42:
1488:
264:. About 30 percent of all human proteins are identical in sequence to the corresponding chimpanzee protein. As mentioned above, gene duplications are a major source of differences between human and chimpanzee genetic material, with about 2.7 percent of the genome now representing differences having been produced by gene duplications or deletions during approximately 6 million years since humans and chimpanzees diverged from their common evolutionary ancestor. The comparable variation within human populations is 0.5 percent.
855:
589:
1736:
362:
299:), have often evolved faster in the human relative to chimpanzee; relatively small changes in these genes may account for the morphological differences between humans and chimpanzees. A set of 348 transcription factor genes code for proteins with an average of about 50 percent more amino acid changes in the human lineage than in the chimpanzee lineage.
369:
The results of the chimpanzee genome project suggest that when ancestral chromosomes 2A and 2B fused to produce human chromosome 2, no genes were lost from the fused ends of 2A and 2B. At the site of fusion, there are approximately 150,000 base pairs of sequence not found in chimpanzee chromosomes 2A
330:
development and function. Although changes in expression of genes that are expressed in the brain tend to be less than for other organs (such as liver) on average, gene expression changes in the brain have been more dramatic in the human lineage than in the chimpanzee lineage. This is consistent with
306:
that seems unique to the human lineage while the entire chromosomal region shows lower than normal genetic variation. This pattern suggests that one or a few strongly selected genes in the chromosome region may have been preventing the random accumulation of neutral changes in other nearby genes. One
346:
414:). Humans are unusual in that they have several copies of cobalamin synthetase-like genes, including the one on chromosome 2. It remains to be determined what the function of these human cobalamin synthetase-like genes is. If these genes are involved in vitamin B
180:
Another study showed that patterns of DNA methylation, which are a known regulation mechanism for gene expression, differ in the prefrontal cortex of humans versus chimpanzees, and implicated this difference in the evolutionary divergence of the two species.
185:
331:
the dramatic divergence of the unique pattern of human brain development seen in the human lineage compared to the ancestral great ape pattern. The protocadherin-beta gene cluster on chromosome 5 also shows evidence of possible positive selection.
200:). Parts of human chromosome 2 are scattered among parts of several cat and rat chromosomes in these species that are more distantly related to humans (more ancient common ancestors; about 85 million years since the human/rodent common ancestor
87:
The research showed considerable genome diversity in chimpanzees with many population-specific traits. The central chimpanzees retain the highest diversity in the chimpanzee lineage, whereas the other subspecies demonstrate signs of
374:. This suggests that a copy of these genes may have been added to the end of the ancestral 2A or 2B prior to the fusion event. It remains to be determined if these inserted genes confer a selective advantage.
1170:
Khaitovich P, Hellmann I, Enard W, Nowick K, Leinweber M, Franz H, Weiss G, Lachmann M, Pääbo S (September 2005). "Parallel patterns of evolution in the genomes and transcriptomes of humans and chimpanzees".
173:, which is involved in speech development, are different in the human lineage. Several genes involved in hearing were also found to have changed during human evolution, suggesting selection involving human
315:(CFTR) gene, which is important for ion transport in tissues such as the salt-secreting epithelium of sweat glands. Human mutations in the CFTR gene might be selected for as a way to survive
302:
Six human chromosomal regions were found that may have been under particularly strong and coordinated selection during the past 250,000 years. These regions contain at least one marker
436:
corresponding to this region have been isolated. This region is also present in the closely related chromosome 9p terminal region that contains copies of the PGML/FOXD/CBWD genes.
1041:
Cheng Z, Ventura M, She X, Khaitovich P, Graves T, Osoegawa K, et al. (September 2005). "A genome-wide comparison of recent chimpanzee and human segmental duplications".
249:
account for most of the sequence differences between humans and chimps. Single-base-pair substitutions account for about half as much genetic change as does gene duplication.
312:
1092:
Stenger S, Hanson DA, Teitelbaum R, Dewan P, Niazi KR, Froelich CJ, et al. (October 1998). "An antimicrobial activity of cytolytic T cells mediated by granulysin".
114:. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes and other great apes have 24 pairs of chromosomes. In the human evolutionary lineage, two ancestral ape chromosomes fused at their
418:
metabolism, this could be relevant to human evolution. A major change in human development is greater post-natal brain growth than is observed in other apes. Vitamin B
1597:
177:-related behavior. Differences between individual humans and common chimpanzees are estimated to be about 10 times the typical difference between pairs of humans.
