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fidelity and we ought not to magnify his faults; we cannot change his color, neither can we ignore his service. No individual ever “rose on stepping stones of dead” others “to higher things,” and no people can. We must rise by ourselves, we must execute judgment in righteousness; we must educate not only ourselves but see to it that the negro has an opportunity for education. As a white man I am afraid of but one thing for my race and that is that we shall become afraid to give the negro a fair chance. The first duty of every man is to develop himself to the uttermost and the only limitation upon his duty is that he shall take pains to see that in his own development he does no injustice to those beneath him. This is true of races as well as of individuals. Considered properly it is not a limitation but a condition of development. The white man in the South can never attain to his fullest growth until he does absolute justice to the negro race. If he is doing that now, it is well for him. If he is not doing it, he must seek to know the ways of truth and pursue them. My own opinion is, that so far we have done well, and that the future holds no menace for us if we do the duty which lies next to us, training, developing the coming generation, so that the problems which seem difficult to us shall be easy to them.
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Governor
Charles B. Aycock and state school superintendent James Y. Joyner to the movement for a constitutional amendment in North Carolina to limit black school expenditures to the amount paid by Negroes in taxes. It is true that Aycock threatened resignation if such a law passed and that, speaking to the legislature in 1903, he condemned the proposed measure as 'unjust, unwise and unconstitutional.' Yet in the same address he put greater stress on his view that the act was impolitic than he did on its injustice. The law would invite a challenge in federal court, he believed, and 'if it should be made to appear to the Court that in connection with our disfranchisement of the negro we had taken pains for providing to keep him in ignorance, then both amendments would fall together.' In other words, the disfranchisement of the almost unanimously Republican blacks, which was virtually priceless to the Democrats, would be bartered for the temporary gain of a few extra dollars of the school fund."
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coddling him, let him learn that no man, no race, ever got anything worth the having that he did not himself earn; that character is the outcome of sacrifice and worth is the result of toil; that whatever his future may be, the present has in it for him nothing that is not the product of industry, thrift, obedience to law, and uprightness; that he cannot, by resolution of council or league, accomplish anything; that he can do much by work; that violence may gratify his passions but it cannot accomplish his ambitions; that he may eat rarely of the cooking of equality, but he will always find when he does that “there is death in the pot.” Let the negro learn once for all that there is unending separation of the races, that the two peoples may develop side by side to the fullest but that they cannot intermingle; let the white man determine that no man shall by act or thought or speech cross this line, and the race problem will be at an end.
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he is unfit to vote. To do this we must disfranchise the negro. This movement comes from the people. Politicians have been afraid of it and have hesitated, but the great mass of white men in the State are now demanding and have demanded that the matter be settled once and for all. To do so is both desirable and necessary – desirable because it sets the white man free to move along faster than he can go when retarded by the slower movement of the negro.
436:. It was said that one school was constructed in the state for every day he was in office. He was supposedly dedicated to education after watching his mother make her mark when signing a deed. Aycock felt that no lasting social reform could be accomplished without education. He supported increased salaries for teachers, longer school terms, and new school buildings; "690 new schoolhouses erected, including 599 for whites and 91 for blacks."
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dominant race; that race that has conquered the earth and seeks out the mysteries of the heights and depths. If manifest destiny leads to the seizure of Panama, it is certain that it likewise leads to the dominance of the
Caucasian. When the negro recognizes this fact we shall have peace and good will between the races.
