
612:scoria
575:tephra
541:dacite
525:strata
498:Llaima
431:Easter
421:felsic
407:. The
393:mantle
288:scoria
2396:Lanín
2326:Maipo
2273:Galán
2163:Lauca
2103:Misti
1990:Soche
1985:Aliso
1785:S2CID
1185:S2CID
743:plume
706:Talca
527:, of
464:- or
373:South
354:Nazca
291:cones
280:Andes
268:Chile
171:Andes
157:Chile
2466:Macá
1847:ISBN
1818:ISBN
1737:2010
1708:2020
1628:2010
1589:2020
1549:2020
1540:Time
1453:2010
1378:2009
1286:2009
1177:PMID
1076:2020
1043:2009
800:Type
608:dome
581:and
531:and
500:and
433:and
403:and
389:slab
356:and
312:and
212:belt
2461:Cay
1777:doi
1667:doi
1254:hdl
1246:doi
1234:399
1208:doi
1169:doi
1157:459
1118:hdl
1110:doi
937:in
933:of
812:VEI
250:in
208:arc
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1338:^
1322:32
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1191:.
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