456:' disadvantage in France both for military reasons and because it might "seriously impair our relations with the civilian population when it became generally known that chemical warfare was first employed by us." The JPS had similar concerns about public morale in Britain, fearing that people might become resentful if they felt a gas war could have been avoided. The Chiefs of Staff also warned that the Nazis would have no particular "difficulty in holding down the cowed German population, if they were subjected to gas attack," whereas the British population "are in no such inarticulate condition." Moreover, the German might use Allied prisoners as workers in contaminated areas causing "great public concern".
430:. Although the idea was rejected, it provoked debate. In July 1944, fearing that rocket attacks on London would get even worse and that he would only use chemical weapons if it was "life or death for us" or would "shorten the war by a year", Churchill wrote a secret memorandum asking his military chiefs to "think very seriously over this question of using poison gas." He said: "it is absurd to consider morality on this topic when everybody used it in the last war without a word of complaint," and that:
2064:
64:
137:
was the name given to a mixture of equal volumes of chlorine and phosgene, the chlorine helping to spread the denser but more toxic phosgene. Despite the rapid technical developments that occurred in the production of specialised agents, chemical weapons suffered from diminishing effectiveness as the
573:
was built, which produced about 20 tons of the nerve agent between 1954 and 1956. A full-scale production plant was planned, but with the 1956 decision to end the United
Kingdom's offensive chemical-weapons programme it was never built. Nancekuke was mothballed, but was maintained through the 1960s
246:
concluded that "while at various moments tear gas munitions were available in
Mesopotamia, circumstances seeming to call for their use existed, and official sanction to employ them had been received, at no time during the period of the mandate did all three of these conditions apply" and that it was
251:
It is sheer affectation to lacerate a man with the poisonous fragment of a bursting shell and to boggle at making his eyes water by means of lachrymatory gas. I am strongly in favour of using poisoned gas against uncivilised tribes. The moral effect should be so good that the loss of life should be
247:
clear that no poison gas was used. Douglas said that interdepartmental miscommunication within the contemporary
British administration, including a secretarial letter erroneously stating gas had been used which was later withdrawn and corrected, was responsible for later academic confusion.
472:
against six large German cities but ruled this out on the ground that the anthrax bombs were not yet available. A large batch of aerial bombs were ordered, but by the time the U.S. factory was ready to produce them, they were deemed unnecessary since the war in Europe was almost over.
252:
reduced to a minimum. It is not necessary to use only the most deadly gasses: gasses can be used which cause great inconvenience and would spread a lively terror and yet would leave no serious permanent effects on most of those affected.
97:
on 25 September 1915. By the end of the war, poison-gas use had become widespread on both sides. By 1918, a quarter of artillery shells were filled with gas and
Britain had produced around 25,400 tons of toxic chemicals.
285:
in 1930, which banned the use of toxic gases and bacteria in war but not the development and production of such weapons. Britain carried out extensive testing of chemical weapons from the early 1930s onwards. In the
239:
in 1920 during a major revolt there. In the early 2000s, historians were divided as to whether or not gas was actually used in Iraq. A 2009 review of surviving documentary evidence by historian R. M. Douglas in the
526:), in an attempt to find a suitable site to test the weapons under the codename FORENSIC. South Africa indicated a suitable site would not be available; the British government then suggested a possible site in the
463:
I am not at all convinced by this negative report. But clearly I cannot make head against the parsons and the warriors at the same time. The matter should be kept under review and brought up again when things get
2111:
2096:
171:
after their armies had captured a stockpile of German mustard-gas shells. It took the
British more than a year to develop their own mustard-gas agent, with production of the chemicals taking place at
2101:
614:
203:
374:
To enable
Britain to retaliate quickly if Nazi Germany used chemical weapons, a number of Forward Filling Depots were built so that the mustard-gas stockpile should be dispersed and ready to use.
550:
complained of suffering long-term illnesses after taking part in the tests. It was alleged that before volunteering they were not provided with adequate information about the experiments and the
492:– became available, and offered a chance to shorten the war, the Americans used it. "Why, from an ethical or political point of view, should germ warfare have been regarded any differently? ."
