1830:
1948:
2610:
country's literacy rate. The idea gained further support following the victory of the
Communists in 1949, who immediately began two parallel programs regarding written Chinese. The first was the development of an alphabet to write the sounds of Mandarin, the variety spoken by around two-thirds of the Chinese population. The other program investigated the simplification of the standard character forms. Initially, character simplification was not competing with the idea of a phonetic script; rather, simplification was intended to make the transition to a fully phonetic writing system easier.
1917:
7290:
1868:
5421:
566:
2383:). Over time, Literary Chinese acquired some elements of grammar and vocabulary from various varieties of vernacular Chinese that had since diverged. By the 20th century, Literary Chinese was distinctly different from any spoken vernacular, and had to be learned separately. Once learned, it was a common medium for communication between people speaking different dialects, many of which were mutually unintelligible by the end of the first millennium CE.
2174:
2246:
instead attribute this to other education reforms and a general increase in the standard of living. Little systematic research has been conducted to support the conclusion that the use of simplified characters has affected literacy rates; studies conducted in China have instead focused on arbitrary statistics, such as quantifying the number of strokes saved on average in a given text sample. Simplified characters are standard in mainland China,
2554:
radical. Accordingly, dictionaries often include a list of hard to locate characters, indexed by total stroke count, near the beginning of the dictionary. Some dictionaries include almost one-seventh of all characters in this list. Alternatively, some dictionaries list "difficult" characters under more than one radical, with all but one of those entries redirecting the reader to the "canonical" location of the character according to Kangxi.
7278:
2186:
2338:
6071:
1901:). These inscriptions were made primarily on ox scapulae and turtle shells in order to record the results of divinations conducted by the Shang royal family. Characters posing a question were first carved into the bones. The question's answer was then divined by heating the bones over a fire and interpreting the resulting cracks that formed. The interpretation was then carved into the same
2150:
2550:
count of the character. Usually, however, there are still many characters with a given stroke count under a given radical. At this point, characters are not given in any recognizable order; the user must locate the character by going through all the characters with that stroke count, typically listed for convenience at the top of the page on which they occur.
1220:
2574:, in which characters are broken down into a set of 24 basic components. Neither the four-corner method nor the Cangjie method requires the user to identify the proper radical, although many strokes or components have alternate forms, which must be memorized in order to use these methods effectively.
1837:
As characters are essentially rectilinear and are not joined with one another, written
Chinese does not require a set orientation. Chinese texts were traditionally written in columns from top to bottom, which were laid out from right to left. Prior to the 20th century, Literary Chinese used little to
2549:
Every
Chinese character falls (sometimes arbitrarily or incorrectly) under the heading of exactly one of these 214 radicals. In many cases, the radicals are themselves characters, which naturally come first under their own heading. All other characters under a given radical are ordered by the stroke
2203:, which must be followed in order for the characters to be written correctly. Strictly speaking, this stroke order applies to the clerical, running, and grass scripts as well, but especially in the running and grass scripts, this order is occasionally deviated from. Thus, for instance, the character
1852:
The use of punctuation has also become more common. In general, punctuation occupies the width of a full character, such that text remains visually well-aligned in a grid. Punctuation used in simplified
Chinese shows clear influence from that used in Western scripts, though some marks are particular
1841:
In the 20th century, the layout used in
Western scripts—where text is written in rows from left to right, which are laid out from top to bottom—became predominant in mainland China, where it was mandated by the Chinese government in 1955. Vertical layouts are still used for aesthetic effect, or when
2533:
Written
Chinese is not based on an alphabet or syllabary, so Chinese dictionaries, as well as dictionaries that define Chinese characters in other languages, cannot easily be alphabetized or otherwise lexically ordered, as English dictionaries are. The need to arrange Chinese characters in order to
2414:
The variation in vocabulary among varieties has also led to informal use of "dialectal characters", which may include characters previously used in
Literary Chinese that are considered archaic in written Standard Chinese. Cantonese is unique among non-Mandarin regional languages in having a written
1141:
in the language, which may either be independent words, or part of a polysyllabic word. Most characters are constructed from smaller components that may reflect the character's meaning or pronunciation. Literacy requires the memorization of thousands of characters; college-educated
Chinese speakers
2553:
Because the method of radicals is applied only to the written character, one need not know how to pronounce a character before looking it up; the entry, once located, usually gives the pronunciation. However, it is not always easy to identify which of the various roots of a character is the proper
2609:
have also been designed. Among other purposes, these systems are used by students learning the corresponding varieties. The replacement of
Chinese characters with a phonetic writing system was first prominently proposed during the May Fourth Movement, partly motivated by a desire to increase the
1236:
Written
Chinese is not based on an alphabet or syllabary. Most characters can be analyzed as compounds of smaller components, which may be assembled according to several different principles. Characters and components may reflect aspects of meaning or pronunciation. The best known exposition of
2360:
Chinese characters have always been used to represent individual spoken syllables. While writing was being invented in the Yellow River valley, words in spoken Chinese were largely monosyllabic, and each written character corresponded to a monosyllabic word. Spoken Chinese varieties have since
2245:
forms. Simplified characters, which merge some character forms and reduce the average stroke count per character, were developed by the Chinese government with the stated goal of increasing literacy among the population. During this time, literacy rates did increase rapidly, but some observers
2617:(or simply 'pinyin') alphabet had been developed, but plans to replace Chinese characters with it were deferred, and the idea is no longer actively pursued. This change in priorities may have been due in part to pinyin's design being specific to Mandarin, to the exclusion of other dialects.
