394:(EV) certificates as a more rigorous alternative to domain validated certificates. Extended validation is intended to verify not only control of a domain name, but additional identity information to be included in the certificate. Some browsers display this additional identity information in a green box in the URL bar. One limitation of EV as a solution to the weaknesses of domain validation is that attackers could still obtain a domain validated certificate for the victim domain, and deploy it during an attack; if that occurred, the difference observable to the victim user would be the absence of a green bar with the company name. There is some question as to whether users would be likely to recognise this absence as indicative of an attack being in progress: a test using
803:
is a serious shortcoming given that the most commonly encountered technology employing X.509 and trusted third parties is the HTTPS protocol. As all major web browsers are distributed to their end-users pre-configured with a list of trusted CAs that numbers in the dozens this means that any one of these pre-approved trusted CAs can issue a valid certificate for any domain whatsoever. The industry response to this has been muted. Given that the contents of a browser's pre-configured trusted CA list is determined independently by the party that is distributing or causing to be installed the browser application there is really nothing that the CAs themselves can do.
483:
151:) to a Card Issuing Bank to transfer the funds from the card holder's bank account to the payment recipient's bank account. Each payment card presents along with its card data also the Card Issuer Certificate to the POS. The Issuer Certificate is signed by EMV CA Certificate. The POS retrieves the public key of EMV CA from its storage, validates the Issuer Certificate and authenticity of the payment card before sending the payment request to the payment scheme.
50:. A digital certificate certifies the ownership of a public key by the named subject of the certificate. This allows others (relying parties) to rely upon signatures or on assertions made about the private key that corresponds to the certified public key. A CA acts as a trusted third party—trusted both by the subject (owner) of the certificate and by the party relying upon the certificate. The format of these certificates is specified by the
717:
name, might be true, increasing the certificate's credibility. Eve, however, would have the all-important private key associated with the certificate. Eve could then use the certificate to send a digitally signed email to Bob, tricking Bob into believing that the email was from Alice. Bob might even respond with encrypted email, believing that it could only be read by Alice, when Eve is actually able to decrypt it using the private key.
82:. The client uses the CA certificate to authenticate the CA signature on the server certificate, as part of the authorizations before launching a secure connection. Usually, client software—for example, browsers—include a set of trusted CA certificates. This makes sense, as many users need to trust their client software. A malicious or compromised client can skip any security check and still fool its users into believing otherwise.
502:
server or other entity noted in the certificate. A CA's obligation in such schemes is to verify an applicant's credentials, so that users and relying parties can trust the information in the issued certificate. CAs use a variety of standards and tests to do so. In essence, the certificate authority is responsible for saying "yes, this person is who they say they are, and we, the CA, certify that".
237:
servers. The top spot has been held by
Symantec (or VeriSign before it was purchased by Symantec) ever since survey began, with it currently accounting for just under a third of all certificates. To illustrate the effect of differing methodologies, amongst the million busiest sites Symantec issued 44% of the valid, trusted certificates in use — significantly more than its overall market share."
802:
The critical weakness in the way that the current X.509 scheme is implemented is that any CA trusted by a particular party can then issue certificates for any domain they choose. Such certificates will be accepted as valid by the trusting party whether they are legitimate and authorized or not. This
546:
It is difficult to assure correctness of match between data and entity when the data are presented to the CA (perhaps over an electronic network), and when the credentials of the person/company/program asking for a certificate are likewise presented. This is why commercial CAs often use a combination
520:
protocol. In this example let us suppose that the user logs on to their bank's homepage www.bank.example to do online banking. When the user opens www.bank.example homepage, they receive a public key along with all the data that their web-browser displays. The public key could be used to encrypt data
724:
issued two certificates to a person claiming to represent
Microsoft. The certificates have the name "Microsoft Corporation", so they could be used to spoof someone into believing that updates to Microsoft software came from Microsoft when they actually did not. The fraud was detected in early 2001.
521:
from the client to the server but the safe procedure is to use it in a protocol that determines a temporary shared symmetric encryption key; messages in such a key exchange protocol can be enciphered with the bank's public key in such a way that only the bank server has the private key to read them.
236:
in May 2015, the industry standard for monitoring active TLS certificates, "Although the global ecosystem is competitive, it is dominated by a handful of major CAs — three certificate authorities (Symantec, Comodo, GoDaddy) account for three-quarters of all issued certificates on public-facing web
774:
An attacker who steals a certificate authority's private keys is able to forge certificates as if they were CA, without needed ongoing access to the CA's systems. Key theft is therefore one of the main risks certificate authorities defend against. Publicly trusted CAs almost always store their keys
716:
For example, suppose an attacker, Eve, manages to get a CA to issue to her a certificate that claims to represent Alice. That is, the certificate would publicly state that it represents Alice, and might include other information about Alice. Some of the information about Alice, such as her employer
575:
Despite the security measures undertaken to correctly verify the identities of people and companies, there is a risk of a single CA issuing a bogus certificate to an imposter. It is also possible to register individuals and companies with the same or very similar names, which may lead to confusion.