1432:
530:
of
Bechuanaland. The planned experiments were postponed with the onset of the 1943 rainy season and do not appear to have been carried out. Information about them was not publicly known until
1348:
1290:
306:
In the late 1930s the
Chamberlain government planned that the United Kingdom should be in a position at the beginning of any war to retaliate in kind if the Germans, as expected, used
452:
The Joint
Planning Staff (JPS), however, advised against the use of gas because it would inevitably provoke Germany to retaliate in kind. They argued that this would be to the
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1422:
600:
in 2002. The 2004 hearing closed on 15 November, after a jury found that the cause of
Maddison's death was "application of a nerve agent in a non-therapeutic experiment".
323:
531:
2091:
1457:
910:
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1998:
175:. (The only option available to the British was the Despretz–Niemann–Guthrie process). This was first used in September 1918 in the course of breaking of the
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in an attempt to determine the appropriate concentrations to use on battlefields. Many of the subjects suffered severe burns from their exposure to the gas.
1417:
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and many other cities in Germany ... We could stop all work at the flying bombs starting points....and if we do it, let us do it one hundred per cent.
216:
the Chemical Defence Research Establishment (CDRE) in 1919. The plant was able to manufacture up to 20 tons of mustard gas per week in the late 1920s.
1943:
813:
2023:
438:
that would hit the enemy in a murderous place. I may certainly have to ask you to support me in using poison gas. We could drench the cities of the
581:'s armoury". However, the political difficulties of addressing this prevented any redevelopment of a British chemical weapons production facility.
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In the early 1980s the government took the view that the lack of a European chemical-weapons retaliatory capability was a "major gap in
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comes from its usage by the German army near the town of Ypres. The Allies did not use mustard gas until November 1917 at the
2043:
1846:
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As the end of the war was sufficiently in sight, British poison gas production was terminated following a request from the
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war progressed because of the corresponding sophistication of the protective equipment and training adopted by both sides.
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From 1939 to 1989 experiments on chemical weapons including nerve agents and countermeasures were carried out at the
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118:
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1963:
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in 1940–1941,. If an invasion had occurred, the Royal Air Force may have also deployed it against German cities.
242:
1983:
1821:
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1116:
477:
191:
168:
40:, although it appears that they were not actually used in these conflicts. While the UK was a signatory of the
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1988:
1948:
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which outlawed the use of poison gas shells, the conventions omitted mention of deployment from cylinders.
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814:"'The Right Medicine for the Bolshevist': British Air-Dropped Chemical Weapons in North Russia, 1919,"
1938:
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Winston Churchill, 'Most Secret' PRIME MINISTER'S PERSONAL MINUTE to the Chiefs of Staff, 6 July 1944
224:
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opened discussions with the South African government, and then with the colonial administration of
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and 1970s in a state whereby production of chemical weapons could easily re-commence if required.
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266:(ICI) began to build a new factory for the production of mustard gas at their Randle plant on
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845:
Douglas, R. M. (December 2009). "Did Britain Use Chemical Weapons in Mandatory Iraq?".
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194:, which explicitly forbade the employment of "poison or poisoned weapons" in warfare.
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said that in the event of a German landing, he "had every intention of using sprayed
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An inquest was opened on 5 May 2004 into the death on 6 May 1953 of a serviceman,
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on the beaches" in an annotation in his diary. The British manufactured mustard,
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25:
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A higher form of killing: the secret history of chemical and biological warfare
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inquest to have been as a result of "misadventure" but this was quashed by the
235:, secretary of state for war and air, suggested that the RAF use poison gas in
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110:
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469:
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At the same time, the JPS examined the arguments in favour of using anthrax
355:
228:
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for small-scale chemical-agent production. A pilot production facility for
558:
of 1947. This became the subject of a lengthy police investigation called
117:. British forces also used relatively small amounts of the irritant gases
1346:
The Plan that Never Was: Churchill and the 'Anthrax Bomb' by Julian Lewis
1293:. Ministry of Defence (Archived by The National Archives). Archived from
523:
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and ICI, which was tasked with managing this programme. This resulted in
346:
and stored them at airfields and depots for use on the invasion beaches.
339:
335:
331:
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209:
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The use of chemical weapons during the Great War was in violation of the
106:
102:
82:
773:"Poison Gas Works - Sutton Oak CDRE | Sutton Beauty & Heritage"
422:
issued a memorandum advocating a chemical strike on German cities using
547:
427:
407:
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being established as the United Kingdom's main chemical-weapons plant.