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Let us cast away all fear of rivalry with the negro, all apprehension that he shall ever overtake us in the race of life. We are the thoroughbreds and should have no fear of winning the race against a commoner stock. An effort to reduce their public schools would send thousands more of them away from
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Aycock married Varina
Woodard, daughter of Baptist lay minister and farmer William Woodard and Delpha Rountree Woodard, in 1881. They had three children together: Ernest Aycock, Charles Brantley Aycock, Jr., and Alice Varina Aycock. His two sons from this marriage died in childhood. His daughter from
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Indeed it has become the fashion among
Republicans and Populists to assert the unfitness of the negro to rule, but when they use the word rule, they confine it to holding office. When we say that the negro is unfit to rule we carry it one step further and convey the correct idea when we declare that
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These things are not said in enmity to the negro but in regard for him. He constitutes one third of the population of my State: he has always been my personal friend; as a lawyer I have often defended him, and as
Governor I have frequently protected him. But there flows in my veins the blood of the
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to avoid disenfranchising poor white voters. Aycock supported the amendment, and urged legislatures to submit it to a popular vote in an August election - moved up from
November. In the same election, Aycock ran for governor against Republican Spencer B. Adams. On the campaign trail, his supporters
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According to a reporter at the scene, however, Governor Aycock told the teachers "I have fought long the battles of education," and added, after asking a question of
Alabama's Governor Emmet O'Neal, "However, I have determined, if such a thing is possible, to open the doors of the schools to every
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wrote that Aycock's progressive attitude toward black education was based on white
Democrats' desire to ensure that the disfranchisement of black voters would not be reversed by federal government intervention. Kousser wrote, "Some scholars have made a great deal of the opposition of 'progressive'
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On April 24, 2018, Greensboro City
Council unanimously voted to rename North and South Aycock Street, which runs from West Florida Street to Wendover Avenue, to North and South Josephine Boyd Street after Josephine Boyd, the first black student to attend the all-white Greensboro High School (now
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I am inclined to give to you our solution of this problem. It is, first, as far as possible under the
Fifteenth Amendment to disfranchise him; after that let him alone, quit writing about him; quit talking about him, quit making him “the white man’s burden,” let him “tote his own skillet”; quit
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But I would not have the white people forget their duty to the negro. We must seek the truth and pursue it. We owe an obligation to “the man in black”; we brought him here; he served us well; he is patient and teachable. We owe him gratitude; above all we owe him justice. We cannot forget his
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trustees voted to remove Aycock's name from a residence hall after a months-long debate with faculty, students, staff and alumni. The trustees directed the university to represent Aycock's name in another campus location, where founders and other university supporters would be recognized.
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I am proud of my State … because there we have solved the negro problem … We have taken him out of politics and have thereby secured good government under any party and laid foundations for the future development of both races. We have secured peace, and rendered prosperity a certainty.
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While credited for an expansion of schools for black students, Aycock is also noted as having advocated that black students be properly educated through curriculum and care tightly controlled by North Carolina whites, to "benefit the black race to fit them into a subordinate role."
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Aycock did other progressive measures as governor such as building roads, increasing taxes on corporations, creating new regulations on railroads, and passing child labor and temperance laws. Aycock fought against lynching as governor, but expanded the state's
424:, the suffrage amendment was confirmed and Aycock was elected governor. He reportedly won 60% of the vote, but this was in part due to voter fraud. In several counties the number of votes for Aycock exceeded the number of eligible voters by several hundred.
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In 2011, the N.C. Democratic Party dropped Aycock's name from its annual fundraiser after calls from both Democratic and Republican lawmakers brought attention to Aycock's white supremacy ties. Aycock had been included in the fundraiser's name since 1960.
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us. In this hour, when our industrial development demands more labor and not less, it becomes of the utmost importance that we shall make no mistake in dealing with that race which does a very large part of the work, of actual hard labor in the State.
507:, in which they consider the web of economic, political, and social problems faced by blacks in their collective history as slaves and second-class citizens after Emancipation. The book had been released about two months before Aycock's speech.
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is chronicled in an official state commission report. "Planned violence to suppress the African American and Republican communities grew into unplanned bloodshed. The frenzy over white supremacy victory, incessantly repeated by orators such as
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The Federal Writers' Project of the Federal Works Agency, Works Projects Administration for the State of North Carolina, "North Carolina: A Guide to the Old North State", The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1939, page
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658:, Aycock is described as "one of the best friends that colored people had." For most of the 20th century, Aycock was characterized by state historians and politicians as an admirable figure, reflected in the choice to have a
549:
The subject of Aycock's speech was 'Universal Education'. After he had talked for a few minutes, Aycock spoke the words: 'I have always talked about education—.' Here he stopped, threw up his hands, reeled backward, and fell
316:, then known as Nahunta. Though his father died when he was 15, his mother and older brothers recognized his abilities and determined that he should go to college. Aycock attended the University of North Carolina (today the
564:
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to give a speech to 300 people at the North Carolina Society. His speech, "The Negro Problem," outlined his thoughts on keeping blacks separate, subservient, and locked out of representative government by circumventing
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was closed over thirty years ago and has been used as the campus for Asheville City Preschool and, more recently, Asheville Primary School (public Montessori); the plaque bearing the Aycock name was removed in 2020.