528:
This mechanism is only safe if the user can be sure that it is the bank that they see in their web browser. If the user types in www.bank.example, but their communication is hijacked and a fake website (that pretends to be the bank website) sends the page information back to the user's browser, the
469:
Baseline
Requirements, adopted November 2011, specified a list of such addresses. This allowed mail hosts to reserve those addresses for administrative use, though such precautions are still not universal. In January 2015, a Finnish man registered the username "hostmaster" at the Finnish version of
85:
The clients of a CA are server supervisors who call for a certificate that their servers will bestow to users. Commercial CAs charge money to issue certificates, and their customers anticipate the CA's certificate to be contained within the majority of web browsers, so that safe connections to the
621:
For distributing revocation information to clients, timeliness of the discovery of revocation (and hence the window for an attacker to exploit a compromised certificate) trades off against resource usage in querying revocation statuses and privacy concerns. If revocation information is unavailable
532:
This is what the certificate authority mechanism is intended to prevent. A certificate authority (CA) is an organization that stores public keys and their owners, and every party in a communication trusts this organization (and knows its public key). When the user's web browser receives the public
154:
Browsers and other clients of sorts characteristically allow users to add or do away with CA certificates at will. While server certificates regularly last for a relatively short period, CA certificates are further extended, so, for repeatedly visited servers, it is less error-prone importing and
537:
certificate). The browser already possesses the public key of the CA and consequently can verify the signature, trust the certificate and the public key in it: since www.bank.example uses a public key that the certification authority certifies, a fake www.bank.example can only use the same public
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and the identity of the owner. The matching private key is not made available publicly, but kept secret by the end user who generated the key pair. The certificate is also a confirmation or validation by the CA that the public key contained in the certificate belongs to the person, organization,
410:
Domain validation suffers from certain structural security limitations. In particular, it is always vulnerable to attacks that allow an adversary to observe the domain validation probes that CAs send. These can include attacks against the DNS, TCP, or BGP protocols (which lack the cryptographic
524:
The rest of the communication then proceeds using the new (disposable) symmetric key, so when the user enters some information to the bank's page and submits the page (sends the information back to the bank) then the data the user has entered to the page will be encrypted by their web browser.
175:
Worldwide, the certificate authority business is fragmented, with national or regional providers dominating their home market. This is because many uses of digital certificates, such as for legally binding digital signatures, are linked to local law, regulations, and accreditation schemes for
414:
One of the most common domain validation techniques involves sending an email containing an authentication token or link to an email address that is likely to be administratively responsible for the domain. This could be the technical contact email address listed in the domain's
742:
In 2012, it became known that
Trustwave issued a subordinate root certificate that was used for transparent traffic management (man-in-the-middle) which effectively permitted an enterprise to sniff SSL internal network traffic using the subordinate certificate.
563:
has been to "prevent conflicting and overly burdensome local regulation and to establish that electronic writings satisfy the traditional requirements associated with paper documents." Further the US E-Sign statute and the suggested UETA code help ensure that:
456:
Domain validation implementations have sometimes been a source of security vulnerabilities. In one instance, security researchers showed that attackers could obtain certificates for webmail sites because a CA was willing to use an email address like
609:
A certificate may be revoked before it expires, which signals that it is no longer valid. Without revocation, an attacker would be able to exploit such a compromised or misissued certificate until expiry. Hence, revocation is an important part of a
529:
fake web-page can send a fake public key to the user (for which the fake site owns a matching private key). The user will fill the form with their personal data and will submit the page. The fake web-page will then get access to the user's data.
750:
malware (also known as SkyWiper) contained modules that had an MD5 collision with a valid certificate issued by a
Microsoft Terminal Server licensing certificate that used the broken MD5 hash algorithm. The authors thus was able to conduct a
787:, except when it is needed to sign shorter-lived intermediate certificates. The intermediate certificates, stored in an online HSM, can do the day-to-day work of signing end-entity certificates and keeping revocation information up to date.
661:(CASC) – In February 2013, the CASC was founded as an industry advocacy organization dedicated to addressing industry issues and educating the public on internet security. The founding members are the seven largest Certificate Authorities.
77:
to a server via the
Internet. A certificate is essential in order to circumvent a malicious party which happens to be on the route to a target server which acts as if it were the target. Such a scenario is commonly referred to as a
1464:
779:(HSM), which allows them to sign certificates with a key, but generally prevent extraction of that key with both physical and software controls. CAs typically take the further precaution of keeping the key for their long-term
547:
of authentication techniques including leveraging government bureaus, the payment infrastructure, third parties' databases and services, and custom heuristics. In some enterprise systems, local forms of authentication such as
383:" to authenticate the recipient of the certificate. The techniques used for domain validation vary between CAs, but in general domain validation techniques are meant to prove that the certificate applicant controls a given
1940:
590:
In large-scale deployments, Alice may not be familiar with Bob's certificate authority (perhaps they each have a different CA server), so Bob's certificate may also include his CA's public key signed by a different
166:
and, since authors and receivers of encrypted messages, apparently, know one another, the usefulness of a trusted third party remains confined to the signature verification of messages sent to public mailing lists.
