Chera dynasty - Knowledge

1117: 2167:", and with north India provided considerable economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom. Indian Ocean exchange was the major economic activity. There is some difference of opinion with regard to the nature of the "spice trade" in ancient Chera country. It is disputed whether this "trade" with the Mediterranean world was managed on equal terms by the Tamil merchants, in view of the existence of apparently unequal political institutions in south India. Some of the more recent studies point out that the "trade" was an exchange of "serious imbalance", because of its being between the 81: 1106: 1886: 996: 2131:

state formation. According to historian Rajan Gurukkal, ancient south India was a combination of several "unevenly evolved and kinship based redistributive economies of chiefdoms". These polities were structured by the dominance of "agro-pastoral means of subsistence and predatory politics". Kesavan Veluthat, another prominent historian of south India, uses the term "chief" and "chiefdom" for the Chera ruler and Chera polity of early historic south India respectively.

1237:. The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins. All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. Reverse often contained the bow and arrow symbol. An alliance between the Cholas is evident from a joint coin bearing the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Lakshmi-type coins of possible Sri Lankan origin have also been discovered from Karur. 2175:

the Cheras a major power in ancient southern India. Spice exchange with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) navigators can be traced back to before the Common Era and was substantially consolidated in the early years of the Common Era. In the first century CE, the Romans conquered Egypt, which probably helped them to establish dominance in the Indian Ocean spice trade. The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by

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political structure of the chiefdom was based on communal holding of resources and kinship-based production. The authority was determined by "the range of redistributive social relationships sustained through predatory accumulation of resources". There was more than one branch of the Chera family ruling at the same time and contenting for leadership (one in central Kerala and the other one in western Tamil Nadu).

2331:. It is thought that the first wave of Brahmin migration came to the Chera territory around the 3rd century BCE with or behind the Jain and Buddhist missionaries. It was only in the 8th century CE that the Aryanisation of the old Chera country reached its organised form. Though the vast majority of the population followed native practices, a small percentage of the population, mainly migrants, followed 2097:"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe." 67: 825:

and Chola - seem to have conquered the Kongu Chera country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into the Pandya political system by 10th/11th century CE. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas".

2218:, in the 1st century CE, laments the drain of Roman gold into India and China for luxuries such as spices, silk and muslin. The spice trade across the Indian Ocean dwindled with the decline of the Roman empire in the 3rd - 4th centuries CE. With the exit of the Mediterranean from the spice trade, their space was picked up by the Chinese and Arab navigators. 2153: 984: 2085:, in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia. Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in the structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a 2278:. The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras by the 5th century BCE. In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as 2174:

The geographical advantages, like the favourable Monsoon winds which carried ships directly from the Arabia to south India as well as the abundance of exotic spices in the interior Ghat mountains (and the presence of a large number of rivers connecting the Ghats with the Arabian Sea) combined to make

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on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which the Kadamba warriors took shelter

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The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin. A silver coin with the portrait of a person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravati riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the

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in the Western Ghats. Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as the bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient

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Agriculture and pastoralism were the primary occupations of the people. Various agricultural occupations such as harvesting, threshing and drying are described in the early Tamil texts. Poets and musicians were held in high regard in society. Early Tamil texts are full of references about the lavish

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kingdom (c. 9th–12th century CE). The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers are unclear. After this, the present day parts of Kerala and Kongunadu became autonomous. Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India - Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta,

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The extent of political formation in pre-Pallava south India (before c. third century CE) was a matter of considerable debate among historians. Although earlier scholars visualised early historic south Indian polities as full-fledged kingdoms, some of the recent studies rule out the possibility of

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Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan

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ruled from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai on the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle at Vilamkil. The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian (early 3rd century CE) captured Mantaran Cheral as a prisoner. However, he managed to escape and regain the lost

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as per akananuru Kaluvul was a velir chieftain of Kamur who fought against the chera supremacy. Perum chera irumporai along with fourteen chieftains attacked kamur but perum chera irumporai was impressed with Kaluvuls resistance in battle field and let him rule kamur and accepted friendship from

2118:. The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in the early 11th century CE (in order to break the monopoly of trade with the Middle East). When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in the 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent. 1956:

The Pandyas are known to have made a defensive alliance with the Cheras of Kongu country (who were under their influence) in this period. Pandya king Parantaka Vira Narayana (c. 880 – 900 CE) is known to have married a Kerala (Kongu Chera) princess "Vanavan Maha Devi". The son of this alliance,

1661:. He is also called "the lord of Puzhinadu and "the lord of Kollimalai" and "the lord of Puhar". Puhar was the Chola headquarters. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor Idayar chief called Kazhuval (Kazhuvul).Addressed as "Kodai Marba". Father of Illam Cheral Irumporai. 1045:

respectively. Territory of the Chera chiefdom of the early historical period (pre-Pallava) consisted of the present day northern-central Kerala and Kongu region western Tamil Nadu. The rest of Kerala was under Ay dynasty (southern tip of Kerala) and Mushika dynasty (northern tip of Kerala).The

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The early Chera economy can be described as a predominantly "pastoral-cum-agrarian" based system. The emphasis on agriculture increased with time, and provided the base for larger economic change. The early historic south India (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE) can be described as a

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of Tagadur). Initially the Chera was defeated by Nannan of Ezhimala in the battle of Pazhi, later defeated and killed Nannan in the battle of Vakai Perum Turai. Performed his coronation using holy water from both the western and eastern oceans (brought by a relay of elephants). Also known as

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riverbed in Tamil Nadu, are a major source of early Chera historiography. This includes a number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravati riverbed. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the

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The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from the ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted either in a linear or in a monochromatic way. Each ruling family had its own political prestige and influence in southern India over their life spans.

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was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs).

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and started to call themselves title 'Punthurakkon' (King from Punthura). After this, the Malabar and Kerala parts became autonomous of Karur. The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East. The port of

1197:) suggest a strong case of identification with the location. Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni). 2134:

Reaching conclusions based on the early Tamil poems and archaeological evidences is another topic of disagreement. It is assumed that the institution of sabha in south Indian villages, for local administration, was first surfaced during the early historic period.

1480:) whom he defeated in battles. Nedum Cheral Athan is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean. Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai. He also punished and extracted ransom from the Yavanas. 5329: 1909:

645 – 70 CE) was known as the Vanavan, an ancient name for the Chera king. Arikesari Maravarman (670 – 710 CE), another Pandya ruler, probably defeated the Keralas/Cheras on several occasions. His successor Ko Chadayan Ranadhira also made gains against the

2949:, p. 34: "Sri Lanka was known as "Cerantivu" (island of the Cera kings) in those days. The seal has two lines. The line above contains three signs in Indus script and the line below contains three alphabets in the ancient Tamil script known as Tamil" 1986:

in 910 CE (the fate of the Kongu Chera country, then ruled by Kongu Cheras, upon the fall of Madurai is not known). Pandya king Rajasimha II, who was defeated by Parantaka Chola, is known to have found asylum in Kerala or Chera country (c. 920 CE).

1805:. There was a domination of present-day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule). The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre- 1932:), the Keralas and the Pallavas went to the aid of the latter though "the Pandyas drove them back to the quarters from which they had emerged" (Madras Museum Plates). Perhaps the Chera branch from present-day Kerala had crossed the 1740:

Kanaikkal Irumporai is said to have defeated a chief called Muvan and imprisoned him. The Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of the prisoner and planted them on the gates of the city of Thondi. Upon capture by the Chola ruler

915:. Another theory argues that the "Cheralam" is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), literally meaning, "the slushy land". Apart from the speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies. 2315:. It is logical to conclude that most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian religions. Religious practice might have consisted predominantly of conducting sacrifices to various gods, such as to the pre-eminent god 1292:

anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family. Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet. However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far.

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from medieval south India and Sri Lanka. There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high-carbon Indian steel. The crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BCE at

1979:) in the last years of the 9th century CE (this campaign probably involved battles between Aditya I and Parantaka Vira Narayana). The Pandyas were eventually defeated in the "great battle" of Sripurambiyam (c. 885). 1855:, with reference to the vassalage of the Kerala country, is now reckoned as a more dependable record. Several Chalukya records of the 7th and 8th centuries speak of the conquest and vassalage of the Kerala country. 1397:

Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler

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century CE or a little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank. The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai", "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai" were also discovered from

6527: 6512: 1147:- 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of 2012:

is known for defeating certain Vira Kerala, one of the so-called "thennavar muvar", and trampling him to death by his war elephant. This royal was probably a Kongu-Chera of Chandra-Aditya Kula or a

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In general, early Tamil texts reflect the southern Indian cultural tradition as well as elements of the northern Indian cultural tradition, which by now was beginning to come into contact with

2207:, "abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks". Bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems were "exported" from the Chera country to the Middle East and Mediterranean kingdoms. 2580: 2144:"semi-tribal political economy". In a 2013 paper, historian Rajan Gurukkal describes ancient south India as a collection of "unevenly evolved and kinship-based redistributive economies." 1483:

Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle)

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The early historic pre-Pallava polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics".