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As of early 2015, UNC Greensboro was also reviewing proposals to remove Aycock's name from campus buildings. On February 18, 2016, UNCG's board of trustees voted unanimously to remove his name from the auditorium.
720:
On August 15, 2017, the Greensboro City Council voted to rename the Aycock Historic District, which included the formerly named Aycock Middle School (now Swann Middle School) to Dunleath Historic District.
544:
in 1912. But before the nomination was decided, Aycock died of a heart attack while making a speech to 5,000 teachers at the convention of the Alabama Education Association in Birmingham on April 4, 1912.
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But Aycock's legacy in the violent white supremacy campaigns of 1898 and 1900—once sugar-coated in history books—is now being debated for the first time in North Carolina's highest political circles.
385:
and Charles Aycock, simply could not be quieted after an overwhelming and somewhat anticlimactic election victory." Aycock was reportedly not present in Wilmington the day of the insurrection.
328:
and supplemented his income by teaching school. His success in both fields led to his appointment as superintendent of schools for Wayne County and to service on the school board in Goldsboro.
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He became known as the "Education Governor" for advocating improvements to North Carolina's public school systems. After he left office, he traveled the country promoting educational causes.
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364:. They had seven children: William Benjamin Aycock, Mary Lily Aycock, Connor Woodard Aycock, John Lee Aycock, Louise Roundtree Aycock, Frank Daniels Aycock, and Brantley Aycock.
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324:, a debate and literary society at the university. After graduating in 1880 with first honors in both oratory and essay writing, he entered law practice in
988:
Kousser, J. Morgan. “Progressivism—For Middle-Class Whites Only: North Carolina Education, 1880–1910.” Journal of Southern History 46 (May 1980): 169–194.
732:, pursuant to legislation signed in 2015. Graham's statue was unveiled in National Stuatuary Hall on May 16, 2024. Following this, it was relocated to the
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campuses were named after him, although ECU decided to rename the dorm in 2015. UNC-Chapel Hill followed suit in 2020, renaming the dormitory for
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In 1899, the heavily Democrat state legislature of North Carolina passed a suffrage amendment to the state constitution. This amendment added a
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On August 25, 2015, the Guilford County school board voted 9–2 to rename Aycock Middle School in Greensboro, dropping the Aycock name.
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from 1901 to 1905. After starting his career as a lawyer and teacher, he became active in the Democratic Party during the party's
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On May 4, 2021, Raleigh City Council voted to rename Aycock Street to Roanoke Park Drive following a neighborhood petition.
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were encoded into law, and the Democratic Party controlled Tar Heel politics for two-thirds of the 20th century.
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displayed one of the rapid-fire guns from the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and Aycock regularly appeared with
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After leaving the governor's office in 1905, Aycock resumed his law practice. He was persuaded to run for the
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neighborhood of Governors Club is named after him, along with numerous other Governors of North Carolina.
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requested from the Architect of the Capitol replacement of Aycock's statue with one of evangelist
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682:… The campaigns had far-reaching consequences: blacks were removed from the voter rolls based on
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339:, when he gained distinction as an orator and political debater. From 1893 to 1897, he served as
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360:. Aycock's wife died on July 9, 1889. On January 7, 1891 he married his late wife's sister,
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450:
Gov. Aycock, Address Before the Democratic State Convention at Greensboro, June 23, 1904
415:
Charles Aycock, Address Accepting the Democratic Nomination for Governor, April 11, 1900
1052:
Charles B. Aycock (19 Dec 1903). "DECLARES NEGRO PROBLEM SOLVED". Chicago Daily Tribune.
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678:, which were marked by widespread violence, voter intimidation, voter fraud and even a
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1158:"The Negro Problem; A Series of Articles by Representative American Negroes of Today"
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493:, which guarantees the right to vote. Aycock's may have been a response to the book
432:
As governor, Aycock became known as the "Education Governor" for his support of the
1984:
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729:
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948:
Schooling the New South: Pedagogy, Self, and Society in North Carolina, 1880–1920
2024:
2014:
1919:
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1425:"NC leaders move forward with another honor for Billy Graham: US Capitol statue"
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in 1979. A street in Raleigh's Five Points neighborhood was also named for him.