464:
Prior to 2011, there was no standard list of email addresses that could be used for domain validation, so it was not clear to email administrators which addresses needed to be reserved. The first version of the
698:
The CA/Browser Forum publishes the
Baseline Requirements, a list of policies and technical requirements for CAs to follow. These are a requirement for inclusion in the certificate stores of Firefox and Safari.
1386:
1109:
86:
certified servers work efficiently out-of-the-box. The quantity of internet browsers, other devices and applications which trust a particular certificate authority is referred to as ubiquity.
2204:
1456:
571:
a contract relating to such transaction may not be denied legal effect, validity or enforceability solely because an electronic signature or electronic record was used in its formation.
2282:
2537:
Larisch, James; Choffnes, David; Levin, Dave; Maggs, Bruce M.; Mislove, Alan; Wilson, Christo (2017). "CRLite: A Scalable System for
Pushing All TLS Revocations to All Browsers".
1948:
505:
If the user trusts the CA and can verify the CA's signature, then they can also assume that a certain public key does indeed belong to whoever is identified in the certificate.
2074:
2438:
65:, the secure browsing protocol for the World Wide Web. Another common use is in issuing identity cards by national governments for use in electronically signing documents.
2495:
Chung, Taejoong; Lok, Jay; Chandrasekaran, Balakrishnan; Choffnes, David; Levin, Dave; Maggs, Bruce M.; Mislove, Alan; Rula, John; Sullivan, Nick; Wilson, Christo (2018).
568:
a signature, contract or other record relating to such transaction may not be denied legal effect, validity, or enforceability solely because it is in electronic form; and
681:– In 2005, a new consortium of Certificate Authorities and web browser vendors was formed to promote industry standards and baseline requirements for internet security.
453:
in the domain. The theory behind domain validation is that only the legitimate owner of a domain would be able to read emails sent to these administrative addresses.
1439:
1378:
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are required in some cases to personally know the party whose signature is being notarized; this is a higher standard than is reached by many CAs. According to the
113:. Some large cloud computing and web hosting companies are also publicly-trusted CAs and issue certificates to services hosted on their infrastructure, for example
1102:
1918:
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Therefore, even if someone can access the (encrypted) data that was communicated from the user to www.bank.example, such eavesdropper cannot read or decipher it.
2903:
1576:
2779:
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presents connection latency and privacy issues. Other schemes have been proposed but have not yet been successfully deployed to enable fail-hard checking.
1218:
1026:
2724:
1297:
807:
402:, shows a significantly greater difference between EV and domain validated certificates, with domain validated certificates having a hollow, grey lock.
2020:
2730:
759:
664:
2200:
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protections of TLS/SSL), or the compromise of routers. Such attacks are possible either on the network near a CA, or near the victim domain itself.
2260:
538:
key. Since the fake www.bank.example does not know the corresponding private key, it cannot create the signature needed to verify its authenticity.
713:
If the CA can be subverted, then the security of the entire system is lost, potentially subverting all the entities that trust the compromised CA.
147:
payment cards are governed by the EMV Certificate
Authority, payment schemes that route payment transactions initiated at Point of Sale Terminals (
2478:
1482:
158:
Less often, trustworthy certificates are used for encrypting or signing messages. CAs dispense end-user certificates too, which can be used with
963:
2874:
2718:
1517:
811:
658:
1243:
90:, which is a non-profit business, issues several commercial CA certificates with its products. While Mozilla developed their own policy, the
2621:
2556:
2452:
516:
can be used to encrypt data communicated between two parties. This can typically happen when a user logs on to any site that implements the
2274:
1519:
Applied
Cryptography and Network Security: Second International Conference, ACNS 2004, Yellow Mountain, China, June 8-11, 2004. Proceedings
3175:
2996:
2471:"In the Wake of Unauthorized Certificate Issuance by the Indian CA NIC, can Government CAs Still be Considered "Trusted Third Parties"?"
2100:
2353:
3215:
2812:
833:
646:
3220:
2918:
2706:
2677:
2519:
1553:
1527:
2428:
2070:
2048:
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due to the technical requirements. While not legally required, new providers may choose to undergo annual security audits (such as
1354:
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3200:
3139:
1543:
226:
2831:
1799:
1752:
1674:
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615:
391:
245:
728:
In 2008, Comodo reseller Certstar sold a certificate for mozilla.com to Eddy Nigg, who had no authority to represent Mozilla.
3144:
2741:
1055:
595:, which is presumably recognizable by Alice. This process typically leads to a hierarchy or mesh of CAs and CA certificates.