2358:("group") to denote "caste". A striking feature of the social life of the early historic period (c. second century BCE-c. third century CE) is the high status accorded to women. 690:

merchants are attested in several sources. The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE – c. third century CE) are known to have had their original centre at

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took place not before c. 9th century CE. The Chera Perumals are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century CE. Scholars tend to identify Alvar saint

4954: 1307:- 2nd century CE. Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts. 5163: 1713:

Antuvan Cheral Irumporai - father of Selva Kadumko Valia Athan (VII decade). Contemporary to Chola Mudittalai Ko Perunar Killi (whose elephant famously wandered to Karuvur).

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Illam Cheral Irumporai defeated Perum Chola, Ilam Pazhaiyan Maran and Vicchi, and destroyed "five forts". Lord of Tondi, "Kongar Nadu", "Kuttuvar Nadu", and "Puzhi Nadu".

6537: 1337:(2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi. In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE. 6532: 4701: 5271: 2362:

patronage extended to court poets. There were professional poets and poetesses who composed texts praising their patrons and were generously rewarded for this.

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ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace to completely remove slag. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give

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Rajasimha, described as a member of Chandra-Aditya Kula (Sinnamanur copper plates), was "destroyed by the Chola king Parantaka". It was initially assumed by

2319:. The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera territory, along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worship. The war goddess 2259:. This steel was termed "the finest steel in the world" by the Romans who referred to it by the term "Seric". It was exported to Rome, Egypt, China and the 1925:)", described in the Madras Museum Plates of the Pandya king Rajasimha I (730 – 65 CE), may suggest a Pandya occupation of the Kongu Chera capital Karur. 802:. After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably. 1783: 4109: 5685: 1136:

Archaeologists have found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras. Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near

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In the early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative

1473:(and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu. 1349:

is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from the Sangam texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decade of

4259: 3136:, pp. 37–39: The opinion that the Gajabahu Synchronism is an expression of genuine historical tradition is accepted by most scholars today. 2294:, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the 6502: 5437: 2291: 1716: 1657:"Tagadur Erinta" Perum Cheral Irumporai defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur Adigaman Ezhni at 6418: 1794:

CE, the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably. Comparatively little is known about Cheras during this period.

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coins, and with a Chera bow on the reverse, have been reported. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to the Cheras, have been discovered from

671:, has been documented as early as the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE. Their governance extended over diverse territories until the 12th century CE. 4729: 4681: 4636: 4594: 4573: 4500: 4230: 4203: 4155: 4040: 1945: 899:

The etymology of "Chera" is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from

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Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak-kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend "

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Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera/Kerala kingdom (around 8th-9th century CE) to form the Chera/Perumal kingdom.

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military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century.

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Historians have yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at

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from Northern land asked for a regent of the Chera king from Karur in Coimbatore and were granted lands from Tamil kings hailing from

1264:- 3rd century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers. Among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the 1459:

Nedum Cheral Athan was also known as "Imayavaramban". He is praised for having subdued "seven crowned kings" to achieve the title of

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Chenguttuvan is identified with "Kadal Pirakottiya" Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan. Chenguttuvan was a son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan.

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legends give a number of Chera names, with the Chera symbols of the bow and the arrow depicted in the reverse. The anthologies of

960:. All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra" probably received through relations with 1851:

566 - 598 CE) (this claim is generally considered as a "boastfull exaggeration" by historians). A later grant (695 CE) of king

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traditional emblem of the Cheras on the obverse, with or without any legend. Silver-punch marked coins, an imitation of the

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Chenguttuvan led his army to north India to get the sacred stone from the Himalayas to sculpt the idol of goddess Pattini.

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The term Chera - and its variant form "Keralaputas" - stands for the ruling lineage and the country associated with them.

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in the early medieval period. Present-day central Kerala and Kongu Cheras detached around 8th–9th century CE to form the

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indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting a decade of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered.

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The exact nature of the relation between the Cheras of Kongu and the Chera Perumals remains obscure. The Later arrived

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He is sometimes identified as the Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur (

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prince (son of a Pandya and a Kongu Chera princess). Vira Kerala was previously considered as a Chera Perumal king (

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Credited as the conqueror of "Konkar Nadu". Described as lord of Puzhi Nadu and the Cheruppu and Aiyirai Mountains.

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edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII). The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by

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Majumdar, S. B. (2016). "Money Matters: Indigenous and Foreign Coins in the Malabar Coast". In K. S. Mathew (ed.).

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inscriptions mention "an alliance of Dravida kings including Kerala, Pandya, Chola and Pallava who were defeated" (

1872:, XVIII). The Keralas mentioned there might be the Kongu Cheras who had already submitted to the Pandyas (and not 1372:). He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the 1116: 1105: 80: 5557: 5358: 4759: 2093:

settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom.

2036: 1873: 1821:. An early historic Chera graffiti containing the phrase "Kadummi Putra Chera" was also discovered from the cave. 817: 793: 532: 506: 6487: 6220: 5958: 5874: 5718: 5453: 2181: 2062: 1928:

It is known that when Pandya king Jatila Parantaka (765 – 815 CE) went to war against the Adigaman of Tagadur (

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describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate a temple (

2214:. This is testified by the Roman coin hoards that have been found in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. 6497: 6278: 2348: 2021: 1962: 1330: 1326: 96: 35: 2354:

Early Tamil texts do make a number of references to social stratification, as expressed by use of the word

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emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in

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He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the

66: 6517: 6477: 6472: 4171: 2017: 1958: 1885: 1647: 1424: 1414: 1390: 1388:). He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan ( 1351: 1266: 589: 399: 31: 4124: 6040: 5924: 5895: 5795: 1852: 1218:

in central Kerala. Bronze dyes for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur.

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Fischel, Walter J. (1967). "The Exploration of the Jewish Antiquities of Cochin on the Malabar Coast".

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Successor of Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan(son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan and brother of Narmudi Cheral)

2274:, then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as 918:

In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as

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Veluthat, Kesavan (2018). "History and Historiography in Constituting a Region: The Case of Kerala".

4867: 4828: 3251: 3234: 3217: 2891:, p. 15: According to Menon, this etymology of "added" or "reclaimed" land also complements the 1297: 4175: 6303: 6241: 5693: 5488: 5344: 2295: 1865: 1777: 995: 861: 821: 805: 687: 656: 462: 5000: 3148:: "We may be reasonably certain that chronological conclusion reached above is historically sound" 6420:

Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture"

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The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive

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Karuvur Eriya Ol-val Ko Perum Cheral Irumporai - Ruled of Karuvur. Praised by Nariveruttalaiyar.

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Man Venko - a friend of the Pandya Ugra Peruvaluti and the Chola Rajasuyam Vetta Perunar Killi.

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by 500 BCE. The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz".

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Kottambalattu Tunchiya Makkodai - probably identical with Kottambalattu Tunchiya Cheraman in

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map showing the then trade routes. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).

869: 577: 313: 5143: 5131: 2907:(or vice versa) and the water receded up to the spot where it landed, thus creating Kerala. 2449: 1177:

A short Brahmi inscription, containing the word Chera ("Kadummi Pudha Chera") was found at

780:, and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan. Inscribed portrait coins with 6414: 6295: 6253: 6249: 6216: 6188: 6184: 6130: 6036: 5968: 5930: 5736: 2381: 2215: 2176: 2041: 1859: 1814: 1806: 1591:

at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, Uthiyan Cheral was wounded on the back by

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to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence.

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Recent studies on ancient south Indian history suggest that the three major rulers – the

5570: 2327:. It is theorised that Kottava was assimilated into the present-day form of the goddess 749:. However the southern region of the present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between 6150: 6023: 5920: 5521: 4761:

Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China

4191: 2376: 2227: 2115: 2013: 1898: 1844: 1833: 1729: 1564: 1524:

Narmudi Cheral led an expedition against Nedumidal Anji (identified with the Adigaiman/

1313: 1250: 1222: 1129: 1078:

There are brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator

1042: 1037:) in Tamil Nadu, respectively. They had established outlets on the Indian Ocean namely 961: 908: 833: 798: 762: 668: 652: 444: 299: 1994:

Kongu Chera country (and the Chera Perumal kingdom) was subsequently conquered by the

1782: 1628:

Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan.