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1130:. North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. May 31, 2006. Archived from
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2019:
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Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup of 1898 and the Rise of White Supremacy
1334:"Former NC Gov. Charles Aycock's Name Will Be Removed from UNCG Auditorium"
1180:"Former Governor Aycock Falls Dead While Speaking for Cause of Education",
1256:"Asheville school will change its name from 'Vance,' a Civil War governor"
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2009:
1999:
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1301:"ECU to remove Aycock name from dorm, but retain it at another location"
884:. Raleigh: North Carolina Office of Archives and History. p. 81.
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graduated its last class in 1963. Additionally, a small street in the
1374:"Guilford County school board approves renaming Aycock Middle School"
2283:
United States Attorneys for the Eastern District of North Carolina
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The speech is one of Aycock's most well known, and controversial:
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In 1898 and 1900, Aycock was prominent in the Democratic Party's "
1156:
Washington, Booker T.; DuBois, W.E.B.; et al. (1 Sep 1903).
1070:. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page & Company. pp.
670:
Often overlooked was Aycock's role as a leading spokesman in the
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child..." He stopped, staggered and fell dead of a heart attack.
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Aycock's Address in Baltimore. "The News-Herald." 24 Dec 1903.
979: : The Life and Speeches of Charles Brantley Aycock 1912
925: : The Life and Speeches of Charles Brantley Aycock 1912
1480:"Street renamed for civil rights trailblazer Josephine Boyd"
1110:. Brooklyn, New York: The Brooklyn Daily Eagle. 20 Dec 1903.
1196: : News-Record.com : Greensboro, North Carolina
666:. In recent years, that viewpoint has been challenged:
1066:
R. D. W. Connor; Clarence Hamilton Poe, eds. (1912).
484:
On December 18, 1903, while governor, Aycock went to
2047:
1652:
795:"How The Only Coup D'Etat In U.S. History Unfolded"
647:was named after him, although it was absorbed into
609:, the first black faculty member at the school. In
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2318:University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni
1068:"The Life and Speeches of Charles Brantley Aycock"
977:"The Life and Speeches of Charles Brantley Aycock"
945:
923:"The Life and Speeches of Charles Brantley Aycock"
617:as well. There is an Aycock Elementary School in
499:, written by prominent black scholars, including
1028:""The Negro Problem": Perplexing and Portentous"
662:as one of the two submitted by the state to the
1518:North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources
1399:"Greensboro's Aycock neighborhood name changed"
1322: : News & Record : Greensboro, NC
1320:"UNCG to move ahead with review of Aycock name"
1047:
1045:
952:. University of North Carolina Press. pp.
442:
407:
289:period, and made his reputation as a prominent
724:On February 28, 2018, North Carolina governor
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882:A Day of Blood: The 1898 Wilmington Race Riot
846:
844:
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8:
2303:Wilmington insurrection of 1898 conspirators
2263:Democratic Party governors of North Carolina
1021:
1019:
855:. Raleigh: News&Observer. Archived from
64:January 15, 1901 – January 11, 1905
1358:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1291: : newsobserver.com : Raleigh, NC
1214:"ECU renames its own Aycock Residence Hall"
1124:1898 Wilmington Race Riot Commission Report
680:coup d'Ă©tat of the government of Wilmington
376:" campaigns. Aycock's involvement with the
318:University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
273:(November 1, 1859 – April 4, 1912) was the
239:University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
2313:African-American history of North Carolina
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422:1900 North Carolina gubernatorial election
356:this marriage went on to marry the writer
29:
18:
999:"Aycock, Charles Brantley | NCpedia"
2288:People from Wayne County, North Carolina
1310: : News & Observer, Raleigh, NC
702:removed his name from a residence hall.
331:His political career began in 1888 as a
2293:19th-century North Carolina politicians
2273:Political violence in the United States
1096:. John Albert Sleicher F. Leslie. 1904.
782:
2268:School board members in North Carolina
1351:
2298:People from Goldsboro, North Carolina
1397:, Margaret Moffett (15 August 2017).
1090:Leslie's Illustrated Weekly Newspaper
1061:
1059:
468:program, a de facto form of slavery.
7:
2258:Burials at Historic Oakwood Cemetery
1478:Moffett, Margaret (April 24, 2018).
851:Christensen, Rob (October 6, 2007).
2308:History of racism in North Carolina
1423:Murphy, Brian (February 28, 2018).
1254:Wicker, Mackenzie (June 30, 2020).