214:
2174:
2126:
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for domain.com, but not all webmail systems had reserved the "ssladmin" username to prevent attackers from registering it.
255:
top 10 million and the Tranco top 1 million websites, lists the six largest authorities by absolute usage share as below.
762:
issued unauthorized certificates for Google domains. Google thus removed both MCS and the root certificate authority from
225:
as well as software to enable installation and maintenance of certificates. Let's Encrypt is operated by the newly formed
2956:
2926:
2825:
2378:
1415:
642:
380:
109:
In addition to commercial CAs, some non-profits issue publicly-trusted digital certificates without charge, for example
1926:
2936:
2806:
1604:
533:
key from www.bank.example it also receives a digital signature of the key (with some more information, in a so-called
1186:
1141:
398:
in 2009 showed that the absence of IE7's EV warnings were not noticed by users, however Microsoft's current browser,
2328:
2303:
2152:
1569:
251:
As of July 2024 the survey company W3Techs, which collects statistics on certificate authority usage among the
3117:
2880:
1713:
Deterministic Usage of the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) and Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA)
474:
and was able to obtain a domain-validated certificate for live.fi, despite not being the owner of the domain name.
2976:
2908:
2847:
2226:
611:
133:
155:
trusting the CA issued, rather than confirm a security exemption each time the server's certificate is renewed.
3097:
3060:
3027:
2700:
2686:
1210:
776:
736:
577:
559:
outline on Online Transaction Management the primary points of US Federal and State statutes enacted regarding
556:
210:. As of Android 4.2 (Jelly Bean), Android currently contains over 100 CAs that are updated with each release.
79:
74:
2602:
Smith, Trevor; Dickinson, Luke; Seamons, Kent (2020). "Let's Revoke: Scalable Global Certificate Revocation".
2403:
1289:
637:
Due to the cost of revocation checks and the availability impact from potentially-unreliable remote services,
94:
developed similar guidelines for CA trust. A single CA certificate may be shared among multiple CAs or their
2577:
Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)
2374:
735:, allegedly by Iranian hackers. There is evidence that the fraudulent DigiNotar certificates were used in a
3210:
2858:
2842:
2747:
2013:
1268:
513:
137:
2149:"Microsoft Security Bulletin MS01-017: Erroneous VeriSign-Issued Digital Certificates Pose Spoofing Hazard"
935:
379:
The commercial CAs that issue the bulk of certificates for HTTPS servers typically use a technique called "
2837:
2801:
2712:
1011:
604:
487:
436:
180:
47:
2252:
1966:
920:
198:
As of 24 August 2020, 147 root certificates, representing 52 organizations, are trusted in the
3164:
3065:
2670:
814:(DNSSEC) DANE will greatly reduce if not eliminate the role of trusted third parties in a domain's PKI.
126:
2470:
1991:
686:
672:
1478:
1080:
959:
583:
proposes auditing all certificates in a public unforgeable log, which could help in the prevention of
2591:
1821:
1774:
1735:
1696:
1654:
859:
823:
2496:
1853:
1851:
1311:
708:
548:
494:
395:
118:
1239:
3081:
2796:
2627:
2562:
2525:
1457:"A Finnish man created this simple email account - and received Microsoft's security certificate"
1348:"Baseline Requirements for the Issuance and Management of Publicly-Trusted Certificates, v.1.2.3"
784:
163:
794:
when generating signing keys, in order to ensure that the keys are not tampered with or copied.
2645:
244:, "DigiCert is the world's largest high-assurance certificate authority, commanding 60% of the
3032:
2758:
2617:
2552:
2515:
1813:
1766:
1727:
1688:
1646:
1549:
1523:
1007:
902:
848:
560:
207:
184:
2096:
3037:
2853:
2791:
2663:
2607:
2581:
2542:
2507:
2227:"Another fraudulent certificate raises the same old questions about certificate authorities"
1803:
1756:
1717:
1678:
1636:
1329:
892:
780:
752:
678:
667:(CCSF) – In 2009 the CCSF was founded to promote industry standards that protect end users.
466:
278:
218:
148:
110:
91:
2304:"Flame malware collision attack explained | MSRC Blog | Microsoft Security Response Center"
720:
A notable case of CA subversion like this occurred in 2001, when the certificate authority
551:
can be used to obtain a certificate which can in turn be used by external relying parties.
2763:
747:
199:
183:
is largely held by a small number of multinational companies. This market has significant
2044:
1051:
61:
One particularly common use for certificate authorities is to sign certificates used in
1347:
843:
471:
399:
252:
213:
On November 18, 2014, a group of companies and nonprofit organizations, including the
3194:
2818:
2753:
2631:
1330:"Usage statistics of SSL certificate authorities for websites, August 2024 - W3Techs"
763:
552:
2529:
3112:
2886:
2566:
838:
828:
791:
682:
668:
638:
627:
31:
2122:
689:
organized the first meeting and is considered the founder of the CA/Browser Forum.