1300:, is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to 6466: 6257: 6102: 6062: 5963: 5946: 5899: 5884: 5870: 5843: 5839: 5799: 5784: 5773: 5725: 5090: 5053: 5024: 4510: 3822: 2371: 2283: 2111: 1995: 1933: 1890: 1829: 1308: 1211: 1178: 1014: 971:, derived from Dravidian words Cheran (meaning island), is a Classical Tamil name of 781: 742: 727: 711: 664: 648: 644: 5661: 6018: 5891: 5791: 5599: 5564: 5546: 5538: 5482: 4879: 4703:

Imperial Rome, Indian Ocean Regions and Muziris: New Perspectives on Maritime Trade

3222:. International Society for the Investigation of Ancient Civilization. p. 104. 2287: 2279: 2271: 2211: 2168: 2076:. Hence the Tamil kings lost their power to Newly arrived Namboothris who created 1988: 1937: 1183: 1148: 1109: 947: 777: 773: 738: 679: 144: 5328: 1525: 1495:

Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (younger brother of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan)

1124: 4780: 4650: 4542: 4490: 4468: 4444: 4420: 2844: 2110:

The Chera Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with the

6207: 6200: 6083: 6057: 5865: 5835: 5496: 5411: 5366: 4841: 2904: 2892: 2260: 2231: 2009: 1983: 1742: 1537: 1466: 881: 873: 857: 789: 683: 491: 385: 5032:

Subbarayalu, Y. (2015). "Trade Guilds of South India up to the Tenth Century".

5016: 1595:. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation. 1402:. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation. 6269: 6079: 5001:"Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala" 4940:

Fawcett, F. (1901). "Notes on the Rock Carvings in the Edakal Caves, Wynaad".

2895:

myth about the formation of Kerala. In it, Parashurama, one of the avatars of

2340: 2324: 2240: 2050: 1936:

to offer support to the Adigaman and after defeat they were pursued up to the

1929: 1692: 1658: 1555: 1378: 1357: 1288: 1278: 813: 758: 746: 723: 637: 149: 5175: 5082: 5074: 5045: 4478: 1817:

king Vishnu Varma, dated 5th or 6th century, can be found at Edakkal cave in

17: 6012: 4264: 4196:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology

2575: 2312: 2290:, as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A 2267: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2236: 2156: 2069: 1752: 1587:

Probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola

1470: 1383: 1367: 1334: 1272: 1083: 1079: 988: 972: 754: 719: 715: 707: 660: 621: 551: 346: 139: 5422: 2203:

was the most important centre in the Malabar Coast, which according to the

1944: 1341:

him. .Some of the velirs under Kaluvul joined the chera after the defeat.

1182:

route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the

4628:

A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages

1901:

conquests of the Kerala or Chera country in the 7th and 8th centuries CE.

6439:

The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century

6090: 5973: 5831: 5657: 5649: 5603: 5594: 4289:"Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population" 4058:"Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India" 2900: 2336: 2320: 2244: 2210:

It is known that the Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange for

2073: 2002: 1976: 1592: 1588: 1399: 1363: 1215: 1190: 1087: 691: 195: 168: 163: 5115: 5099: 3643: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3631: 6171: 6097: 5998: 5979: 5827: 5700: 5653: 5615: 5608: 5310: 5249: 4248:(April 1963) Vol. 68, No.5, p.45, Chicago: Lightner Publishing Company. 3606: 3604: 3602: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2332: 2316: 2200: 2186: 2164: 2152: 2090: 2077: 1922: 1918: 1818: 1072: 1030: 1018: 983: 935: 766: 695: 182: 173: 125: 101: 4991: 2450:"The Cheras - The creators of the land of Kerala | History Unravelled" 1975:

The Kongu country was conquered by the Cholas (either by Srikantha or

1965:

that the Vira Narayana had married a Chera Perumal princess of Kerala.

1615:

Selvakadumko Valia Athan controlled Pandar and Kodumanam (Kodumanal).

737:

and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the

6134: 5705: 5620: 5552: 5478: 5389: 5371: 3732: 3730: 3705: 3703: 3701: 3688: 3686: 2896: 2086: 2082: 2054: 2045:

Depiction of Cherman Perumal Nayanar - Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur

2005:(Tiruvalangadu Grant), was probably a Pandya or a Kongu Chera prince. 1991:(c. 956 – c. 973 CE) had a Chera or Kerala princess among his queens. 1802: 1618: 1054: 1038: 1022: 923: 912: 885: 865: 841: 829: 809: 703: 699: 640: 510: 341: 3270:

A Study of the Literature of the Cēra Country Upto 11th Century A.D.

2163:

Exchange relations with the merchants from Graeco-Roman world, the "

1205:

A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the

4983: 4074: 4057: 1801:) initially appear as the rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central 840:(the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of 5381: 5350: 5303: 2328: 1914: 1798: 1622: 1234: 1194: 1137: 1123: 1115: 1104: 1026: 982: 837: 466: 113: 2065:(literally "the Chera king") with some of the earliest Perumals. 655:

to form the early Chera empire. The dynasty, known as one of the

5665: 5506: 4147:

The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature

2344: 1058: 927: 836:

is believed to be the continuations of Chera dynasty. Rulers of

5426: 5253: 5246:(1981) R. Nagaswamy, Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology 4378: 2507: 2505: 2001:

Amara Bhujanga Deva, one of the princes defeated by Chola king

1786:

The approximate extent of Kalabhra supremacy in southern India.

4802:

History of Tamil Language and Literature: Beginning to 1000 AD

2403: 2401: 2399: 2397: 1225:" above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to 792:, or the good Chera, is famous for the traditions surrounding 4955:"Classical Indo-Roman Trade: A Misnomer in Political Economy" 3658: 3656: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2611: 2609: 2607: 848:

was also the name of an erstwhile province in the kingdom of

4676:. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 4544:

A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations

2649: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2552: 2550: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2540: 1453:

Son of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (by Veliyan's daughter Nallini)

911:, suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of 3887: 3885: 3117: 3115: 2817:. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. pp. 631–666. 2538: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2418: 2416: 1625:. Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli. 844:

in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Perumals.

3333: 3331: 3329: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3321: 2782:

Life and Culture of Thiyyas in the extreme North of Kerala

1465:

Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from

1086:(c. 5th century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher 788:

are a major source of information about the early Cheras.

6528:

States and territories disestablished in the 12th century

4652:

Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy

4033:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art

3860: 3858: 3550: 3548: 3523: 3521: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3473: 3460: 3458: 3445: 3443: 3441: 3439: 3437: 3424: 3422: 3409: 3407: 3405: 3403: 3390: 3388: 3375: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3356: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3280: 3090: 3088: 2994: 2992: 2930: 2928: 1862:

records also mention the vassalage of the Kerala country.

796:, the principal female character of the Sangam epic poem 6513:

States and territories established in the 3rd century BC

4586:

The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India

2693: 2691: 2689: 1476:

The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly

1329:. A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with 30:"Chera" and "Cheras" redirect here. For other uses, see 4338: 4336: 4334: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2630: 2628: 2626: 2624: 776:

cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of

5224:"Pattanam Richest Indo-Roman Site on Indian Ocean Rim" 5164:"Edakal Cave Yields One More Tamil-Brahmi Inscription" 3926: 3924: 3673: 3671: 3577: 3575: 3182: 3180: 3178: 2868: 2866: 2864: 1913:

The so-called "renewal of the capital city of Vanchi (

4903:

Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia

4260:"An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil" 3253:

Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336

3236:

Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336

2492: 2490: 2323:

was propitiated with elaborate offerings of meat and

1506:

Headquarters was located on the mouth river Periyar.

4607:

Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature

4091:

Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World

3199: 3197: 3195: 2488: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2472: 2470: 1551:

was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief).

1355:). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" ( 6432:, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press 5402: 5380: 5357: 5343: 5336: 5295: 5288: 5100:"Did State Exist in the Pre-Pallavan Tamil Region?" 2915: 2913: 2877:

Ancient Kerala: Studies in Its History and Culture,

1082:(c. 3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher 334: 223: 213: 201: 191: 181: 157: 133: 87: 45: 1696:collection (some of the names are re-duplications) 3219:History of Kongu: Pre-historic period to 1300 A.D 3059: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3038: 3036: 3021: 3019: 1151:, and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai. 4035:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 380. 1843:king to claim overlordship over Chera/Kerala is 27:300s BCE–1100s CE dynasty in ancient South India 4782:The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities 4006: 3824:Castes And Tribes Of Southern India Vol.5 (m-p) 3010: 2846:Madras District Gazetteers: Malabar and Anjengo 2095: 1159: 4139: 4137: 2511: 5438: 5265: 4910:P. Gregorios and R. G. Roberson, ed. (2008). 812:and only a few kilometres of current western 643:dynasty which unified various regions of the 597: 8: 5198:"Copper Coins of Adi Chera Period Excavated" 5132:"A Magnum Opus on Tamil-Brahmi Inscriptions" 4829:"India (History) - Southern Indian Kingdoms" 4631:(3rd ed.). Asian Educational Services. 4473:. Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society. 4425:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 3121: 2946: 1745:, Kanaikkal committed suicide by starvation. 4449:(2007 ed.). Kerala, India: D C Books. 4198:. Cambridge University Press. p. 282. 4180:. London: Chatto & Windus. p. 111. 4110:"Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal" 3966: 2784:, sree sankaracharya university, page-68,69 5445: 5431: 5423: 5340: 5292: 5272: 5258: 5250: 5104:Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 4872:The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Empire 4018: 2292:200 BCE Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama 1411: 1053:(Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor 922:(Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor 852:, which had included parts of present-day 604: 590: 356: 79: 42: 5211:"Artefacts from the Lost Port of Muziris" 4073: 3992: 3978: 3903: 3808: 3796: 3784: 3772: 3760: 3748: 3736: 3721: 3709: 3692: 3662: 3647: 3610: 3077: 3063: 3042: 3025: 2971: 2768: 2751: 2728: 2697: 2407: 2351:were also known to have lived in Kerala. 2195:portrays the "trade" in the territory of 1897:There are clear attestations of repeated 1362:. His headquarters were at Kuzhumur near 1156:Irumporai Cheras from Pugalur inscription 5466: 5462: 4972:Journal of the American Oriental Society 4422:Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 4150:. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 20. 4062:Papers from the Institute of Archaeology 4056:Srinivasan, Sharada (15 November 1994). 3169: 3157: 3133: 3094: 2934: 2875:, p. 21: Citing K. Achyutha Menon, 2838: 2836: 2834: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2680: 2653: 2634: 2615: 2556: 2436: 2151: 2040: 1982:The Pandyas were defeated by Chola king 1943: 1884: 1781: 1717:"Yanaikatchai" Mantaram Cheral Irumporai 1584:Kakkai Padiniyar Nachellaiyar (poetess) 1311:author of the legendary Tamil epic poem 1241:traditional symbol of the Chera family. 994: 741:, the principal trade route between the 6538:12th-century disestablishments in India 6321: 4144:Davidson, Hilda Roderick Ellis (1998). 3677: 3622: 2849:. Government Press, Madras. p. 373 2393: 2230:resulted from the unique properties of 2171:and South India with uneven chiefdoms. 2049:While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in 975:that takes root from the term "Chera". 505: 461: 433: 410: 366: 359: 6533:3rd-century BC establishments in India 6002:Co-existence of Hinduism and Buddhism 5183:Subramanian, T. S. (28 January 2007). 5162:Subramanian, T. S. (9 February 2012). 4366: 4258:Mahathevan, Iravatham (24 June 2010). 3891: 3876: 3864: 3849: 3837: 3145: 3106: 2793: 2583:from the original on 19 September 2013 2496: 6199: 6016: 5945: 5918: 5869: 5864: 4722:The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago 4402: 4390: 4354: 4342: 3954: 3942: 3930: 3915: 3593: 3581: 3566: 3554: 3539: 3527: 3512: 3500: 3483: 3464: 3449: 3428: 3413: 3394: 3379: 3360: 3337: 3292: 3203: 3186: 2998: 2983: 2888: 2872: 2716: 2569:Subramanian, T. S (28 January 2007). 1726:Takadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai 1690:The following Cheras are knowns from 1648:Tagadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai 907:meaning "declivity of a mountain" in 808:are known to have controlled eastern 631: 222: 212: 208: 7: 5367:Kodungallur (Mahodaya Pura/Makothai) 4812:The Spring of the Indus Civilisation 4379:P. Gregorios and R. G. Roberson 2008 4117:Indian Journal of History of Science 2919: 2899:, flung his axe across the sea from 1112:inscription from Pugalur, near Karur 3239:. University of Madras. p. 50. 1120:A Chera coin with legend "Makkotai" 999:Names, routes and locations of the 726:was ruled by the Cheras during the 1161:Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam 884:. Later the Taluk was merged with 347:Kongu region of Tamil Nadu (India) 25: 4905:. Vol. II (Second ed.). 4804:. Madras: New Century Book House. 3273:University of Madras. p. 29. 1881:Pandya conquests in Chera country 1669:"Kudakko" Illam Cheral Irumporai 1298:Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism 678:. Exchange of spices, especially 6312:References and sources for table 5327: 5209:Bhanj, J. D. (3 December 2014). 5185:"Roman Connection in Tamil Nadu" 4916:The Encyclopedia of Christianity 4785:. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 4711:Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). 4693:Chera Kings of the Sangam Period 4089:Coghlan, Herbert Henery (1977). 3267:Ci, Pālacuppiramaṇiyan̲ (2007). 2571:"Roman connection in Tamil Nadu" 1970:Chola conquests of Chera country 1828:(Kalvar) rulers kept the Chera, 1449:Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan 1413:Cells table centred Cheras from 1253:works collectively known as the 1165:Ko Athan Chel (Cheral) Irumporai 930:edicts (3rd century BCE). While 722:in the north. The region around 318: 304: 290: 276: 262: 65: 5390:Kurakkeni Kollam (South Kollam) 5372:Kurakkeni Kollam (South Kollam) 1889:Chera Perumal Kingdom with the 1679:Described as the descendant of 1597:Controlled the port of Naravu. 5196:Sudhi, K. S. (30 April 2004). 4880:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe416 4724:. Asian Educational Services. 4523:(Fourth ed.). Routledge. 4287:Ragupathy, P. (28 June 2010). 2185:of the 1st century CE, and by 2159:(Red) and Spice Routes (Blues) 1809:(early historic) south India. 1538:Kadal Pirakottiya Chenguttuvan 1515:Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral 1071:of the 1st century CE, and by 1065:in the 1st century CE, in the 1049:The Cheras are referred to as 1002:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 872:, when Malabar came under the 761:, who was more related to the 499:Kerala Kesari Adhirajarajadeva 404:Kudakko Illam Cheral Irumporai 386:Kadal Pirakottiya Chenguttuvan 1: 6503:Empires and kingdoms of India 4959:Economic and Political Weekly 4589:. Brill Academic Publishers. 4492:Kerala History and its Makers 3879:, pp. 331-32 and 379-80. 3840:, pp. 331-32 and 364-65. 3787:, pp. 304-05 and 322-23. 2780:M.V Vishnu Nambutiri, (2001) 2266:The method was to heat black 1905:Pandya king Sendan/Jayantan ( 1772:Cheras in the medieval period 1763:Kadalottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan 1632: 1578:Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral Athan 1301: 1258: 1245:Cheras from early Tamil texts 1226: 1141: 1091: 979:Cheras of ancient south India 731: 496:Vira Kerala Amarabhujangadeva 382:Kalangai Kanni Narmudi Cheral 6441:, Cambridge University Press 6409:, Cambridge University Press 6139:Decline of Buddhism in India 5576:Northern Black Polished Ware 5403: 5382:Venadu Cheras (Kulasekharas) 5130:Champakalakshmi, R. (2003). 4897:Edward Balfour, ed. (1871). 4870:. In J. M. MacKenzie (ed.). 4225:. Vol. 2. p. 365. 3650:, pp. 90-91 and 103-04. 3233:C. E., Ramachandran (1974). 1836:rulers in their confinement. 