358:
was surveyed by the Department of Industrial Planning on behalf of the
271:
1012:"Rhydymwyn Valley History Society - History (Forward Filling Depots)"
1318:"Thatcher government considered building chemical weapons stockpile"
1069:
858:
737:
Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era
589:
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227:, an irritant agent designed to cause uncontrollable coughing, on
154:
62:
382:, Little Heath, Suffolk. Under the control of 94 Maintenance Unit
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551:
439:
236:
1361:
1357:
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From 1950, a Chemical Defence Establishment was established as
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research establishment. Although volunteers were used, many ex-
1264:"Britain planned poison gas tests in Botswana, records reveal"
615:
Alleged British use of chemical weapons in Mesopotamia in 1920
204:
Alleged British use of chemical weapons in Mesopotamia in 1920
1048:"Lords Bridge Forward Filling Depot – Subterranea Britannica"
1034:"Little Heath Forward Filling Depot – Subterranea Britannica"
789:
From Biological Warfare to Healthcare: Porton Down, 1940-2000
93:
deployed chlorine themselves for the first time during the
2112:
Cancelled military operations involving the United Kingdom
1155:
I want the matter studied in cold blood by sensible people
403:, Cambridgeshire. Under the control of 95 Maintenance Unit
2097:
Military history of the United Kingdom during World War I
883:
The X Site: Britain's Most Mysterious Government Facility
554:
they incurred by participating in them, in breach of the
410:, Yorkshire. Under the control of 80 Sub Maintenance Unit
396:, Lincolnshire. Under the control of 93 Maintenance Unit
699:
The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir
2102:
World War II military equipment of the United Kingdom
511:
for the United Kingdom during the Second World War.
188:
1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases
89:
against British troops from April 1915 onwards, the
2007:
1972:
1926:
1890:
1859:
1812:
1796:
1775:
1717:
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212:, the British Ministry of Munitions established at
55:on 13 January 1993 and ratified it on 13 May 1996.
36:during the interwar period, and also considered in
1120:
389:Lake Site, Befordshire. American FFD - Station 572
324:British anti-invasion preparations of World War II
675:"Photographic Archive of Avonmouth Bristol BS11"
592:. His death had earlier been found by a private
101:Britain used a range of poison gases, initially
1236:"Poison gas tests planned for site in Botswana"
461:
432:
249:
1234:Malvern, Jack; Kenber, Billy (18 April 2012).
1165:
1163:
459:Churchill responded to this advice by saying:
1373:
786:Hammond, P.; Carter, Gradon (15 April 2016).
257:Winston Churchill, Departmental minute (1919)
8:
985:Rowlands Gill and the North-East 1939 – 1945
734:Thomas Graham, Damien J. Lavera (May 2003).
133:. Gases were frequently mixed. For example,
951:Anti-Invasion defences Suffolk World War II
1999:Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps
1969:
1671:
1554:
1380:
1366:
1358:
929:"Sixty secret mustard gas sites uncovered"
24:were widely used by the United Kingdom in
1944:Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers
1107:
1105:
28:. The use of poison gas was suggested by
2024:Educational and Training Services Branch
1262:Norton-Taylor, Richard (18 April 2012).
532:the opening of British colonial archives
2092:United Kingdom chemical weapons program
908:"Mustard Gas Tested on Indian Soldiers"
631:
1194:"Churchill's Anthrax Bombs – a debate"
1097:'Churchill's Anthrax Bombs – a debate'
656:
646:
354:In April/June 1939 the Alyn Valley in
1001:Alanbrooke, 2001. Entry 22 July 1940.
974:
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406:FFD 5 Station Site. West Cottingwith/
192:1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare
157:, in 1917 and later also against the
149:against Commonwealth soldiers in the
7:
927:Bellamy, Christopher (4 June 1996).
16:History of UK chemical weapons usage
1316:Edward Malnick (30 December 2014).
1131:. Random House Publishing. p.
51:on 9 April 1930. The UK signed the
1954:Royal Army Physical Training Corps
1732:Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment
1582:Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment
696:Telford Taylor (1 November 1993).
262:In 1937, the British conglomerate
67:A World War I-era British gas bomb
42:Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
14:
1842:Turks and Caicos Islands Regiment
1657:Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry
1423:Deputy Chief of the General Staff
1198:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
1093:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
2063:
2062:
1934:Royal Army Chaplains' Department
281:Britain signed and ratified the
81:, in retaliation for the use of
47:The United Kingdom ratified the
1872:Special Reconnaissance Regiment
1433:Current serving senior officers
1291:"Nancekuke Remediation Project"
516:Ministry of Aircraft Production
507:Poison gas was produced in the
143:used effectively in World War I
73:Chemical weapons in World War I
2044:Military Provost Guard Service
1847:Falkland Islands Defence Force
1832:Royal Montserrat Defence Force
1602:1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards
835:, BBC History 10 February 2003
742:University of Washington Press
641:The Port of Bristol, 1848–1884
484:argue that as soon as another
1:
1443:Structure of the British Army
1099:, Vol.4 no.12, November 1987.