202:
web browser, 168 root certificates, representing 60 organizations, are trusted by
195:
in Europe) to be included as a trusted root by a web browser or operating system.
17:
1312:"DigiCert - World's Largest High-Assurance Certificate Authority | Netcraft"
641:
limit the revocation checks they will perform, and will fail-soft where they do.
2594:
2575:
1830:
1824:
1793:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1746:
1738:
1711:
1705:
1699:
1668:
1657:
1626:
897:
880:
758:
In 2015, a Chinese certificate authority named MCS Holdings and affiliated with
517:
384:
3159:
1407:
498:
294:
122:
2612:
1817:
1770:
1731:
1692:
1650:
906:
3154:
2966:
2931:
2511:
1103:"Standards and Industry Regulations Applicable to Certification Authorities"
853:
732:
310:
206:, and 255 root certificates, representing 101 organizations, are trusted by
114:
95:
2429:"Symantec sacks staff for issuing unauthorized Google certificates - ZDNet"
2404:"China's CNNIC issues false certificates in serious breach of crypto trust"
1162:
1600:
1133:
2971:
2961:
2946:
2148:
721:
584:
342:
241:
233:
188:
2354:"CA Linked to Chinese Registrar Issued Unauthorized Google Certificates"
2329:"Crypto breakthrough shows Flame was designed by world-class scientists"
1919:"Multivendor power council formed to address digital certificate issues"
1748:
Security Implications of IPv6 Fragmentation with IPv6 Neighbor Discovery
634:
and treat it as unrevoked (and allow attackers to sidestep revocation).
441:
the domain. Some Certificate Authorities may accept confirmation using
221:, a nonprofit certificate authority that provides free domain validated
3011:
3006:
2991:
2981:
2547:
2175:"SSL Certificate Vendor Sells Mozilla.com CSSL Certificate to Some Guy"
1022:
359:
326:
87:
2574:
Sheffer, Yaron; Saint-Andre, Pierre; Fossati, Thomas (November 2022).
984:
725:
Microsoft and VeriSign took steps to limit the impact of the problem.
622:(either due to accident or an attack), clients must decide whether to
3169:
3122:
3102:
3001:
2986:
2951:
2586:
1808:
1761:
1722:
1683:
1641:
159:
3149:
3107:
2941:
2736:
2604:
Proceedings 2020 Network and Distributed System Security Symposium
2433:
2201:"Independent Iranian hacker claims responsibility for Comodo hack"
1163:"List of available trusted root certificates in macOS High Sierra"
534:
481:
416:
222:
203:
132:
Large organizations or government bodies may have their own PKIs (
62:
51:
1941:"Major Certificate Authorities Unite In The Name Of SSL Security"
1264:
248:
market, and 96% of organization-validated certificates globally.
806:
This issue is the driving impetus behind the development of the
192:
2659:
2655:
1962:
1869:
731:
In 2011 fraudulent certificates were obtained from Comodo and
614:. Revocation is performed by the issuing CA, which produces a
144:
55:
229:, a California nonprofit recognized as federally tax-exempt.
1987:
626:
and treat a certificate as if it is revoked (and so degrade
1076:
2253:"Inside 'Operation Black Tulip': DigiNotar hack analysed"
1893:
1857:
798:
Implementation weakness of the trusted third party scheme
1625:
Laurie, Ben; Langley, Adam; Kasper, Emilia (June 2013).
2504:
Proceedings of the Internet Measurement Conference 2018
482:
881:"Dynamic Public Key Certificates with Forward Secrecy"
387:, not any information about the applicant's identity.
106:
CA certificates with varying validation requirements.
2453:"Unauthorized Google Digital Certificates Discovered"
1905:
1881:
1842:
1545:
The Shortcut Guide to Managing Certificate Lifecycles
1379:"CA/Forbidden or Problematic Practices - MozillaWiki"
987:. EMV Certificate Authority Worldwide. 2 October 2010
162:. However, encryption entails the receiver's public
2646:
How secure is HTTPS today? How often is it attacked?
1670:
A Uniform Resource Name (URN) Namespace for Examples
3132:
3090:
3074:
3053:
3046:
3020:
2917:
2896:
2867:
2772:
2693:
2275:"Trustwave issued a man-in-the-middle certificate"
1795:Autonomous System (AS) Reservation for Private Use
1408:"SSL FAQ - Frequently Asked Questions - Rapid SSL"
645:are too bandwidth-costly for routine use, and the
136:), each containing their own CAs. Any site using
240:In 2020, according to independent survey company
191:for certificate authorities in North America and
102:CA certificate may be the base to issue multiple
2539:2017 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)
960:"Mozilla Included CA Certificate List — Mozilla"
936:"How do Digital Certificates Work - An Overview"
810:(DANE) protocol. If adopted in conjunction with
2701:Transport Layer Security / Secure Sockets Layer
1006:Zakir Durumeric; James Kasten; Michael Bailey;
1240:"Let's Encrypt: Delivering SSL/TLS Everywhere"
46:) is an entity that stores, signs, and issues
2904:Export of cryptography from the United States
2671:
1432:Criminal charges are not pursued: Hacking PKI
1012:"Analysis of the HTTPS Certificate Ecosystem"
8:
2780:Automated Certificate Management Environment
1479:"Responsibilities of Certificate Authority"
73:Trusted certificates can be used to create
3050:
2725:DNS-based Authentication of Named Entities
2678:
2664:
2656:
2379:"Maintaining digital certificate security"
808:DNS-based Authentication of Named Entities
2731:DNS Certification Authority Authorization
2611:
2585:
2546:
1807:
1760:
1721:
1682:
1640:
896:
755:with the hash listed in the certificate.