2557:
Other methods of organization exist, often in an attempt to address the shortcomings of the radical method, but are less common. For instance, it is common for a dictionary ordered principally by the Kangxi radicals to have an auxiliary index by pronunciation, expressed typically in either
2423:
is used similarly in Taiwan and elsewhere, though it lacks the level of standardization seen in Cantonese. However, Taiwan's Ministry of Education has promulgated a standard character set for Hokkien, which is taught in schools and encouraged for use by the general population.
2162:
2213:; 'wood') must be written starting with the horizontal stroke, drawn from left to right; next, the vertical stroke, from top to bottom; next, the left diagonal stroke, from top to bottom; and lastly the right diagonal stroke, from top to bottom.
2391:, is not technically bound to any single variety; however, it most nearly represents the vocabulary and syntax of Mandarin, by far the most widespread Chinese dialectal family in terms of both geographical area and number of speakers. This form is known as
2546:(around the year 1700); these are sometimes called the Kangxi radicals. The radicals are ordered first by stroke count (that is, the number of strokes required to write the radical); within a given stroke count, the radicals also have a prescribed order.
2537:
A traditional mechanism is the method of radicals, which uses a set of character roots. These roots, or radicals, generally but imperfectly align with the parts used to compose characters by means of logical aggregation and phonetic complex. A
2395:. While some written vernacular Chinese expressions are often ungrammatical or unidiomatic outside of Mandarin, its use permits some communication between speakers of different dialects. This function may be considered analogous to that of
1853:
to Asian languages. For example, there are double and single quotation marks (『 』 and 「 」), and a hollow full stop (。), which is used to separate sentences in an identical manner to a Western full stop. A special mark called an
1829:
1695:
Chinese characters are written to fit into a square, even when composed of two simpler forms written side-by-side or top-to-bottom. In such cases, each form is compressed to fit the entire character into a square.
1662:—either reflect elements of pronunciation, or are logical aggregates. In fact, some phonetic complexes were originally simple pictographs that were later augmented by the addition of a semantic root. An example is
2386:
Varieties of Chinese vary in pronunciation, and to a lesser extent in vocabulary and grammar. Modern written Chinese, which replaced Classical Chinese as the written standard as an indirect result of the 1919
2315:; 'snuffle'—these characters are relatively uncommon, and would therefore represent a negligible stroke reduction. Other simplified forms derive from long-standing calligraphic abbreviations, as with
2403:. For literate speakers, it serves as a common medium; however, the forms of individual characters generally provide little insight to their meaning if not already known. Ghil'ad Zuckermann's exploration of
2495:, places the number of characters somewhat lower, at 3,000 to 4,000. These counts are complicated by the tangled development of Chinese characters. In many cases, a single character came to have multiple
2478:
Because the majority of modern Chinese words contain more than one character, there are at least two measuring sticks for Chinese literacy: the number of characters known, and the number of words known.