267:
About 600 genes were identified that may have been undergoing strong positive selection in the human and chimpanzee lineages; many of these genes are involved in
216:
479:"Differences between human and chimpanzee genomes and their implications in gene expression, protein functions and biochemical properties of the two species"
166:
genome project was initiated. In
December 2003, a preliminary analysis of 7600 genes shared between the two genomes confirmed that certain genes such as the
1665:
1562:
1675:
220:
1670:
334:
Results from the human and chimpanzee genome analyses should help in understanding some human diseases. Humans appear to have lost a functional
1680:
395:
D4-like gene is an example of an intronless gene. The function of this gene is not known, but it may code for a transcription control protein.
636:
611:
1224:"Identification and characterization of coding single-nucleotide polymorphisms within human protocadherin-alpha and -beta gene clusters"
122:. There are nine other major chromosomal differences between chimpanzees and humans: chromosome segment inversions on human chromosomes
1602:
370:
and 2B. Additional linked copies of the PGML/FOXD/CBWD genes exist elsewhere in the human genome, particularly near the p end of
1612:
433:
365:
Diagramatic representation of the location of the fusion site of chromosomes 2A and 2B and the genes inserted at this location.
34:. Sequencing began in 2005 and by 2013 twenty-four individual chimpanzees had been sequenced. This project was folded into the
814:"Divergent Whole-Genome Methylation Maps of Human and Chimpanzee Brains Reveal Epigenetic Basis of Human Regulatory Evolution"
1329:
230:
A database now exists containing the genetic differences between human and chimpanzee genes, with about thirty-five million
1265:"Gene content and function of the ancestral chromosome fusion site in human chromosome 2q13-2q14.1 and paralogous regions"
224:
1222:
Miki R, Hattori K, Taguchi Y, Tada MN, Isosaka T, Hidaka Y, Hirabayashi T, Hashimoto R, Fukuzako H, Yagi T (April 2005).
41:
1135:
Goodman BE, Percy WH (June 2005). "CFTR in cystic fibrosis and cholera: from membrane transport to clinical practice".
870:
459:
69:
1685:
1537:
443:
410:. In the distant past, a common ancestor to mice and apes incorporated a copy of a cobalamin synthetase gene (see:
277:
291:). By comparing human and chimpanzee genes to the genes of other mammals, it has been found that genes coding for
1649:
1617:
1567:
242:
1765:
1487:
411:
1547:
1643:
1622:
854:
588:
192:(green color code) was derived from two smaller chromosomes that are found in other great apes (now called
1532:
339:
52:
In 2013 high resolution sequences were published from each of the four recognized chimpanzee subspecies:
292:
287:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
110:
are very alike. The primary difference is that humans have one fewer pair of chromosomes than do other
89:
385:
pseudogene of human chromosome 2. This gene is incomplete and doesn't produce a functional transcript.
197:
193:
1770:
1760:
1592:
1527:
1180:
1101:
1050:
930:
775:
665:
551:
464:
371:
189:
170:
159:
135:
131:
127:
123:
35:
1572:
46:
1502:
1460:
1440:
1322:
1204:
1074:
899:
736:
382:
253:
77:
61:
53:
1512:
871:"Orthologous numbering of great ape and human chromosomes is essential for comparative genomics"
711:
De
Grouchy J (August 1987). "Chromosome phylogenies of man, great apes, and Old World monkeys".
188:
Chimpanzee-human chromosome differences. A major structural difference is that human chromosome
976:
322:
Another such region on chromosome 4 may contain elements regulating the expression of a nearby
1607:
1450:
1346:
1294:
1245:
1196:
1152:
1117:
1066:
1023:
958:
891:
843:
793:
758:
728:
693:
632:
607:
577:
510:
350:
163:
28:
426:
deficiency during brain development results in severe neurological defects in human children.
1706:
1476:
1284:
1276:
1235:
1188:
1144:
1109:
1058:
1013:
1003:
948:
938:
883:
833:
825:
783:
766:
720:
683:
673:
567:
559:
500:
490:
246:
211:
990:
Caswell JL, Mallick S, Richter DJ, Neubauer J, Schirmer C, Gnerre S, Reich D (April 2008).