665:Common Computing Security Standards Forum
179:However, the market for globally trusted
2497:"Is the Web Ready for OCSP Must-Staple?"
1187:"Microsoft Included CA Certificate List"
390:Many Certificate Authorities also offer
257:
217:, Mozilla, Cisco, and Akamai, announced
1858:Sheffer, Saint-Andre & Fossati 2022
921:"What is a certificate authority (CA)?"
871:
419:entry, or an administrative email like
27:Entity that issues digital certificates
2875:Domain Name System Security Extensions
2719:Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation
1290:"Counting SSL certificates - Netcraft"
812:Domain Name System Security Extensions
675:is considered the founder of the CCSF.
659:Certificate Authority Security Council
1032:from the original on 22 December 2013
7:
2481:from the original on 3 October 2016.
2207:from the original on 29 August 2011
2051:from the original on 7 January 2014
1947:. February 14, 2013. Archived from
1925:. February 14, 2013. Archived from
1906:Smith, Dickinson & Seamons 2020
1882:Smith, Dickinson & Seamons 2020
1843:Smith, Dickinson & Seamons 2020
1790:. |- |6996 |Best Current Practice |
1570:"Electronic Signatures and Records"
1019:The Internet Measurement Conference
766:and have revoked the certificates.
2813:Online Certificate Status Protocol
2103:from the original on 20 March 2017
2077:from the original on 15 April 2017
834:People for Internet Responsibility
647:Online Certificate Status Protocol
25:
2707:Datagram Transport Layer Security
1665:|- |6963 |Best Current Practice |
3140:Certificate authority compromise
2441:from the original on 2016-10-02.
2408:Committee to Protect Journalists
2263:from the original on 2017-07-03.
2097:"Apple Root Certificate Program"
1548:. Realtimepublishers.com. 2006.
1467:from the original on 2015-08-08.
1445:from the original on 2013-04-15.
1418:from the original on 2015-02-06.
1300:from the original on 2015-05-16.
1242:(Press release). Let's Encrypt.
227:Internet Security Research Group
3145:Random number generator attacks
2832:Extended Validation Certificate
2285:from the original on 2012-03-13
2233:from the original on 2011-09-12
2199:Bright, Peter (28 March 2011).
2155:from the original on 2011-10-26
2129:from the original on 2013-11-02
2047:. CAB Forum. 4 September 2013.
2026:from the original on 2013-05-12
1994:from the original on 2013-05-12
1969:from the original on 2014-08-23
1800:Internet Engineering Task Force
1753:Internet Engineering Task Force
1743:| |- |6980 |Proposed Standard |
1675:Internet Engineering Task Force
1633:Internet Engineering Task Force
1607:from the original on 2013-11-01
1582:from the original on 2016-03-04
1485:from the original on 2015-02-12
1389:from the original on 2017-07-21
1360:from the original on 2015-03-23
1271:from the original on 2015-06-10
1246:from the original on 2014-11-18
1221:from the original on 2017-07-08
1144:from the original on 2017-03-25
1115:from the original on 2016-03-04
1083:from the original on 2013-08-18
1058:from the original on 2015-11-03
966:from the original on 2013-08-04
760:China's central domain registry
616:cryptographically authenticated
246:Extended Validation Certificate
2742:HTTP Strict Transport Security
2650:Electronic Frontier Foundation
2147:Microsoft, Inc. (2007-02-21).
2125:. Cert.org. 31 December 2001.
1860:, 7.5. Certificate Revocation.
1134:"CA:IncludedCAs - MozillaWiki"
327:Sectigo (Comodo Cybersecurity)
215:Electronic Frontier Foundation
1:
2402:Lowenthal, Tom (2015-03-31).
2352:Fisher, Dennis (2015-03-23).
1833:. |}
1211:"Security with HTTPS and SSL"
1191:ccadb-public.secure.force.com
1052:"What is an SSL Certificate?"
879:Chien, Hung-Yu (2021-08-19).
576:To minimize this hazard, the
486:The procedure of obtaining a
2826:Domain-validated certificate
2225:Bright, Peter (2011-08-30).