1253:. Xu did not have access to the earliest forms of Chinese characters, and his analysis is not considered to fully capture the nature of the writing system. Nevertheless, no later work has supplanted the
2597:
Chinese characters do not reliably indicate their pronunciation. Therefore, many transliteration systems have been developed to write the sounds of different varieties of Chinese. While many use the
2648:
distinction that is more abundant in Mandarin. Pinyin also uses several consonantal letters to represent markedly different sounds from their assignments in other languages. For example, pinyin
2232:
885:
5546:
2624:
to represent the phonology of Standard Chinese. For the most part, pinyin uses phonetic values for letters that reflect their existing pronunciations in Romance languages and the
2577:
The availability of computerized Chinese dictionaries now makes it possible to look characters up by any of the indexing schemes described, thereby shortening the search process.
1820:
817:
3468:
Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003). "Language Contact and Globalisation: The camouflaged influence of English on the world's languages with special attention to Israeli and Mandarin".
1091:
2123:
is the most widely recognized script, and was considerably influenced by semi-cursive. In regular script, each stroke of each character is clearly drawn out from the others.
2115:
that evolved from clerical script, character elements begin to run into each other, though the characters themselves generally remain discrete. This is contrasted with fully
7320:
809:
6105:
1620:; 'elder brother') is not attested in formal writing prior to the Tang dynasty, and was created from the leftmost component of the more ancient character
3978:. Translated by Mattos, Gilbert L.; Norman, Jerry. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China and The Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California.
2566:. This index points to the page in the main dictionary where the desired character can be found. Other methods use only the structure of the characters, such as the
2138:
1425:), though this term is now generally used to refer to all characters, whether simple or complex. Of these four, two construct characters from simpler parts:
1142:
know approximately 4,000. This has led in part to the adoption of complementary transliteration systems as a means of representing the pronunciation of Chinese.
2015:
1710:
Character components can be further subdivided into individual written strokes. The strokes of Chinese characters fall into eight main categories: "horizontal"
873:
828:
1052:
2111:
working prior to the wars of unification. Clerical script forms generally have a "flat" appearance, being wider than their seal script equivalents. In the
5429:
2503:
lists 10,516 characters—9,353 of them unique (some of which may already have been out of use by the time it was compiled) plus 1,163 graphic variants—the
4056:
3550:
1849:
Less frequently, Chinese is written in rows from right to left, usually on signage or banners, though a left to right orientation remains more common.
2499:. This development was restrained to an extent by the standardization of the seal script during the Qin dynasty, but soon started again. Although the
1956:
1925:
1084:
4135:
2014:, predating the earliest attested Chinese writing by more than 5,000 years. Garman Harbottle, who had headed a team of archaeologists at the
1644:
is used in daily conversation in most Chinese dialects. Some dialects such as Minnan which retain features of spoken Old Chinese continue to use
1536:
3528:
5727:
2066:). Bronze script characters are less angular than their oracle bone script counterparts. The script became increasingly regularized during the
3124:
Official Taiwanese documents can no longer be written from right to left or from top to bottom in a new law passed by the country's parliament
2419:
has become quite popular on the Internet, while Standard Chinese is still normally used in formal written communications. To a lesser degree,
1878:
Written Chinese is one of the oldest continuously used writing systems. The earliest examples universally accepted as Chinese writing are the
1838:
no punctuation, with the breaks between sentences and phrases determined largely by context and the rhythms implied by patterns of syllables.
4966:
4002:
3983:
3961:
3912:
3874:
3812:
3145:
2887:
2570:, in which characters are indexed according to the kinds of strokes located nearest the four corners (hence the name of the method), or the
7310:
7191:
6098:
5777:
836:
2415:
colloquial standard, used in Hong Kong and overseas, with a large number of unofficial characters for words particular to this language.
5619:
1077:
1446:): in which two or more parts are used for their meaning. This yields a composite meaning, which is then applied to the new character.
4022:
1160:), but the process of creating characters is thought to have begun centuries earlier during the Late Neolithic and early Bronze Age (
3931:
3893:
3855:
3833:
3793:
3774:
3731:
2361:
acquired much more polysyllabic vocabulary, usually compound words composed of morphemes corresponding to older monosyllabic words
2199:
Regular script is considered the archetypal Chinese writing and forms the basis for most printed forms. In addition, regular script
1785:
There are eight basic rules of stroke order in writing a Chinese character, which apply only generally and are sometimes violated:
1582:, which was originally a pictograph depicting a fishing net. Over time, it has taken on an extended meaning, covering any kind of
1266:
965:
925:
728:
2295:
radical on the left also being simplified. However, the same phonetic component is not reduced in simplified characters such as
1968:
ritual container – inscription appearing twice on the vessel, comments on rituals accompanying court ceremonies.