847:The Journal of Modern History
830:"British Relations with Iraq"
588:, during an experiment using
1918:Honourable Artillery Company
1737:Duke of Lancaster's Regiment
1083:, 18,21,25,29/5, 2,11/6/81;
1016:rhydymwynvalleyhistory.co.uk
302:Proposed use in World War II
264:Imperial Chemical Industries
2019:Staff and Personnel Support
1994:Royal Army Veterinary Corps
1742:Royal Regiment of Fusiliers
1458:Weapons of mass destruction
1196:R.V. Jones and J.M. Lewis,
1073:, 11/5/81, 20/5/81, 15/6/81
947:"Chemical Warfare -Suffolk"
434:I should be prepared to do
208:To maintain a stockpile of
53:Chemical Weapons Convention
2133:
2029:Army Legal Services Branch
1727:Royal Regiment of Scotland
1607:Royal Scots Dragoon Guards
1577:Household Cavalry Regiment
1418:Chief of the General Staff
1068:, 7,9,13,20,30/5, 2/6/81;
917:4 September 2007 about.com
817:Imperial War Museum Review
538:After the Second World War
503:Production in South Africa
486:weapon of mass destruction
201:
119:chloromethyl chloroformate
70:
2060:
1964:Royal Corps of Army Music
1513:other ranks rank insignia
1087:magazine, Vol.58-9 no.2;
833:Iraq: Conflict in Context
704:Little, Brown and Company
497:Chiefs of Staff Committee
243:Journal of Modern History
1984:Royal Army Medical Corps
1822:Royal Gibraltar Regiment
1752:Royal Yorkshire Regiment
1122:"The War That Never Was"
1989:Royal Army Dental Corps
1949:Small Arms School Corps
1837:Cayman Islands Regiment
639:Edited by David Large.
181:Hundred Days' Offensive
151:Battle of Passchendaele
2039:Military Provost Staff
1908:Royal Corps of Signals
1827:Royal Bermuda Regiment
1747:Royal Anglian Regiment
1079:, 25/6, 2/7, 17/8/81;
466:
450:
370:Forward Filling Depots
288:Rawalpindi experiments
260:
141:Mustard gas was first
68:
2034:Royal Military Police
1959:General Service Corps
1647:Royal Wessex Yeomanry
1617:Queen's Royal Hussars
1503:officer rank insignia
913:14 April 2014 at the
620:M. S. Factory, Valley
514:In 1943, the British
509:Union of South Africa
394:RAF Station Swinderby
364:M. S. Factory, Valley
350:M. S. Factory, Valley
66:
1939:Royal Logistic Corps
1767:Royal Irish Regiment
1652:Queen's Own Yeomanry
1627:King's Royal Hussars
1612:Royal Dragoon Guards
1525:National Army Museum
1351:30 July 2019 at the
981:"Chapter 5 Invasion"
610:Operation Vegetarian
225:diphenylchloroarsine
147:Imperial German Army
1891:Combat Support Arms
1867:Special Air Service
1783:Royal Gurkha Rifles
1637:Royal Tank Regiment
1448:Order of precedence
1428:Army Sergeant Major
1403:Ministry of Defence
1222:"Paxman and Harris"
1210:"Paxman and Harris"
1200:, Vol.4 no.4 p42-3.
1182:"Paxman and Harris"
1170:"Paxman and Harris"
906:Jennifer Rosenberg
880:Jones, Tim (2001).
853:(4): 877–878, 887.
677:. BristolPast.co.uk
594:Ministry of Defence
283:Geneva Gas Protocol
219:After the war, the
1913:Intelligence Corps
1804:Parachute Regiment
1297:on 8 December 2010
1119:(6 August 2002) .
1022:on 9 January 2015.
886:. Gwasg Helygain.
659:has generic name (
499:in February 1945.