862:certificate authority breach
856:certificate authority breach
643:Certificate revocation lists
143:Commercial banks that issue
2807:Certificate revocation list
2251:Leyden, John (2011-09-06).
2071:"Mozilla Root Store Policy"
1708:. |- |6979 |Informational |
1667:P. Saint-Andre (May 2013).
898:10.3390/electronics10162009
181:TLS/SSL server certificates
3237:
2881:Internet Protocol Security
2694:Protocols and technologies
2327:Goodin, Dan (2012-06-07).
2014:"CA/Browser Forum History"
1963:"CA/Browser Forum Founder"
1716:. Independent Submission.
1601:"Certificate transparency"
706:
602:
3216:Public key infrastructure
2909:Server-Gated Cryptography
2848:Public key infrastructure
2773:Public-key infrastructure
1792:J. Mitchell (July 2013).
1710:T. Pornin (August 2013).
1438:. DEF CON 17. Las Vegas.
618:statement of revocation.
612:public key infrastructure
176:certificate authorities.
134:public key infrastructure
3221:Transport Layer Security
3061:Man-in-the-middle attack
3028:Certificate Transparency
2613:10.14722/ndss.2020.24084
1628:Certificate Transparency
1101:Kirk Hall (April 2013).
777:hardware security module
737:man-in-the-middle attack
579:certificate transparency
557:American Bar Association
138:self-signed certificates
80:man-in-the-middle attack
3206:Public-key cryptography
3201:Certificate authorities
3172:(in regards to TLS 1.0)
3125:(in regards to SSL 3.0)
2859:Self-signed certificate
2843:Public-key cryptography
2764:Perfect forward secrecy
2748:HTTP Public Key Pinning
2512:10.1145/3278532.3278543
2045:"Baseline Requirements"
1745:F. Gont (August 2013).
1522:. Springer. June 2004.
934:Villanueva, John Carl.
783:in an HSM that is kept
514:Public-key cryptography
40:certification authority
3176:Kazakhstan MITM attack
2838:Public key certificate
2802:Certificate revocation
2713:Server Name Indication
653:Industry organizations
605:Certificate revocation
599:Certificate revocation
490:
488:public key certificate
3165:Lucky Thirteen attack
3066:Padding oracle attack
2786:Certificate authority
1429:Zusman, Mike (2009).
1215:developer.android.com
1010:(12 September 2013).
694:Baseline requirements
485:
478:Issuing a certificate
406:Validation weaknesses
127:Google Cloud Platform
36:certificate authority
2541:. pp. 539–556.
2506:. pp. 105–118.
2383:Google Security Blog
824:Validation authority
790:CAs sometimes use a
495:digital certificates
375:Validation standards
140:acts as its own CA.
48:digital certificates
1894:Larisch et al. 2017
1316:trends.netcraft.com
709:Supply chain attack
459:ssladmin@domain.com
396:Internet Explorer 7
392:Extended Validation
119:Amazon Web Services
3082:Bar mitzvah attack
2797:Certificate policy
2548:10.1109/sp.2017.17
2427:Osborne, Charlie.
2308:msrc.microsoft.com
1988:"CA/Browser Forum"
1951:on April 10, 2013.
1829:|Updates RFC
1782:|Updates RFC
1704:|Updates RFC
1506:. 17 January 2000.
687:Melih AbdulhayoÄźlu
673:Melih AbdulhayoÄźlu
561:digital signatures
491:
223:X.509 certificates
75:secure connections
18:Certificate server
3188:
3187:
3184:
3183:
2759:Opportunistic TLS
2652:(25 October 2011)
2623:978-1-891562-61-7
2558:978-1-5090-5533-3
2459:. 12 August 2014.
1929:on July 28, 2013.
1870:Chung et al. 2018
1294:news.netcraft.com
1267:. Let's Encrypt.
1008:J. Alex Halderman
849:Digital signature
781:root certificates
381:domain validation
372:
371:
208:Microsoft Windows
185:barriers to entry
16:(Redirected from
3228:
3051:
3038:HTTPS Everywhere
2854:Root certificate
2792:CA/Browser Forum
2680:
2673:
2666:
2657:
2635:
2615:
2598:
2589:
2587:10.17487/RFC9325
2570:
2550:
2533:
2501:
2483:
2482:
2477:. 24 July 2014.
2467:
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2229:. Ars Technica.
2222:
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2203:. Ars Technica.
2196:
2190:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2173:Seltzer, Larry.
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2018:
2012:Wilson, Wilson.
2009:
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1723:10.17487/RFC6979
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753:collision attack
679:CA/Browser Forum
467:CA/Browser Forum
460:
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258:
92:CA/Browser Forum
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3191:
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3086:
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3047:Vulnerabilities
3042:
3016:
2919:Implementations
2913:
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1504:"Network World"
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1296:. 13 May 2015.
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1108:. Trend Micro.
1105:
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962:. Mozilla.org.