6374:
6091:
5699:
2625:
4406:
6159:
4049:
2226:
398:
254:
3742:
6149:
6129:
6015:
5469:
3640:
Wang, Gwo-En; Wang, Jhing-Fa (1994). "A New Hierarchical Approach for Recognition of Unconstrained Handwritten Numerals".
2677:
2238:
2222:
382:
174:
7268:
7315:
7175:
6144:
6074:
5985:
5509:
735:
6984:
6323:
5990:
5862:
5787:
5444:
2487:, estimates that a typical Chinese college graduate recognizes 4,000 to 5,000 characters, and 40,000 to 60,000 words.
2038:
1489:
636:
484:
130:
6164:
6139:
6032:
6005:
5882:
5794:
5541:
5521:
2681:
2586:
2496:
2392:
2116:
1188:
1065:
958:
752:
712:
674:
622:
565:
212:
7006:
7114:
6649:
6517:
6452:
5584:
4282:
4042:
3843:
2488:
1705:
740:
577:
2513:, compiled less than a thousand years later in 1039, contains 53,525 characters, most of them graphic variants.
2096:
promulgated the seal script as the standard throughout China, which had been recently united under the imperial
1867:
1846:
followed suit in 2004 for official documents, but vertical layouts have persisted in some books and newspapers.
1545:
The last two principles do not produce new written forms; they instead transfer new meanings to existing forms:
6559:
5958:
5943:
5933:
5647:
4020:
Yue E Li and Christopher Upward. "Review of the process of reform in the simplification of Chinese Characters".
2534:
permit efficient lookup has given rise to a considerable variety of ways to organize and index the characters.
2528:
2173:
2053:
1879:
1872:
3554:
4299:
7232:
7075:
6522:
6361:
6181:
6169:
6154:
5970:
4844:
4806:
4209:
2668:, respectively. While pinyin has become the predominant transliteration system for Mandarin, others include
2592:
2436:
2411:
concludes that the Chinese writing system is multifunctional, conveying both semantic and phonetic content.
2404:
2088:, which represents the oldest form of Chinese characters still in modern use. They are used principally for
1604:): in which a character is used, either intentionally or accidentally, for some entirely different purpose.
1566:): in which a character, often with a simple, concrete meaning takes on an extended, more abstract meaning.
2161:
2137:
7237:
7180:
7139:
6814:
6637:
6424:
6386:
5904:
5747:
4345:
2645:
1975:
895:
880:
796:
282:
233:
2018:
in Anhui—has suggested that these symbols were precursors to Chinese writing. However, the palaeographer
1275:, Chinese characters are developed on six basic principles. (These principles, though popularized by the
7255:
6946:
6737:
6549:
6291:
6253:
6233:
6228:
5899:
5822:
5536:
5514:
4269:
4102:
3678:
Language Styling and Switching in Speech and Online Contexts: Identity and Language Ideologies in Taiwan
2606:
2242:
2067:
1183:
developed, with speakers of mutually unintelligible varieties able to communicate through writing using
868:
697:
659:
614:
5353:
5343:
2149:
4328:
7247:
7147:
6804:
6719:
6609:
6527:
6509:
6396:
5667:
5635:
5464:
5348:
5107:
4655:
4589:
4084:
2185:
1204:
1196:
1176:
5262:
4771:
7209:
7204:
7124:
7034:
7019:
6913:
6781:
6764:
6724:
6502:
6474:
6447:
6442:
6419:
6401:
6366:
6351:
6258:
6246:
6218:
6213:
5911:
5877:
5712:
5679:
5526:
5454:
5371:
5212:
5207:
4961:
4277:
2388:
2273:
Simplified forms have also been characterized as being inconsistent. For instance, the traditional
2112:
1947:
1916:
1824:
1172:
1029:
1024:
679:
6083:
5742:
5075:
2432:
Over the history of written Chinese, a variety of media have been used for writing. They include:
335:
7199:
6892:
6879:
6732:
6554:
6534:
6487:
6464:
6356:
6346:
6223:
6203:
6198:
6190:
6118:
6027:
5894:
5857:
5640:
5574:
5569:
5459:
5449:
4946:
4754:
4749:
4148:
3657:
3325:
2856:
2817:
2705:
2567:
2522:
1112:
757:
631:
557:
313:
307:
296:
5298:
5053:
4667:
1171:(221–206 BCE). Over the millennia, these characters have evolved into well-developed styles of
7157:
7152:
7067:
6754:
6744:
6697:
6692:
6687:
6584:
6571:
6469:
6391:
6338:
6328:
6313:
6296:
6208:
5938:
5928:
5807:
5772:
5627:
5579:
5531:
5420:
5151:
5085:
4941:
4926:
4597:
4574:
4528:
4453:
4379:
4259:
4227:
4181:
4120:
4110:
4075:
3998:
3979:
3957:
3927:
3908:
3889:
3870:
3851:
3829:
3808:
3789:
3770:
3727:
3485:
3141:
2883:
2848:
2809:
2641:
2602:
2416:
1855:
1200:
689:
654:
649:
536:
528:
359:
196:
188:
5303:
5293:
5278:
4692:
1167:). After a period of variation and evolution, Chinese characters were standardized under the
7080:
7057:
6996:
6991:
6962:
6936:
6859:
6854:
6849:
6834:
6829:
6824:
6809:
6796:
6786:
6711:
6671:
6617:
6594:
6579:
6544:
6539:
6497:
6434:
6411:
6281:
6268:
6241:
6044:
5564:
5439:
5224:
5146:
5097:
5058:
5007:
4921:
4873:
4857:
4737:
4697:
4631:
4619:
4579:
4533:
4479:
4474:
4464:
4458:
4287:
4232:
4217:
4093:
4065:
3649:
3477:
3317:
2840:
2801:
2455:
2442:
2408:
2369:
2365:
2267:
2092:, or chops, which are often used in place of a signature for Chinese documents and artwork.
2089:
1192:
1184:
1116:
449:
95:
42:
5070:
4766:
4714:
4709:
4643:
2875:
991:
846:
7282:
7224:
7167:
7129:
7103:
6979:
6967:
6954:
6926:
6921:
6902:
6897:
6839:
6819:
6769:
6759:
6627:
6589:
6482:
6306:
6286:
6276:
5995:
5975:
5963:
5872:
5817:
5812:
5556:
5406:
5396:
5376:
5333:
5328:
5194:
5158:
5141:
5131:
4888:
4824:
4611:
4507:
4502:
4411:
4358:
4353:
4333:
4318:
4313:
4254:
4249:
4239:
4222:
4194:
4166:
4143:
4026:
4019:
2685:
2396:
2104:
2019:
1208:
669:
514:
160:
6974:
6457:
6000:
5288:
4704:
3529:"Second Language Socialization in a Bilingual Chat Room: Global and Local Considerations"
2673:
1640:) meaning 'elder brother' continues to be used in idioms and formal writing, whereas
498:
144:
3186:
602:
50:
7052:
7014:
6931:
6887:
6864:
6844:
6774:
6749:
6599:
6379:
6301:
6049:
6039:
6010:
5717:
5689:
5401:
5386:
5239:
5234:
5219:
5163:
5102:
4984:
4956:
4936:
4883:
4852:
4829:
4819:
4814:
4776:
4759:
4672:
4660:
4648:
4636:
4624:
4569:
4551:
4469:
4443:
4384:
4304:
4292:
4244:
4199:
4189:
4115:
3823:
3762:
3020:
2598:
2571:
2543:
2539:
2480:
2463:
2342:
2120:
1129:
1108:
1016:
778:
707:
684:
356:
4561:
3676:
3115:
3024:
7304:
7047:
7024:
6869:
6642:
6622:
6318:
5850:
5662:
5657:
5229:
5173:
5168:
5136:
5123:
4999:
4951:
4878:
4834:
4724:
4484:
4323:
4171:
4158:
4029:(Journal of Simplified Spelling Society, 1992/2 pp. 14–16, later designated J13)
3951:
3721:
2070:(475–221 BCE), settling into what is called 'script of the six states' (
1672:; 'lampwick', now archaic, which was originally a pictograph of a lamp stand
1281:
1239:
1229:
1146:
226:
3661:
2022:
argues instead that the time gap is too great to establish any connection. From the
1492:—indicates the general semantic category of the character, such as being related to
7294:
7214:
7042:
5722:
5672:
5048:
4931:
4904:
4448:
4438:
2835:
Keightley, David N. (1996). "Art, Ancestors, and the Origins of Writing in China".