1095: 3rd - 4th century BCE 710:. They governed the area of 559:Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladithya 390:Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral Athan 6407:An Introduction to Hinduism 5063:Studies in People's History 5034:Studies in People's History 4547:. Oxford University Press. 4172:Burton, Sir Richard Francis 4031:Ward, Gerald W. R. (2008). 4007:Kulke & Rothermund 2004 3763:, pp. 116-117 and 136. 3613:, pp. 80–81 and 88–93. 2754:, pp. 89-90 and 92-93. 2189:in the 2nd century CE. The 1492:Palyanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan 806:Cheras of the Kongu country 702:on the Indian Ocean coast ( 694:in Kerala, and harbours at 379:Palyani Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan 6554: 6430:Hinduism. Past and present 6300:Chera Perumals of Makkotai 6258:Chera Perumals of Makkotai 5650:Rise of Shramana movements 5296:Early Cheras (pre-Pallava) 5222:Nair, C. G. (3 May 2009). 5156:Newspaper reports/features 5017:10.1177/037698360903600102 4840:Pletcher, Kenneth (2018). 4800:Pillai, Vaiyapuri (1956). 4779:Slapak, Orpa, ed. (2003). 4758:McLaughlin, Raoul (2010). 4720:Kanakasabhai, V. (1997) . 4715:. Oxford University Press. 4691:Aiyar, K.G. Sesha (1937). 4625:Caldwell, Robert (1998) . 4470:A Survey of Kerala History 4446:A Survey of Kerala History 4222:Ancient and Medieval India 4219:Manning, Charlotte Speir. 2179:in the 1st century CE, in 2034: 1775: 1734:Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan 1710:Palai Padiya Perum Kadumko 1606:Selva Kadumko Valia Athan 1542:Son of Nedum Cheral Athan 1128:A Chera coin with legend " 1101:Archaeological discoveries 393:Chelva Kadumko Valia Athan 29: 6437:Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), 6309: 6206: 6185:Pandyan kingdom (revival) 6170: 6149: 6124: 6096: 6056: 6051: 5992: 5878: 5813: 5771: 5750: 5734: 5723: 5716: 5699: 5683: 5669: 5640: 5633: 5579: 5561: 5558:Painted Grey Ware culture 5543: 5535: 5519: 5495: 5492: 5487: 5474: 5469: 5460: 5325: 4809:Ramachandran, M. (1991). 4108:Sasisekharan, B. (1999). 3739:, pp. 98-99 and 111. 3712:, pp. 95-96 and 108. 3695:, pp. 93-95 and 107. 2815:Malabar Manual (Volume-I) 2037:Chera/Perumals of Makotai 1948:Cheras of central Kerala 1824:Tradition tells that the 1797:Cheras of Kongu country ( 1521:Kappiyattukku Kappiyanar 1439: 1436: 1433: 1430: 1422: 1286:, the fourth book in the 1041:, Muchiri (Muziris), and 864:in it. Later it became a 507:Chera/Perumals of Makotai 424:Perum Kadungo (Irumporai) 421:Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai 237: 233: 209: 78: 62: 57: 6405:Flood, Gavin D. (1996), 5994:"Golden Age of Hinduism" 5959:Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom 5875:Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty 5636:Persian-Greek influences 5454:Middle kingdoms of India 5098:Gurukkal, Rajan (2002). 5075:10.1177/2348448918759852 5046:10.1177/2348448915574403 5005:Indian Historical Review 4953:Gurukkal, Rajan (2015). 4713:A History of South India 4655:. Thrissur: CosmoBooks. 4604:Zvelebil, Kamil (1992). 4583:Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). 4562:Zvelebil, Kamil (1975). 4419:Thapar, Romila (2004) . 3821:Thurston, Edgar (1909). 3250:N, Subrahmanian (2008). 2731:, pp. 89–90, 92–93. 2192:Periplus Maris Erythraei 2182:Periplus Maris Erythraei 2031:Chera Perumals of Kerala 1748:Kudakko Cheral Irumporai 956:refers to the Cheras as 953:Periplus Maris Erythraei 574:Adithyan Goda Ranadithya 537:Cheraman Perumal Nayanar 427:Ilam Kadungo (Irumporai) 6428:Michaels, Axel (2004), 6126:Late-Classical Hinduism 5289:Iron Age-Early Historic 4866:Dalziel, N. R. (2016). 4859:Encyclopedia Britannica 4846:Encyclopedia Britannica 4833:Encyclopedia Britannica 4827:Thapar, Romila (2018). 4815:. Prasanna Pathippagam. 4706:. Cambridge: Routledge. 4695:. London: Luzac and Co. 4670:Shulman, David (2016). 2813:Logan, William (2010). 2104:Encyclopædia Britannica 1609:Son of Anthuvan Cheral 1075:in the 2nd century CE. 938:refer to the Cheras as 36:Cheras (disambiguation) 5512:Middle Gangetic Plain 5302:Vanchi Karuvur/Karur ( 4999:Ganesh, K. N. (2009). 4853:Tikkanen, Amy (2018). 3216:V, Ramamurthy (2008). 2160: 2108: 2046: 1949: 1894: 1787: 1518:Son of Imayavaramban. 1262: 2nd century BCE 1255:Sangam (Academy) texts 1174: 1133: 1121: 1113: 1017:– based originally in 1006: 992: 876:. The headquarters of 400:Perum Cheral Irumporai 225:• Disestablished 32:Chera (disambiguation) 6508:History of Tamil Nadu 6041:Western Ganga Dynasty 5908: 1st century BCE 5896:Early Pandyan kingdom 5861: 2nd century BCE 5821:(ca. 200 BC - 300 CE) 5815:Preclassical Hinduism 5796:Early Pandyan kingdom 5768: 3rd century BCE 5713: 4th century BCE 5680: 5th century BCE 5590: 6th century BCE 5515:Lower Gangetic Plain 5503:Upper Gangetic Plain 5144:"Digging up the Past" 4821:Encyclopedic articles 4764:. London: Continuum. 4321:Sri Lanka Archaeology 4177:The Book of the Sword 2454:historyunravelled.com 2155: 2044: 1947: 1940:by the Pandya forces. 1888: 1790:After the 5th century 1785: 1636: 2nd century CE 1127: 1119: 1108: 998: 986: 818:Chera Perumal kingdom 676:Indian Ocean networks 272:Kingdom of Travancore 134:Common languages 6391:Michaels (2004) p.41 6382:Michaels (2004) p.40 6364:Michaels (2004) p.39 6346:Michaels (2004) p.39 6283:Kamboja-Pala dynasty 5915: 1st century CE 5243:Tamil Coins: A Study 4942:The Indian Antiquary 4739:Keay, John (2001) . 3256:. Ennes. p. 42. 3011:Champakalakshmi 2003 2843:C.A., Innes (1908). 2232:wootz crucible steel 1917:) along with Kudal ( 1346:Uthiyan Cheral Athan 1013:, the Chera and the 556:Indu/Indesvaran Goda 58:c. 200s BCE–1100s CE 6242:Rashtrakuta dynasty 5694:Shaishunaga dynasty 5644:Second Urbanisation 5489:Indo-Gangetic Plain 4515:Rothermund, Dietmar 4487:Menon, A. Sreedhara 4465:Menon, A. Sreedhara 4441:Menon, A. Sreedhara 4327:(4). February 2012. 4123:(4). Archived from 3906:, pp. 143–144. 3775:, pp. 121–122. 3625:, pp. 409–421. 2618:, pp. 138–150. 2601:KA Nilakanta Sastri 2512:Edward Balfour 1871 2410:, pp. 143–145. 2302:Society and culture 1778:Kongu Chera dynasty 1707:Kadungo Valia Athan 1674:Perunkundur Kizhar 1419: 1088:Kautilya (Chanakya) 1029:, in Tamilnadu and 862:Malappuram district 786:early Sangham texts 657:Three Crowned Kings 463:Kongu Chera dynasty 396:Kanaikkal Irumporai 215:• Established 6493:Kingdoms of Kerala 6483:Dynasties of India 6373:Hiltebeitel (2002) 6355:Hiltebeitel (2002) 6053:Hephthalite Empire 5889:(300 BCE – 200 CE) 5880:Satavahana dynasty 5866:Indo-Greek Kingdom 5789:(300 BCE – 200 CE) 5780:Satavahana dynasty 5753:Spread of Buddhism 5475:Northwestern India 5150:. The Hindu. 2012. 4673:Tamil: A Biography 4520:A History of India 4097:. pp. 99–100. 4095:Pitt Rivers Museum 3894:, pp. 364–65. 3852:, pp. 382–83. 3811:, pp. 143–44. 3751:, pp. 100–01. 2161: 2061:and Nayanar saint 2047: 2022:E. P. N. K. Pillai 1989:Chola king Sundara 1963:E. P. N. K. Pillai 1950: 1895: 1813:An inscription of 1788: 1737:Perum Cheral Athan 1681:Nedum Cheral Athan 1412: 1391:Pathitrupattu (II) 1321:) for the goddess 1296:A method known as 1134: 1122: 1114: 1007: 993: 946:respectively, the 903:, a corruption of 850:Zamorin of Calicut 751:Thiruvananthapuram 633:[t͡ʃeːɾɐr] 418:Kadummipudha Chera 375:Nedum Cheral Athan 258:Zamorin of Calicut 6523:History of Kerala 6460: 6459: 6455: 6454: 6451: 6450: 6292:Eastern Chalukyas 6288:Kalyani Chalukyas 6246:Eastern Chalukyas 6235:Gurjara-Pratihara 6228: 9th century 6213:Eastern Chalukyas 6196: 8th century 6181:Eastern Chalukyas 6167:Mlechchha dynasty 6146: 7th century 6128:(ca. CE 650-1100) 6075: 6th century 6048: 5th century 6008: 4th century 5954: 3rd century 5942: 2nd century 5852:Mahayana Buddhism 5819:"Hindu Synthesis" 5686:Persian conquests 5571:Shramanic culture 5507:Ganga-Yamuna doab 5420: 5419: 5398: 5397: 5323: 5322: 5124:Magazine articles 4855:"Silappathikaram" 4731:978-81-206-0150-5 4683:978-0-674-97465-4 4647:Narayanan, M.G.S. 4638:978-81-206-0117-8 4596:978-90-04-03591-1 4575:978-90-04-04190-5 4539:Karashima, Noboru 4502:978-81-264-3782-5 4405:, pp. 79–80. 4268:. The Hindu Group 4232:978-0-543-92943-3 4205:978-0-52107-060-7 4157:978-0-85115-716-0 4042:978-0-19531-391-8 3969:, pp. 21–26. 3957:, pp. 75–76. 3799:, pp. 84–85. 3665:, pp. 93–95. 