1696:
1421:
1411:
1184:
1105:
1054:
934:
779:
669:
555:
1018:
991:
838:
813:
688:
653:
572:
539:
505:
478:
404:
231:
1289:
1264:
953:
918:
345:
84:, 4 sequences. They were all sequenced to a mean of 25-fold coverage per individual.
1754:
1739:
1315:
323:
282:
268:
1208:
903:
1557:
1542:
1517:
1078:
740:
392:
119:
1113:
1008:
1552:
1507:
1376:
812:
Zeng, J.; Konopa, G.; Hunt, B.G.; Preuss, T.M.; Geschwind, D.; Yi, S.V. (2012).
759:"Initial sequence of the chimpanzee genome and comparison with the human genome"
361:
184:
1240:
1223:
829:
495:
1701:
1392:
977:"Chimpanzee genome database (Genome Data Viewer Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee))"
446:
335:
272:
261:
239:
111:
107:
104:
1148:
1691:
1434:
1192:
943:
678:
1298:
1249:
1200:
1156:
1070:
1027:
962:
895:
847:
797:
697:
581:
514:
338:
gene, which in other primates codes for an enzyme that may protect against
1121:
732:
1660:
235:
174:
115:
1062:
788:
563:
1655:
1638:
1582:
1405:
919:"Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary"
724:
316:
257:
1280:
887:
1472:
1382:
654:"Chimpanzee genomic diversity reveals ancient admixture with bonobos"
303:
31:
992:"Analysis of chimpanzee history based on genome sequence alignments"
606:. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 303–307.
281:) or are targeted receptors of pathogenic microorganisms (example:
227:. The article marked the completion of the draft genome sequence.
1721:
1711:
1363:
399:
360:
344:
327:
308:
296:
183:
167:
100:
40:
1716:
1357:
1311:
917:
Springer MS, Murphy WJ, Eizirik E, O'Brien SJ (February 2003).
209:
An analysis of the chimpanzee genome sequence was published in
1338:
24:
16:
Effort to determine the DNA sequence of the chimpanzee genome
1263:
Fan Y, Newman T, Linardopoulou E, Trask BJ (November 2002).
219:, a group of scientists which is supported in part by the
311:
gene (mentioned above) and this region also includes the
403:. Cobalamin synthetase is a bacterial enzyme that makes
1307:
540:"Great ape genetic diversity and population history"
215:
on
September 1, 2005, in an article produced by the
1631:
1581:
1495:
1345:
757:Chimpanzee Sequencing; Analysis Consortium (2005).
313:
Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator
869:
422:is important for brain development, and vitamin B
205:Draft genome sequence of the common chimpanzee
1323:
217:Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium
8:
271:defense against microbial disease (example:
477:Suntsova, M.V.; Buzdin, A.A. (2020-09-10).
349:Human and chimpanzee genomes. M stands for
1330:
1316:
1308:
1288:
1239:
1017:
1007:
952:
942:
837:
787:
687:
677:
571:
504:
494:
307:such region on chromosome 7 contains the
752:
750:
538:Prado-Martinez, J.; et al. (2013).
221:National Human Genome Research Institute
527:
449:are scattered through the human genome.
818:The American Journal of Human Genetics
533:
531:
45:Two juvenile central chimpanzees, the
1666:Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor
357:Genes of the chromosome 2 fusion site
7:
1676:Orangutan–human last common ancestor
629:Apes Like Us: Portraits of a Kinship
652:de Manuel, M.; et al. (2016).
631:. Mannheim: Panorama. p. 114.
1671:Gorilla–human last common ancestor
1603:Kinshasa Declaration on Great Apes
14:
1681:Gibbon–human last common ancestor
260:differ in only an average of two
1735:
1734:
1486:
853:
587:
1613:Great Apes Survival Partnership
1563:Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary
434:transcripts of unknown function
326:gene that may be important for
23:was an effort to determine the
158:. After the completion of the
82:Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
1:
252:Typical human and chimpanzee
225:National Institutes of Health
1114:10.1126/science.282.5386.121
1009:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000057
923:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
627:Hof, J.; Sommer, V. (2010).
460:Human evolutionary genetics
295:, such as forkhead-box P2 (
70:Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee
58:Pan troglodytes troglodytes
1787:
1686:List of fictional primates
1538:Neanderthal genome project
1241:10.1016/j.gene.2004.11.044
830:10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.07.024
496:10.1186/s12864-020-06962-8
278:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
1730:
1618:International Primate Day
1568:Borneo Orangutan Survival
1523:Chimpanzee genome project
1484:
602:Groves, Colin P. (2001).