2614:
2510:
2287:, in which the phonetic on the right side is reduced from 17 strokes to 3, and the
2237:
Beginning in the mid-20th century, Chinese has primarily been written using either
2200:
2108:
2042:
1842:
space limitations require it, such as on signage or book spines. The government of
1224:
1119:. Chinese characters do not directly represent pronunciation, unlike letters in an
745:
456:
418:
325:
102:
64:
17:
3308:
Thorp, Robert L. (1981). "The Date of Tomb 5 at Yinxu, Anyang: A Review Article".
2805:
1937:
wine container – inscription commemorates a gift of cowrie shells.
1859:(、) is used to separate items in a list, as opposed to the clauses in a sentence.
3751:
7119:
6666:
6114:
5867:
5841:
5737:
5707:
5684:
5652:
5391:
5381:
5185:
5080:
5065:
5028:
4976:
4797:
4788:
4684:
4523:
4398:
4125:
3140:(in English and Chinese) (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Simplex. pp. 1–31.
2337:
2097:
2085:
1997:—with some bearing a striking resemblance to certain modern characters, such as
1902:
1833:
Chinese written from top-to-bottom on restaurant and bus stop signs in Hong Kong
1655:
1583:
1168:
901:
644:
405:
389:
349:
7277:
3551:"User's Manual of the Romanization of Minnanyu/Hokkien Spoken in Taiwan Region"
3092:. Text, Speech, and Dialogue: Fifth International Conference. pp. 115–122.
2613:
By 1958, official priorities had shifted towards character simplification. The
2119:, where characters are often rendered unrecognizable by their canonical forms.
1498:
eyes', with the other part being another character used for its phonetic value.
5283:
5257:
5023:
4989:
4494:
4421:
2621:
2467:
2023:
1692:; 'fire') was added to indicate that the meaning is fire related.
1257:
in terms of breadth, and it is still relevant to etymological research today.
1187:. In the early 20th century, Literary Chinese was replaced in large part with
944:
769:
762:
205:
3489:
2852:
2813:
1415:
The remaining four principles produce complex characters historically called
1319:): in which the character is a graphical depiction of the object it denotes.
7091:
5732:
5483:
5474:
5202:
5092:
4744:
4732:
4543:
4374:
3971:
2373:
2255:
2247:
1180:
1124:
917:
247:
3481:
6632:
6054:
6022:
5608:
5249:
4430:
3995:
Cantonese as Written Language: The Growth of a Written Chinese Vernacular
2669:
2563:
2364:
For over two thousand years, the predominant form of written Chinese was
2251:
1989:
In 2003, 11 isolated symbols carved on tortoise shells were found at the
1138:
1134:
1120:
1044:
1039:
1005:
998:
702:
470:
268:
116:
6661:
5921:
5601:
5488:
5317:
4913:
3329:
2860:
2420:
1887:
1244:
1195:, a form based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. Although most other
332:
3653:
2821:
1810:
In a symmetrical character, the middle is drawn first, then the sides.
7109:
6654:
5980:
5782:
3016:
2559:
2353:
2263:
1843:
1279:, were developed earlier; the oldest known mention of them is in the
934:
3321:
2844:
2462:
Since at least the Han dynasty, such media have been used to create
2084:. These characters were later embellished and stylized to yield the
4034:
1219:
5493:
2505:
2400:
2336:
2259:
2093:
1994:
1990:
1883:
1866:
1828:
1586:: for instance, it is the word used to refer to computer networks.
1466:; 'east'), which represents a sun rising in the trees.
1218:
597:
592:
2448:
2368:, which had vocabulary and syntax rooted in the language of the
1801:
If a character is framed from above, the frame is written first.
1292:.) The first two principles produce simple characters, known as
984:
6087:
4038:
2944:
2942:
1804:
If a character is framed from below, the frame is written last.