3596:, pp. 60–61. 3569:, pp. 34–36. 3557:, pp. 44–45. 3530:, pp. 41–43. 3515:, pp. 38–41. 3503:, pp. 38–40. 3486:, pp. 27–32. 3467:, pp. 21–23. 3452:, pp. 52–53. 3431:, pp. 17–21. 3416:, pp. 15–17. 3397:, pp. 36–38. 3382:, pp. 67–68. 3363:, pp. 10–13. 3340:, pp. 01–05. 3295:, pp. 05–10. 3122:Kanakasabhai 1997 3001:, pp. 26–29. 2974:, pp. 50–51. 2947:Ramachandran 1991 2771:, pp. 80–81. 2656:, pp. 13–31. 2559:, pp. 26–27. 2439:, pp. 52–53. 2343:. Populations of 2091:Nambudiri-Brahmin 1688: 1687: 696:Muchiri (Muziris) 614: 613: 527:Kulasekhara Alvar 355: 354: 330: 329: 326: 325: 286:Kingdom of Cochin 16:(Redirected from 6545: 6442: 6433: 6424: 6415:Hiltebeitel, Alf 6410: 6392: 6389: 6383: 6380: 6374: 6371: 6365: 6362: 6356: 6353: 6347: 6344: 6338: 6335: 6329: 6326: 6177:Badami Chalukyas 6172:Adivasi (tribes) 6162:Empire of Harsha 6158:Vakataka dynasty 6111:Kalabhra dynasty 6107:Badami Chalukyas 6098:Adivasi (tribes) 6067:Kalabhra dynasty 6033:Kalabhra dynasty 6029:Andhra Ikshvakus 5996:(ca. CE 320-650) 5980:Adivasi (tribes) 5848:Smarta Tradition 5701:Adivasi (tribes) 5616:Adivasi (tribes) 5472:cultural period 5467: 5463: 5447: 5440: 5433: 5424: 5341: 5331: 5293: 5274: 5267: 5260: 5251: 5231: 5218: 5205: 5192: 5179: 5151: 5139: 5119: 5094: 5057: 5028: 4995: 4966: 4949: 4934:Journal articles 4929: 4906: 4893: 4874:. pp. 1–3. 4868:"Pandyan Empire" 4862: 4849: 4836: 4816: 4805: 4796: 4775: 4754: 4741:India: A History 4735: 4716: 4707: 4696: 4687: 4666: 4642: 4621: 4600: 4579: 4565:Tamil Literature 4558: 4534: 4506: 4489:(4 March 2011). 4482: 4460: 4436: 4406: 4400: 4394: 4388: 4382: 4376: 4370: 4364: 4358: 4352: 4346: 4340: 4329: 4328: 4318: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4299: 4284: 4278: 4277: 4275: 4273: 4255: 4249: 4243: 4237: 4236: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4194:(1 April 1971). 4188: 4182: 4181: 4168: 4162: 4161: 4141: 4132: 4131: 4130:on 24 July 2015. 4129: 4114: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4093:(2nd ed.). 4086: 4080: 4079: 4077: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4028: 4022: 4016: 4010: 4009:, pp. 105–. 4004: 3998: 3990: 3984: 3976: 3970: 3967:Subbarayalu 2015 3964: 3958: 3952: 3946: 3940: 3934: 3928: 3919: 3913: 3907: 3901: 3895: 3889: 3880: 3874: 3868: 3867:, pp. 3–21. 3862: 3853: 3847: 3841: 3835: 3829: 3828: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3800: 3794: 3788: 3782: 3776: 3770: 3764: 3758: 3752: 3746: 3740: 3734: 3725: 3719: 3713: 3707: 3696: 3690: 3681: 3675: 3666: 3660: 3651: 3645: 3626: 3620: 3614: 3608: 3597: 3591: 3585: 3579: 3570: 3564: 3558: 3552: 3543: 3537: 3531: 3525: 3516: 3510: 3504: 3498: 3487: 3481: 3468: 3462: 3453: 3447: 3432: 3426: 3417: 3411: 3398: 3392: 3383: 3377: 3364: 3358: 3341: 3335: 3296: 3290: 3275: 3274: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3247: 3241: 3240: 3230: 3224: 3223: 3213: 3207: 3201: 3190: 3184: 3173: 3167: 3161: 3155: 3149: 3143: 3137: 3131: 3125: 3119: 3110: 3104: 3098: 3092: 3083: 3075: 3069: 3061: 3048: 3040: 3031: 3023: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2987: 2981: 2975: 2969: 2950: 2944: 2938: 2932: 2923: 2917: 2908: 2886: 2880: 2870: 2859: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2840: 2829: 2828: 2810: 2797: 2791: 2785: 2778: 2772: 2766: 2755: 2749: 2732: 2726: 2720: 2714: 2701: 2695: 2684: 2678: 2657: 2651: 2638: 2632: 2619: 2613: 2602: 2599: 2593: 2592: 2590: 2588: 2566: 2560: 2554: 2515: 2509: 2500: 2494: 2465: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2446: 2440: 2434: 2411: 2405: 2296:classical period 2187:Claudius Ptolemy 2106: 1793: 1637: 1634: 1529:"Vanavaramban". 1420: 1306: 1303: 1263: 1260: 1249:A large body of 1231: 1228: 1146: 1143: 1096: 1093: 1073:Claudius Ptolemy 1005:(1st century CE) 936:Claudius Ptolemy 880:was the town of 870:Malabar District 774:Old Tamil Brahmi 736: 733: 718:in the south to 635: 630: 606: 599: 592: 578:Rama Kulasekhara 533:Rama Rajasekhara 357: 322: 321: 314:Mannanar dynasty 308: 307: 294: 293: 280: 279: 266: 265: 254: 253: 239: 238: 83: 69: 43: 21: 6553: 6552: 6548: 6547: 6546: 6544: 6543: 6542: 6488:Hindu dynasties 6463: 6462: 6461: 6456: 6447: 6446: 6445: 6436: 6427: 6413: 6404: 6395: 6390: 6386: 6381: 6377: 6372: 6368: 6363: 6359: 6354: 6350: 6345: 6341: 6336: 6332: 6327: 6323: 6313: 6302: 6298: 6296:Medieval Cholas 6294: 6290: 6281: 6256: 6254:Medieval Cholas 6252: 6250:Pandyan kingdom 6248: 6244: 6219: 6217:Pandyan kingdom 6215: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6160: 6137: 6131:Advaita Vedanta 6129: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6082: 6069: 6065: 6039: 6037:Kadamba Dynasty 6035: 6031: 6022: 6001: 5997: 5969:Western Satraps 5931:Kuninda Kingdom 5923: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5888: 5882: 5873: 5850: 5822: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5788: 5782: 5719:Greek conquests 5652: 5648: 5574: 5568: 5556: 5550: 5504: 5476: 5471: 5456: 5451: 5421: 5416: 5394: 5376: 5353: 5332: 5319: 5316:Thondi (Tyndis) 5284: 5278: 5238: 5221: 5208: 5195: 5182: 5161: 5158: 5142: 5129: 5126: 5097: 5060: 5031: 4998: 4969: 4952: 4939: 4936: 4926: 4918:. 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A. N. Sastri 1972: 1959:K. A. N. Sastri 1883: 1791: 1780: 1774: 1769: 1723:Ko Kodai Marban 1654:Arichil Kizhar 1635: 1565:Chilapathikaram 1374:Kurukshetra War 1314:Chilapathikaram 1304: 1261: 1247: 1229: 1203: 1175: 1168:Perum Kadungon 1158: 1144: 1103: 1094: 1063:Pliny the Elder 1035:Tiruchirappalli 1021:in Tamil Nadu, 981: 932:Pliny the Elder 894: 734: 700:Thondi (Tyndis) 628: 610: 351: 319: 305: 291: 277: 263: 226: 216: 74: 73: 70: 53: 48: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6551: 6549: 6541: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6498:Tamil monarchs 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6465: 6464: 6458: 6457: 6453: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6444: 6443: 6434: 6425: 6411: 6401: 6394: 6393: 6384: 6375: 6366: 6357: 6348: 6339: 6330: 6320: 6314: 6311: 6310: 6307: 6306: 6285: 6276: 6274: 6272: 6267: 6261: 6260: 6239: 6237: 6232: 6230: 6224: 6223: 6210: 6205: 6203: 6198: 6192: 6191: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6155: 6153: 6151:Indo-Sassanids 6148: 6142: 6141: 6123: 6115: 6114: 6100: 6095: 6093: 6088: 6086: 6077: 6071: 6070: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6044: 6043: 6026: 6024:Varman dynasty 6015: 6010: 6004: 6003: 5991: 5983: 5982: 5977: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5950: 5949: 5944: 5938: 5937: 5935: 5933: 5928: 5925:Indo-Parthians 5921:Indo-Scythians 5917: 5911: 5910: 5904: 5903: 5877: 5868: 5863: 5857: 5856: 5854: 5812: 5804: 5803: 5777: 5770: 5764: 5763: 5761: 5756: 5749: 5741: 5740: 5737:HISTORICAL AGE 5732: 5731: 5729: 5722: 5715: 5709: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5696: 5691: 5689: 5682: 5676: 5675: 5668: 5639: 5632: 5624: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5611: 5606: 5597: 5592: 5586: 5585: 5578: 5560: 5542: 5534: 5526: 5525: 5517: 5516: 5513: 5510: 5500: 5499: 5497:Southern India 5494: 5493:Central India 5491: 5486: 5473: 5461: 5458: 5457: 5452: 5450: 5449: 5442: 5435: 5427: 5418: 5417: 5415: 5414: 5408: 5406: 5400: 5399: 5396: 5395: 5393: 5392: 5386: 5384: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5374: 5369: 5363: 5361: 5359:Chera Perumals 5355: 5354: 5349: 5347: 5338: 5334: 5333: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5320: 5318: 5317: 5314: 5307: 5299: 5297: 5290: 5286: 5285: 5279: 5277: 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of 799:Cilappatikaram 763:Pandya dynasty 684:Middle Eastern 663:alongside the 653:southern India 612: 611: 609: 608: 601: 594: 586: 583: 582: 581: 580: 575: 572: 569: 566: 563: 560: 557: 554: 549: 546: 543: 540: 530: 523: 515: 514: 503: 502: 501: 500: 497: 494: 489: 486: 483: 480: 477: 471: 470: 459: 458: 457: 456: 453: 450: 447: 445:Kuttuvan Kotai 442: 436: 435: 431: 430: 429: 428: 425: 422: 419: 413: 412: 408: 407: 406: 405: 402: 397: 394: 391: 388: 383: 380: 377: 369: 368: 364: 363: 353: 352: 350: 349: 344: 342:Kerala (India) 338: 336: 332: 331: 328: 327: 324: 323: 316: 310: 309: 302: 300:Kattan dynasty 296: 295: 288: 282: 281: 