567:Aycock's statue in the U.S. Capitol
1160:. New York, J. Pott & Company.
345:Eastern District of North Carolina
98:Eastern District of North Carolina
14:
1531:a 1905 magazine article by Aycock
1529:Education, the South's First Need
1525:from University of North Carolina
664:National Statuary Hall Collection
643:In 1965, a junior high school in
2038:
1282:"Vance-Aycock Dinner is history"
853:"Aycock legacy gets reappraisal"
624:The Aycock Elementary School in
1523:North Carolina Election of 1898
378:Wilmington insurrection of 1898
1026:James M. Buckley, ed. (1904).
1:
1038:. T. Carlton & J. Porter.
613:, North Carolina, there is a
540:seat held by fellow Democrat
1194:"The risk of choosing names"
649:William G. Enloe High School
577:North Carolina State Capitol
310:Wayne County, North Carolina
169:Wayne County, North Carolina
1108:"Solving the Negro Problem"
826:"Aycock, Cora Lily Woodard"
656:The Story of North Carolina
615:high school named after him
2334:
1589:Governor of North Carolina
1555:Governor of North Carolina
1403:Greensboro News and Record
761:. Atlantic Monthly Press.
595:Greensboro, North Carolina
575:Memorial to Aycock at the
52:Governor of North Carolina
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588:Historic Oakwood Cemetery
368:White supremacy campaigns
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146:
103:
57:
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28:
1538:Party political offices
1121:"7: Destiny of a Race".
944:Leloudis, James (1996).
757:Zucchino, David (2020).
707:East Carolina University
603:East Carolina University
193:Cause of death
1457:Billy Graham Jr. Statue
1430:The News & Observer
1260:Asheville Citizen Times
880:Umfleet, LeRae (2009).
645:Raleigh, North Carolina
491:the Fifteenth Amendment
314:Fremont, North Carolina
271:Charles Brantley Aycock
23:Charles Brantley Aycock
1582:Daniel Lindsay Russell
1032:The Christian Advocate
705:On February 20, 2015,
692:
674:campaigns of 1898 and
632:Aycock High School in
590:
579:
568:
552:
529:
481:
453:
418:
94:United States Attorney
75:Daniel Lindsay Russell
1599:Robert Broadnax Glenn
1567:Robert Broadnax Glenn
1086:"People Talked About"
799:National Public Radio
668:
654:In the 1933 textbook
585:
574:
566:
547:
512:
479:
358:Clarence Hamilton Poe
322:Philanthropic Society
87:Robert Broadnax Glenn
35:Charles Aycock, from
1642:lieutenant governors
1184:, April 5, 1912, p.1
1182:Tuscaloosa (AL) News
742:Grimsley High School
597:, the auditorium at
542:Furnifold M. Simmons
505:Booker T. Washington
434:public school system
383:Alfred Moore Waddell
333:presidential elector
1332:WFMY News 2 Staff.
1137:on January 24, 2017
793:(August 17, 2008).
472:"The Negro Problem"
186:Birmingham, Alabama
16:American politician
2278:Racial segregation
1574:Political offices
1306:2015-02-23 at the
1287:2015-01-29 at the
698:On June 17, 2014,
607:Hortense McClinton
591:
580:
569:
482:
398:grandfather clause
304:Charles B. Aycock
2235:
2234:
1605:
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1596:Succeeded by
1564:Succeeded by
1514:Aycock Birthplace
1485:News & Record
1272:Zucchino, pp. 335
1224:on 10 August 2015
934:Zucchino, pp. 316
913:Zucchino, pp. 313
904:Zucchino, pp. 304
891:978-0-86526-344-4
496:The Negro Problem
362:Cora Lily Woodard
320:) and joined the
268:
267:
219:Cora Lily Woodard
142:Claude M. Bernard
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1631:
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1579:Preceded by
1543:Preceded by
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1376:. 26 August 2016
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1220:. Archived from
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2005:J. G. Martin
1904:
1587:
1553:nominee for
1549:
1493:. Retrieved
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1461:, retrieved
1456:
1450:
1438:. Retrieved
1428:
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1406:. Retrieved
1402:
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1378:. Retrieved
1368:
1344:February 18,
1342:. Retrieved
1337:
1327:
1315:
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1238:
1226:. Retrieved
1222:the original
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1139:. Retrieved
1132:the original
1123:
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857:the original
830:. Retrieved
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751:Bibliography
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730:Billy Graham
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197:Heart attack
181:(1912-04-04)
138:Succeeded by
105:
82:Succeeded by
59:
36:
2253:1912 deaths
2248:1859 births
2177:R. W. Scott
2112:Daughtridge
1990:R. W. Scott
1965:W. K. Scott
1790:Spaight Jr.