2644:
distinction in languages such as French instead represent the
364:
340:
2325:; 'ten thousand', which has the traditional form of
2056:(771–476 BCE), a form of writing called bronze script (
1658:, the vast majority of characters—about 95% of those in the
1654:
In contrast to the popular conception of written Chinese as
1792:
Left-falling strokes are written before right-falling ones.
3587:
3585:
3583:
3019:(2005) . "An Outsider's Chats about Written Language". In
2999:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2352:), containing 200 bronze vessels with 109 inscriptions of
2730:
2728:
2542:
set of 214 radicals was developed during the rule of the
1373:): in which the character represents an abstract notion.
301:
287:
273:
259:
3090:
Statistical Part-of-Speech Tagging for Classical Chinese
217:
3415:
3413:
3411:
2917:
2915:
2775:
2773:
2745:
2743:
2233:
Debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters
2880:
Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems
2760:
2758:
1648:
exclusively for 'elder brother' in daily conversation.
7266:
2655:
2649:
2635:
2629:
1821:
Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts
1515:; 'clear weather'), which is composed of
533:
519:
503:
489:
475:
461:
193:
179:
165:
149:
135:
121:
107:
3553:. Taiwan Ministry of Education. 2009. Archived from
1789:
Horizontal strokes are written before vertical ones.
7246:
7223:
7189:
7166:
7138:
7089:
7066:
7033:
7005:
6945:
6911:
6878:
6795:
6710:
6680:
6608:
6570:
6433:
6410:
6337:
6267:
6189:
6180:
5951:
5920:
5849:
5840:
5831:
5765:
5756:
5698:
5618:
5593:
5555:
5502:
5428:
5364:
5316:
5271:
5248:
5193:
5184:
5122:
5041:
5016:
4998:
4975:
4912:
4903:
4866:
4843:
4805:
4796:
4787:
4723:
4683:
4610:
4588:
4560:
4542:
4516:
4493:
4429:
4420:
4397:
4367:
4344:
4268:
4208:
4180:
4157:
4134:
4101:
4092:
4083:
2792:Boltz, William G. (1986). "Early Chinese Writing".
2080:), that Xu Shen used as source material in the
527:
513:
497:
483:
469:
455:
448:
443:
431:
417:
397:
381:
376:
355:
348:
331:
324:
295:
281:
267:
253:
246:
238:
232:
225:
211:
204:
187:
173:
159:
143:
129:
115:
101:
94:
89:
77:
63:
41:
32:
2037:), Chinese writing evolved into the form found in
1145:Chinese writing is first attested during the late
2454:Stone, metal, wood, bamboo, plastic and ivory on
3023:; Steinhardt, Nancy S.; Goldin, Paul R. (eds.).
2007:; 'eye'). The Jiahu site dates from
1630:; 'to sing'). The ancient character
1539:'), which is used for its pronunciation.
2254:, while traditional characters are standard in
3627:
3247:
3235:
6099:
4050:
3026:Hawaiʻi Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture
2016:University of Science and Technology of China
1085:
403:
387:
47:
8:
3953:Modern Chinese: History and Sociolinguistics
3681:(Ph.D. thesis). Austin: University of Texas.
2445:, invented no later than the 2nd century BCE
6186:
6106:
6092:
6084:
6070:
5846:
5837:
5762:
5190:
4909:
4802:
4793:
4426:
4098:
4089:
4057:
4043:
4035:
3905:ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese
2972:
1798:Characters are written from left to right.
1795:Characters are written from top to bottom.
1092:
1078:
553:
440:
86:
3744:Chinese language processing and computing
3703:
3642:IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics
3615:
3591:
3470:Cambridge Review of International Affairs
3455:
3390:
3354:
3271:
3075:
3063:
3051:
2948:
2749:
2734:
2704:Especially when distinguished from other
2628:(IPA). However, pairs of letters such as
1199:are not written, there are traditions of
7321:Writing systems using Chinese characters
2660:correspond to sounds similar to English
2052: – 771 BCE) and the
7273:
2906:
2724:
2697:
2133:
1137:in length, but generally correspond to
556:
3822:McNaughton, William; Ying, Li (1999).