274: 268: 267: 260: 251: 248: 247: 242: 235: 234: 231: 230: 227: 224: 221: 220: 217: 214: 211: 210: 207: 206: 203: 199: 198: 193: 189: 188: 185: 179: 178: 177: 176: 171: 166: 159: 155: 154: 153: 152: 147: 142: 135: 131: 130: 129: 128: 120:Chera Perumals 117: 116: 105: 104: 99: 89: 85: 84: 76: 75: 71: 64: 63: 60: 59: 55: 54: 49: 46: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6550: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6518:Tamil history 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6478:Chera Kingdom 6476: 6474: 6473:Chera dynasty 6471: 6470: 6468: 6440: 6435: 6431: 6426: 6422: 6421: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6403: 6402: 6400: 6399: 6388: 6385: 6379: 6376: 6370: 6367: 6361: 6358: 6352: 6349: 6343: 6340: 6334: 6331: 6325: 6322: 6319: 6318: 6308: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6262: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6225: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6204: 6202: 6197: 6194: 6193: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6152: 6147: 6144: 6143: 6140: 6136: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6121: 6117: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6103:Vishnukundina 6101: 6099: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6085: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6063:Vishnukundina 6061: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6046: 6045: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6021: 6020: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5989: 5985: 5984: 5981: 5978: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5964:Kushan Empire 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5951: 5948: 5947:Kushan Empire 5943: 5940: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5926: 5922: 5916: 5913: 5912: 5909: 5906: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5887: 5886: 5885:Sangam period 5881: 5876: 5872: 5871:Shunga Empire 5867: 5862: 5859: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5844:Brahma Sutras 5841: 5840:Bhagavad Gita 5837: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5820: 5816: 5811: 5810: 5806: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5787: 5786: 5785:Sangam period 5781: 5778: 5776: 5775: 5774:Maurya Empire 5769: 5766: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5754: 5748: 5747: 5743: 5742: 5739: 5738: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5727: 5720: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5681: 5678: 5677: 5674: 5673: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5645: 5638: 5637: 5631: 5630: 5626: 5625: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5587: 5584: 5583: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5566: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5548: 5541: 5540: 5533: 5532: 5528: 5527: 5524: 5523: 5518: 5514: 5511: 5508: 5502: 5501: 5498: 5490: 5484: 5480: 5468: 5465: 5464: 5459: 5455: 5448: 5443: 5441: 5436: 5434: 5429: 5428: 5425: 5413: 5410: 5409: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5391: 5388: 5387: 5385: 5383: 5379: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5364: 5362: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5346: 5342: 5339: 5335: 5330: 5315: 5312: 5308: 5305: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5294: 5291: 5287: 5282: 5281:Chera dynasty 5275: 5270: 5268: 5263: 5261: 5256: 5255: 5252: 5245: 5244: 5240: 5239: 5235: 5229: 5225: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5160: 5159: 5155: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5128: 5127: 5123: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4938: 4937: 4933: 4927: 4925:9780802824172 4921: 4917: 4913: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4895: 4891: 4889:9781118455074 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4825: 4824: 4820: 4814: 4813: 4807: 4803: 4798: 4794: 4792:965-278-179-7 4788: 4784: 4783: 4777: 4773: 4771:9781441162236 4767: 4763: 4762: 4756: 4752: 4750:0-8021-3797-0 4746: 4742: 4737: 4733: 4727: 4723: 4718: 4714: 4709: 4705: 4704: 4698: 4694: 4689: 4685: 4679: 4675: 4674: 4668: 4664: 4662:9788188765072 4658: 4654: 4653: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4634: 4630: 4629: 4623: 4619: 4613: 4609: 4608: 4602: 4598: 4592: 4588: 4587: 4581: 4577: 4571: 4567: 4566: 4560: 4556: 4554:9780198099772 4550: 4546: 4545: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4530:9780415329200 4526: 4522: 4521: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4498: 4495:. D C Books. 4494: 4493: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4471: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4452: 4448: 4447: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4432:9780520242258 4428: 4424: 4423: 4417: 4416: 4412: 4404: 4399: 4396: 4393:, p. 78. 4392: 4387: 4384: 4380: 4375: 4372: 4369:, p. 78. 4368: 4363: 4360: 4357:, p. 89. 4356: 4351: 4348: 4345:, p. 83. 4344: 4339: 4337: 4335: 4331: 4326: 4322: 4315: 4309: 4306: 4294: 4290: 4283: 4280: 4267: 4266: 4261: 4254: 4251: 4247: 4242: 4239: 4234: 4228: 4224: 4223: 4215: 4212: 4207: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4187: 4184: 4179: 4178: 4173: 4167: 4164: 4159: 4153: 4149: 4148: 4140: 4138: 4134: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4111: 4104: 4101: 4096: 4092: 4085: 4082: 4076: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4052: 4049: 4044: 4038: 4034: 4027: 4024: 4020: 4015: 4012: 4008: 4003: 4000: 3997: 3995: 3989: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3975: 3972: 3968: 3963: 3960: 3956: 3951: 3948: 3945:, p. 67. 3944: 3939: 3936: 3933:, p. 77. 3932: 3927: 3925: 3921: 3918:, p. 75. 3917: 3912: 3909: 3905: 3900: 3897: 3893: 3888: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3873: 3870: 3866: 3861: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3846: 3843: 3839: 3834: 3831: 3826: 3825: 3817: 3814: 3810: 3805: 3802: 3798: 3793: 3790: 3786: 3781: 3778: 3774: 3769: 3766: 3762: 3757: 3754: 3750: 3745: 3742: 3738: 3733: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3715: 3711: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3689: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3674: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3659: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3619: 3616: 3612: 3607: 3605: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3590: 3587: 3584:, p. 72. 3583: 3578: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3563: 3560: 3556: 3551: 3549: 3545: 3542:, p. 71. 3541: 3536: 3533: 3529: 3524: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3509: 3506: 3502: 3497: 3495: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3444: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3425: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3410: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3391: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3357: 3355: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3277: 3272: 3271: 3263: 3260: 3255: 3254: 3246: 3243: 3238: 3237: 3229: 3226: 3221: 3220: 3212: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3192: 3189:, p. 70. 3188: 3183: 3181: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3170:Tikkanen 2018 3166: 3163: 3160:, p. 38. 3159: 3158:Zvelebil 1973 3154: 3151: 3147: 3142: 3139: 3135: 3134:Zvelebil 1973 3130: 3127: 3123: 3118: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3100: 3097:, p. 12. 3096: 3095:Zvelebil 1992 3091: 3089: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3074: 3071: 3068: 3066: 3060: 3058: 3056: 3054: 3050: 3047: 3045: 3039: 3037: 3033: 3030: 3028: 3022: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2993: 2989: 2986:, p. 33. 2985: 2980: 2977: 2973: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2943: 2940: 2937:, p. 92. 