360:Ministry of Supply
159:French Second Army
69:
59:Use in World War I
2117:Winston Churchill
2074:
2073:
2056:
2055:
2052:
2051:
1860:Other Combat Arms
1855:
1854:
1689:Coldstream Guards
1559:Household Cavalry
1408:Army Headquarters
1224:, p136-7, 103–15.
1142:978-0-8129-6653-4
1095:, Vol.4 no.4 and
991:on 6 August 2006.
957:on 24 August 2011
819:12 (1999): 78–88.
420:Winston Churchill
233:Winston Churchill
231:troops in 1919,.
169:Battle of Cambrai
131:ethyl iodoacetate
30:Winston Churchill
2124:
2107:Chemical warfare
2066:
2065:
1970:
1757:Mercian Regiment
1684:Grenadier Guards
1672:
1572:Blues and Royals
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1018:. Archived from
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987:. Archived from
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953:. Archived from
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744:. pp. 7–9.
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560:Operation Antler
528:Makgadikgadi Pan
480:and broadcaster
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322:, in command of
314:to help repel a
294:were exposed to
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198:Between the wars
22:Chemical weapons
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2011:General's Corps
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1927:Combat Services
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1898:Royal Artillery
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2087:British Army
1974:Army Medical
1704:Welsh Guards
1699:Irish Guards
1694:Scots Guards
1540:Army Reserve
1462:
1389:British Army
1325:. Retrieved
1321:
1311:
1299:. Retrieved
1295:the original
1285:
1273:. Retrieved
1269:The Guardian
1267:
1257:
1245:. Retrieved
1239:
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1197:
1189:
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1127:
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1076:
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1065:
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1015:
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984:
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955:the original
950:
941:
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792:. Springer.
788:
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736:
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679:. Retrieved
669:
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541:
520:Bechuanaland
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123:chloropicrin
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91:British Army
76:
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38:World War II
20:
18:
1762:Royal Welsh
1676:Foot Guards
1567:Life Guards
1508:other ranks
1490:Recruitment
1089:New Society
544:Porton Down
490:atomic bomb
415:Later plans
401:Bridge Site
380:RAF Barnham
344:Paris Green
328:mustard gas
308:mustard gas
296:mustard gas
268:Wigg Island
179:during the
161:. The name
127:bromacetone
115:mustard gas
77:During the
34:Mesopotamia
26:World War I
2081:Categories
1788:The Rifles
1453:War crimes
1413:Army Board
1172:, p132-35.
1091:, Vol.60;
1064:, 1/5/81;
626:References
598:High Court
548:servicemen
470:bioweapons
424:poison gas
387:RAF Risely
214:Sutton Oak
202:See also:
135:white star
111:diphosgene
105:and later
71:See also:
1815:regiments
1551:and Corps
1549:Regiments
1480:Equipment
1327:3 January
1241:The Times
1212:, p101-3.
1151:268949025
1085:Encounter
1071:The Times
1062:Newsnight
867:154708409
649:cite book
534:in 2012.
476:Novelist
356:Rhydymwyn
229:Bolshevik
2068:Category
2009:Adjutant
1976:Services
1813:Overseas
1797:Airborne
1720:Infantry
1667:Infantry
1535:Timeline
1520:Uniforms
1495:Training
1463:Chemical
1349:Archived
1301:25 April
911:Archived
604:See also
524:Botswana
445:—
436:anything
340:phosgene
336:lewisite
332:chlorine
312:phosgene
276:Cheshire
255:—
223:dropped
210:Adamsite
190:and the
107:phosgene
103:chlorine
83:chlorine
1530:History
1468:Nuclear
1396:General
961:18 June
719:20 June
428:anthrax
408:Escrick
272:Runcorn
164:Yperite
145:by the
87:Germany
85:gas by
1776:Rifles
1499:Ranks
1484:Rifles
1275:30 May
1247:29 May
1149:
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757:5 July
748:
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681:12 May
488:– the
464:worse.
454:Allies
399:FFD 4
392:FFD 3
385:FFD 2
378:FFD 1
1592:Royal
1060:BBC2
863:S2CID
590:sarin
571:Sarin
522:(now
153:near
1718:Line
1329:2015
1303:2012
1277:2012
1249:2012
1147:OCLC
1137:ISBN
963:2008
888:ISBN
794:ISBN
759:2013
746:ISBN
721:2013
708:ISBN
683:2014
661:help
579:NATO
552:risk
440:Ruhr
342:and
310:and
237:Iraq
129:and
113:and
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855:doi
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