21:Chimpanzee Genome Project
1149:10.1152/advan.00035.2004
412:Horizontal gene transfer
36:Great Ape Genome Project
1644:List of individual apes
1623:Nonhuman Rights Project
1193:10.1126/science.1108296
944:10.1073/pnas.0334222100
679:10.1126/science.aag2602
74:Pan troglodytes ellioti
1533:Gladys Kalema-Zikusoka
444:ribosomal protein L23a
366:
353:
275:is protective against
234:changes, five million
201:
90:population bottlenecks
49:
1548:Lone Drøscher Nielsen
876:Cytogenet. Genome Res
364:
348:
293:transcription factors
288:Plasmodium falciparum
187:
66:Pan troglodytes verus
44:
1528:Human Genome Project
868:McConkey EH (2004).
465:Human Genome Project
238:events, and various
171:transcription factor
160:Human genome project
1573:Primate archaeology
1185:2005Sci...309.1850K
1106:1998Sci...282..121S
1063:10.1038/nature04000
1055:2005Natur.437...88C
935:2003PNAS..100.1056S
789:10.1038/nature04072
780:2005Natur.437...69.
670:2016Sci...354..477D
564:10.1038/nature12228
556:2013Natur.499..471P
340:Alzheimer's disease
76:, 4 sequences; and
47:nominate subspecies
1503:Great ape language
1461:Tapanuli orangutan
1441:Sumatran orangutan
725:10.1007/bf00057436
383:phosphoglucomutase
367:
354:
236:insertion/deletion
202:
118:, producing human
78:Eastern chimpanzee
62:Western chimpanzee
54:Central chimpanzee
50:
1748:
1747:
1608:Great Ape Project
1451:Bornean orangutan
1281:10.1101/gr.338402
888:10.1159/000078022
638:978-3-89823-435-1
613:978-1-56098-872-4
550:(7459): 471–475.
351:Mitochondrial DNA
247:Gene duplications
232:single-nucleotide
164:common chimpanzee
1778:
1738:
1737:
1707:Mythic humanoids
1490:
1465:P. tapanuliensis
1332:
1325:
1318:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1292:
1260:
1254:
1253:
1243:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1179:(5742): 1850–4.
1167:
1161:
1160:
1137:Adv Physiol Educ
1132:
1126:
1125:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1038:
1032:
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1021:
1011:
987:
981:
980:
973:
967:
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946:
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873:
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851:
841:
809:
803:
801:
791:
763:
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745:
744:
708:
702:
701:
691:
681:
664:(6311): 477–48.
649:
643:
642:
624:
618:
617:
604:Primate Taxonomy
599:
593:
592:
591:
585:
575:
535:
518:
508:
498:
60:, 10 sequences;
27:sequence of the
1786:
1785:
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1780:
1779:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1766:Genome projects
1751:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1726:
1697:Human evolution
1627:
1584:
1577:
1513:BirutÄ— Galdikas
1491:
1482:
1422:Western gorilla
1412:Eastern gorilla
1348:
1341:
1336:
1306:
1275:(11): 1663–72.
1262:
1261:
1257:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1169:
1168:
1164:
1134:
1133:
1129:
1100:(5386): 121–5.
1091:
1090:
1086:
1049:(7055): 88–93.
1040:
1039:
1035:
1002:(4): e1000057.
989:
988:
984:
975:
974:
970:
916:
915:
911:
867:
866:
862:
852:
811:
810:
806:
802:
774:(7055): 69–87.
761:
756:
755:
748:
710:
709:
705:
651:
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646:
639:
626:
625:
621:
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476:
473:
471:Further reading
456:
425:
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359:
207:
168:forkhead-box P2
98:
68:, 6 sequences;
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1774:
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1510:
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1481:
1480:
1479:: Hylobatidae)
1470:
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1458:
1448:
1431:
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1419:
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1397:P. troglodytes
1390:
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1305:
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1255:
1214:
1162:
1127:
1084:
1033:
982:
968:
929:(3): 1056–61.
909:
860:
824:(3): 455–465.
804:
746:
719:(1–2): 37–52.