2936: 2935:Caldwell 1998 2931: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2916: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2885: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2869: 2867: 2865: 2861: 2848: 2847: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2824:9788120604476 2820: 2816: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2790: 2787: 2783: 2777: 2774: 2770: 2765: 2763: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2748: 2746: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2725: 2722: 2718: 2713: 2711: 2709: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2681:Majumdar 2016 2677: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2654:Veluthat 2018 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2635:Pletcher 2018 2631: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2616:Gurukkal 2002 2612: 2610: 2608: 2604: 2598: 2595: 2582: 2578: 2577: 2572: 2565: 2562: 2558: 2557:Gurukkal 2015 2553: 2551: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2508: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2475: 2473: 2471: 2467: 2455: 2451: 2445: 2442: 2438: 2437:Zvelebil 1973 2433: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2425: 2423: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2402: 2400: 2398: 2394: 2387: 2383: 2380: 2378: 2375: 2373: 2372:Chola dynasty 2370: 2369: 2365: 2363: 2359: 2357: 2352: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2306: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2284:Tissamaharama 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2264: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2233: 2229: 2221: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2208: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2193: 2188: 2184: 2183: 2178: 2172: 2170: 2166: 2158: 2154: 2147: 2145: 2138: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2105: 2098: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2066: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2043: 2038: 2030: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2004: 2000: 1999: 1997: 1993: 1990: 1985: 1981: 1978: 1974: 1973: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1955: 1952: 1951: 1946: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1924: 1921:) and Kozhi ( 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1903: 1902: 1900: 1892: 1887: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1864: 1861: 1857: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1839:The earliest 1838: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1811: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1795: 1784: 1779: 1771: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1750: 1747: 1744: 1739: 1736: 1733: 1731: 1728: 1725: 1722: 1718: 1715: 1712: 1709: 1706: 1703: 1702: 1700: 1699: 1695: 1694: 1684: 1682: 1676: 1673: 1671: 1668: 1665: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1653: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1643: 1642: 1639: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1620: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1601: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1574: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1566: 1562:According to 1560: 1557: 1552: 1547: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1532: 1527: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1510: 1507: 1503: 1501: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1474: 1472: 1468: 1462: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1444: 1443: 1428: 1427: 1426:Pathitrupattu 1421: 1418: 1417: 1416:Pathitrupattu 1410: 1408: 1407:Pathitrupattu 1403: 1401: 1395: 1394: 1392: 1387: 1386: 1381: 1380: 1375: 1371: 1370: 1365: 1361: 1359: 1354: 1353: 1352:Pathitrupattu 1348: 1347: 1342: 1338: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1325:(Kannaki) at 1324: 1320: 1316: 1315: 1310: 1309:Ilango Adigal 1299: 1294: 1291: 1290: 1285: 1284:Pathitrupattu 1281: 1280: 1275: 1274: 1269: 1268: 1267:Pathitrupattu 1256: 1252: 1244: 1242: 1238: 1236: 1224: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1208: 1201:Chera coinage 1200: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1187: 1185: 1180: 1171:Ilam Kadungo 1170: 1167: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1157: 1152: 1150: 1149:Perum Kadungo 1139: 1131: 1126: 1118: 1111: 1107: 1100: 1098: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1076: 1074: 1070: 1069: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1004: 1003: 997: 990: 985: 978: 976: 974: 970: 965: 963: 959: 955: 954: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 916: 914: 910: 906: 902: 897: 891: 889: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 831: 826: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 801: 800: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 778:Perum Kadungo 775: 770: 768: 764: 760: 756: 753:and southern 752: 748: 744: 743:Malabar Coast 740: 729: 728:Sangam period 725: 721: 717: 713: 712:Malabar Coast 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 672: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 649:western ghats 646: 645:western coast 642: 639: 634: 626: 623: 619: 618:Chera dynasty 607: 602: 600: 595: 593: 588: 587: 585: 584: 579: 576: 573: 570: 567: 564: 561: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548:Kerala Kesari 547: 544: 541: 538: 534: 531: 528: 525:Kulasekhara ( 524: 522: 519: 518: 517: 516: 512: 508: 504: 498: 495: 493: 490: 487: 485:Vira Narayana 484: 481: 478: 475: 474: 473: 472: 468: 464: 460: 454: 452:Kol-Irumporai 451: 448: 446: 443: 440: 439: 438: 437: 432: 426: 423: 420: 417: 416: 415: 414: 409: 403: 401: 398: 395: 392: 389: 387: 384: 381: 378: 376: 373: 372: 371: 370: 365: 362: 361:Chera dynasty 358: 348: 345: 343: 340: 339: 337: 335:Today part of 333: 317: 315: 312: 311: 303: 301: 298: 297: 289: 287: 284: 283: 275: 273: 270: 269: 261: 259: 256: 255: 252: 250: 249: 246: 243: 241: 240: 236: 232: 228: 218: 204: 200: 197: 194: 190: 186: 184: 180: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 161: 160: 156: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 137: 136: 132: 127: 126:Mahodayapuram 124: 123: 122: 121: 115: 112: 111: 110: 109: 103: 100: 98: 95: 94: 93: 90: 86: 82: 77: 68: 61: 56: 52: 47:Chera dynasty 44: 41: 37: 33: 19: 18:Chera kingdom 6438: 6429: 6419: 6406: 6397: 6396: 6387: 6378: 6369: 6360: 6351: 6342: 6333: 6324: 6316: 6315: 6299: 6279:Pala dynasty 6265:10th century 6264: 6227: 6195: 6145: 6125: 6119: 6118: 6074: 6047: 6019:Gupta Empire 6017: 6007: 5993: 5987: 5986: 5953: 5941: 5919: 5914: 5907: 5892:Early Cholas 5883: 5860: 5818: 5814: 5808: 5807: 5792:Early Cholas 5783: 5772: 5767: 5758: 5751: 5745: 5744: 5735: 5726:Nanda empire 5724: 5712: 5679: 5670: 5641: 5634: 5628: 5627: 5589: 5580: 5565:Vedic Period 5562: 5547:Vedic Period 5544: 5539:Vedic Period 5536: 5530: 5529: 5520: 5483:Sapta Sindhu 5470:Timeline and 5345:Kongu Cheras 5280: 5242: 5227: 5214: 5201: 5188: 5167: 5147: 5138:. The Hindu. 5135: 5107: 5103: 5069:(1): 13–31. 5066: 5062: 5040:(1): 21–26. 5037: 5033: 5008: 5004: 4975: 4971: 4962: 4958: 4945: 4941: 4915: 4902: 4871: 4858: 4845: 4832: 4811: 4801: 4781: 4760: 4740: 4721: 4712: 4702: 4692: 4672: 4651: 4627: 4606: 4585: 4564: 4543: 4519: 4491: 4469: 4445: 4421: 4398: 4386: 4374: 4362: 4350: 4324: 4320: 4308: 4296:. Retrieved 4292: 4282: 4270:. Retrieved 4263: 4253: 4245: 4241: 4221: 4214: 4195: 4186: 4176: 4166: 4146: 4125:the original 4120: 4116: 4103: 4090: 4084: 4065: 4061: 4051: 4032: 4026: 4014: 4002: 3993: 3988: 3979: 3974: 3962: 3950: 3938: 3911: 3899: 3872: 3845: 3833: 3823: 3816: 3804: 3792: 3780: 3768: 3756: 3744: 3717: 3678:Dalziel 2016 3623:Fawcett 1901 3618: 3589: 3562: 3535: 3508: 3269: 3262: 3252: 3245: 3235: 3228: 3218: 3211: 3165: 3153: 3141: 3129: 3102: 3078: 3073: 3064: 3043: 3026: 3006: 2979: 2942: 2884: 2876: 2853:30 September 2851:. Retrieved 2845: 2814: 2789: 2781: 2776: 2724: 2597: 2585:. Retrieved 2574: 2564: 2457:. 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The 1270:, the 1212:Maurya 1195:Cochin 1193:(near 1110:Brahmi 1055:Ashoka 1039:Korkai 1023:Vanchi 1011:Pandya 924:Ashoka 913:Kerala 905:Charal 901:Cheral 886:Eranad 842:Kollam 810:Kerala 782:Brahmi 706:) and 704:Kerala 669:Pandya 511:Kerala 205: 187:Cheran 97:Vanchi 5824:Epics 5563:Late 5545:Late 5537:Late 5351:Karur 5304:Karur 5112:JSTOR 5087:S2CID 5050:S2CID 5021:S2CID 4988:JSTOR 4317:(PDF) 4128:(PDF) 4113:(PDF) 2879:pp. 7 2329:Durga 2325:toddy 2087:Tamil 1915:Karur 1870:E. 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