958:
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497:that contain a
480:
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200:Mozilla Firefox
173:
71:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3234:
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3211:Key management
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3133:Implementation
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2640:External links
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2475:casecurity.org
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2377:(2015-03-23).
2366:
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2281:. 2012-02-07.
2279:The H Security
2266:
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2191:
2165:
2139:
2114:
2088:
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2036:
2004:
1979:
1954:
1932:
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1908:, p. 1-2.
1898:
1896:, p. 542.
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940:www.jscape.com
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844:Chain of trust
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603:Main article:
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472:Microsoft Live
425:administrator@
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2819:OCSP stapling
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279:Let's Encrypt
277:
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270:Market Share
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230:
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1945:Dark Reading
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792:key ceremony
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669:Comodo Group
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628:availability
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2489:Works cited
2073:. Mozilla.
1334:w3techs.com
1036:20 December
885:Electronics
770:Key storage
518:HTTP Secure
438:postmaster@
433:hostmaster@
385:domain name
3195:Categories
3160:Heartbleed
2413:2023-10-13
2388:2023-09-27
2360:2023-09-27
2338:2023-10-13
2313:2023-10-13
2289:2012-03-14
2237:2011-09-01
2211:2011-09-01
2184:5 December
2159:2011-11-09
2133:2014-06-11
2030:2013-04-23
1998:2013-04-23
1973:2014-08-23
1611:2013-11-03
1586:2014-08-28
1489:2015-02-12
1393:2017-07-06
1364:2015-03-20
1275:2015-06-07
1250:2014-11-20
1225:2017-06-09
1196:2020-08-24
1172:2020-08-24
1148:2017-03-18
1119:2014-06-11
1087:2013-03-02
1077:"webtrust"
1062:2022-03-19
970:2014-06-11
945:2021-09-05
867:References
707:See also:
581:initiative
499:public key
429:webmaster@
295:GlobalSign
123:Cloudflare
58:standard.
3155:goto fail
2967:MatrixSSL
2932:BoringSSL
2703:(TLS/SSL)
2632:211268930
2099:. Apple.
1818:2070-1721
1771:2070-1721
1732:2070-1721
1693:2070-1721
1651:2070-1721
907:2079-9292
854:DigiNotar
739:in Iran.
733:DigiNotar
632:fail-soft
624:fail-hard
311:IdenTrust
171:Providers
115:IBM Cloud
96:resellers
3091:Protocol
3021:Notaries
2997:SChannel
2972:mbed TLS
2962:LibreSSL
2947:cryptlib
2877:(DNSSEC)
2868:See also
2530:53223350
2479:Archived
2439:Archived
2283:Archived
2261:Archived
2231:Archived
2205:Archived
2153:Archived
2127:Archived
2107:14 April
2101:Archived
2081:14 April
2075:Archived
2055:14 April
2049:Archived
2021:Archived
1992:Archived
1967:Archived
1802:(IETF).
1755:(IETF).
1677:(IETF).
1635:(IETF).
1605:Archived
1577:Archived
1483:Archived
1465:Archived
1440:Archived
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1269:Archived
1244:Archived
1219:Archived
1142:Archived
1110:Archived
1081:Archived
1056:Archived
1027:Archived
985:"EMV CA"
964:Archived
818:See also
722:VeriSign
630:) or to
585:phishing
553:Notaries
549:Kerberos
542:Security
451:support@
343:DigiCert
242:Netcraft
234:Netcraft
189:WebTrust
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2992:s2n-tls
2982:OpenSSL
2897:History
2883:(IPsec)
2567:3926509
1461:tivi.fi
1265:"About"
1023:SIGCOMM
785:offline
509:Example
360:GoDaddy
88:Mozilla
3170:POODLE
3123:POODLE
3118:Logjam
3103:BREACH
3075:Cipher
3054:Theory
3002:SSLeay
2987:Rustls
2952:GnuTLS
2815:(OCSP)
2782:(ACME)
2750:(HPKP)
2744:(HSTS)
2727:(DANE)
2721:(ALPN)
2709:(DTLS)
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860:Comodo
764:Chrome
421:admin@
318:12.4%
302:14.0%
286:56.3%
264:Issuer
160:S/MIME
125:, and
3150:FREAK
3113:DROWN
3108:CRIME
3098:BEAST
2942:BSAFE
2937:Botan
2889:(SSH)
2850:(PKI)
2809:(CRL)
2737:HTTPS
2733:(CAA)
2715:(SNI)
2628:S2CID
2563:S2CID
2526:S2CID
2500:(PDF)
2434:ZDNet
2179:eWeek
2024:(PDF)
2017:(PDF)
1580:(PDF)
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443:root@
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362:Group
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267:Usage
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204:macOS
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63:HTTPS
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2957:JSSE
2834:(EV)
2828:(DV)
2788:(CA)
2618:ISBN
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2553:ISBN
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2109:2017
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