703:
644:
637:
619:
612:
594:
526:
524:
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520:
519:
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243:rearrangements
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1650:Apes in space
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1585:social status
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1496:Study of apes
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1103:
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993:
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324:protocadherin
320:
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305:
300:
298:
294:
290:
289:
284:
283:Glycophorin C
280:
279:
274:
270:
269:immune system
265:
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223:, one of the
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55:
48:
43:
39:
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33:
30:
26:
22:
1598:Research ban
1558:Elgin Center
1543:Willie Smits
1522:
1518:Jane Goodall
1464:
1454:
1444:
1433:
1425:
1415:
1404:
1396:
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1375:
1367:
1356:
1272:
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1227:
1217:
1176:
1172:
1165:
1143:(2): 75–82.
1140:
1136:
1130:
1097:
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1087:
1046:
1042:
1036:
999:
995:
985:
971:
926:
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882:(1): 157–8.
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821:
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771:
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712:
706:
661:
657:
647:
628:
622:
603:
597:
547:
543:
489:(535): 535.
486:
483:BMC Genomics
482:
439:
429:
398:
393:forkhead box
388:
378:
372:chromosome 9
368:
333:
321:
301:
286:
276:
266:
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229:
210:
208:
179:
120:chromosome 2
99:
86:
81:
73:
65:
57:
51:
20:
18:
1771:Chimpanzees
1761:Primatology
1688:(non-human)
1652:(non-human)
1646:(non-human)
1553:Ian Redmond
1508:Dian Fossey
1455:P. pygmaeus
1416:G. beringei
1387:P. paniscus
1349:ape species
447:pseudogenes
262:amino acids
240:chromosomal
108:chromosomes
1755:Categories
1702:Monkey Day
1692:Great apes
1593:Personhood
1426:G. gorilla
1393:Chimpanzee
1368:H. sapiens
1269:Genome Res
996:PLOS Genet
523:References
432:. Several
336:Caspase 12
273:granulysin
112:great apes
105:chimpanzee
96:Background
29:chimpanzee
1583:Legal and
1445:P. abelii
1435:Orangutan
405:vitamin B
116:telomeres
1740:Category
1661:Bushmeat
1299:12421752
1250:15777644
1234:: 1–14.
1209:16674740
1201:16141373
1157:15905150
1071:16136132
1028:18421364
963:12552136
904:11571357
896:15218271
848:22922032
798:16136131
713:Genetica
698:27789843
582:23823723
515:32912141
454:See also
440:RPL23AP7
258:proteins
254:homologs
175:language
1656:Bigfoot
1639:Primate
1632:Related
1406:Gorilla
1181:Bibcode
1173:Science
1122:9756476
1102:Bibcode
1094:Science
1079:4420359
1051:Bibcode
1019:2278377
931:Bibcode
839:3511995
776:Bibcode
741:1098866
733:3333352
689:5546212
666:Bibcode
658:Science
573:3822165
552:Bibcode
506:7488140
442:. Many
389:FOXD4L1
317:cholera
1477:family
1473:Gibbon
1383:Bonobo
1347:Extant
1297:
1290:187549
1287:
1248:
1207:
1199:
1155:
1120:
1077:
1069:
1043:Nature
1026:
1016:
961:
954:298725
951:
902:
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836:
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767:Nature
739:
731:
696:
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635:
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580:
570:
544:Nature
513:
503:
430:WASH2P
391:. The
381:. The
379:PGM5P4
304:allele
212:Nature
154:, and
32:genome
1722:Yowie
1712:Yeren
1364:Human
1205:S2CID
1075:S2CID
900:S2CID
762:(PDF)
737:S2CID
400:CBWD2
328:brain
309:FOXP2
297:FOXP2
101:Human
1717:Yeti
1358:Homo
1339:Apes
1295:PMID
1246:PMID
1228:Gene
1197:PMID
1153:PMID
1118:PMID
1067:PMID
1024:PMID
959:PMID
892:PMID
844:PMID
794:PMID
729:PMID
694:PMID
633:ISBN
608:ISBN
578:PMID
511:PMID
285:and
196:and
162:, a
103:and
19:The
1377:Pan
1285:PMC
1277:doi
1236:doi
1232:349
1189:doi
1177:309
1145:doi
1110:doi
1098:282
1059:doi
1047:437
1014:PMC
1004:doi
949:PMC
939:doi
927:100
884:doi
880:105
834:PMC
826:doi
784:doi
772:437
721:doi
684:PMC
674:doi
662:354
568:PMC
560:doi
548:499
501:PMC
491:doi
342:.
256:of
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25:DNA
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