1695:Spaight Sr.
1408:20 December
1380:20 December
1141:January 23,
744:) in 1957.
638:Chapel Hill
634:Cedar Grove
287:Solid South
126:Preceded by
70:Preceded by
2242:Categories
2202:J. Gardner
2182:Taylor Jr.
2157:Taylor Sr.
2152:Ballentine
2048:Lieutenant
1995:Holshouser
1945:Ehringhaus
1593:1901–1905
1551:Democratic
1490:Greensboro
1228:19 October
1009:2021-01-28
863:2014-06-05
832:2023-03-20
777:References
726:Roy Cooper
532:Later life
455:Historian
403:Red Shirts
300:Early life
279:U.S. state
251:Politician
245:Occupation
234:Alma mater
207:Democratic
162:1859-11-01
2167:Barnhardt
2050:governors
1955:Broughton
1720:Alexander
1690:A. Martin
1675:A. Martin
1653:Governors
1638:Governors
1516:from the
828:. NCpedia
626:Asheville
619:Henderson
611:Pikeville
486:Baltimore
326:Goldsboro
213:Spouse(s)
115:President
110:1893–1897
106:In office
60:In office
2227:Robinson
2172:Philpott
2132:Fountain
2092:Reynolds
2087:Doughton
2072:Robinson
2057:Caldwell
1930:Morrison
1860:Caldwell
1800:Morehead
1755:Franklin
1725:Williams
1710:Williams
1685:Johnston
1495:June 24,
1440:July 13,
1354:cite web
1304:Archived
1285:Archived
1198:Archived
448:—
428:Governor
413:—
390:poll tax
343:for the
306:was born
257:educator
225:Children
96:for the
2107:Newland
2102:Winston
2077:Stedman
2062:Brogden
2025:McCrory
1980:Sanford
1970:Umstead
1925:Bickett
1915:Kitchin
1900:Russell
1865:Brogden
1820:Winslow
1770:Iredell
1740:Hawkins
1680:Caswell
1660:Caswell
1435:Raleigh
1340:. TENGA
420:In the
277:of the
2222:Forest
2217:Dalton
2212:Perdue
2207:Wicker
2197:Jordan
2162:Hodges
2147:Harris
2142:Horton
2137:Graham
2122:Cooper
2097:Turner
2067:Jarvis
2030:Cooper
2020:Perdue
2015:Easley
1975:Hodges
1960:Cherry
1935:McLean
1905:Aycock
1880:Scales
1875:Jarvis
1855:Holden
1845:Holden
1805:Graham
1795:Dudley
1780:Stokes
1765:Burton
1760:Holmes
1750:Branch
1745:Miller
1715:Turner
960:
956:–180.
888:
765:
559:Legacy
538:Senate
254:lawyer
188:, U.S.
171:, U.S.
2192:Green
1985:Moore
1920:Craig
1910:Glenn
1885:Fowle
1870:Vance
1850:Worth
1840:Vance
1835:Clark
1830:Ellis
1825:Bragg
1810:Manly
1785:Swain
1735:Smith
1730:Stone
1705:Davie
1670:Burke
1135:(PDF)
1128:(PDF)
1074:–163.
550:dead.
50:50th
2187:Hunt
2127:Long
2082:Holt
2010:Hunt
2000:Hunt
1950:Hoey
1895:Carr
1890:Holt
1815:Reid
1775:Owen
1700:Ashe
1665:Nash
1640:and
1560:1900
1497:2020
1465:2024
1442:2018
1410:2018
1382:2018
1360:link
1346:2016
1338:WFMY
1230:2015
1143:2018
958:ISBN
886:ISBN
763:ISBN
676:1900
503:and
392:and
335:for
176:Died
156:Born
1644:of
1171:79.
1072:161
954:177
593:In
308:in
281:of
2244::
1488:.
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1401:.
1356:}}
1352:{{
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1094:98
1092:.
1088:.
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841:^
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686:,
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228:10
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1616:v
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771:.
164:)
160:(
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