3786:The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy
3691:
3603:
3574:
3514:
3502:
3443:
3431:
3419:
3402:
3378:
3366:
3342:
3295:
3283:
3259:
3223:
3211:
3199:
3172:
3160:
3102:
3039:
3003:
2984:
2960:
2933:
2921:
2902:
2779:
2764:
1488:): in which one part—often called the
535:
312:
306:
195:
29:
1676:, a character that is now pronounced
1237:Chinese character composition is the
7:
2620:Pinyin uses the Latin alphabet with
2439:, from at least the 13th century BCE
2107:can be attributed to scribes in the
2103:The initial adaptation of seal into
837:Standard Form of National Characters
3116:"Taiwan Law Orders One-Way Writing"
2283:; 'allow' is simplified to
1682:and means 'host', or the character
1115:and other symbols to represent the
3533:Learning, Language, and Technology
3088:Huang, Liang; et al. (2002).
2217:Simplification and standardization
2041:on ritual bronzes made during the
25:
3723:Learn to Write Chinese Characters
3187:"Earliest Writing Found in China"
7288:
7276:
6069:
5547:Literary and colloquial readings
5419:
3138:Understanding Chinese Characters
2451:, since at least the Han dynasty
2184:
2172:
2160:
2148:
2136:
1946:
1915:
1267:Chinese character classification
1127:. Rather, the writing system is
926:Literary and colloquial readings
564:
3907:. University of Hawaiʻi Press.
3807:. University of Hawaiʻi Press.
3788:. University of Hawaiʻi Press.
2626:International Phonetic Alphabet
2372:, as spoken around the time of
2288:
1777:
1769:
1761:
1753:
1745:
1737:
1729:
1721:
1713:
365:
341:
302:
288:
274:
260:
239:
218:
3997:. Hong Kong University Press.
3956:. Cambridge University Press.
3888:. Princeton University Press.
3867:The origins of Chinese writing
3850:. Cambridge University Press.
3784:——— (1984).
2882:. University of Hawaii Press.
2321:
2311:
2301:
2279:
2227:Traditional Chinese characters
2209:
2076:
2062:
2003:
1964:
1933:
1688:
1678:
1668:
1636:
1626:
1616:
1600:
1578:
1562:
1557:
1553:
1531:
1521:
1511:
1484:
1479:
1475:
1462:
1457:
1453:
1442:
1437:
1433:
1421:
1405:
1395:
1385:
1369:
1351:
1341:
1331:
1315:
1298:
829:Nan Min Recommended Characters
534:
520:
504:
490:
476:
462:
404:
388:
194:
180:
166:
150:
136:
122:
108:
48:
1:
3741:Bruggeman, Sebastien (2006).
2806:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979980
2483:, in the introduction to his
2377:
2346:
2223:Simplified Chinese characters
2046:
2027:
2008:
1979:
1891:
1882:made during the reign of the
1286:
1247:
1161:
1150:
27:Writing the Chinese languages
6075:List of varieties of Chinese
3628:McNaughton & Ying (1999)
3248:McNaughton & Ying (1999)
3236:McNaughton & Ying (1999)
1133:: characters are one spoken
7311:Logographic writing systems
6975:Ethiopian Semitic languages
3869:. Oxford University Press.
3825:Reading and Writing Chinese
3805:Asia's Orthographic Dilemma
3803:Hannas, William C. (1997).
2656:
2650:
2636:
2630:
1191:, largely corresponding to
821:(Hong Kong, 2007)
7337:
6375:Phonology & ortography
6033:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
3884:Ramsey, S. Robert (1987).
3527:Lam, Wan Shun Eva (2004).
2590:
2587:Transliteration of Chinese
2584:
2526:
2520:
2393:written vernacular Chinese
2230:
2220:
1871:A turtle plastron bearing
1818:
1703:
1525:; 'sun'), and
1264:
1189:written vernacular Chinese
1066:Transliteration of Chinese
623:Neolithic symbols in China
6125:
6067:
5417:
4072:
3903:Schuessler, Axel (2007).
3726:. Yale University Press.
2326:
2316:
2306:
2296:
2284:
2274:
2204:
2071:
2057:
1998:
1959:
1928:
1706:Chinese character strokes
1683:
1673:
1663:
1645:
1641:
1631:
1621:
1611:
1595:
1573:
1526:
1516:
1506:
1416:
1400:
1390:
1380:
1364:
1346:
1336:
1335:; 'person'),
1326:
1310:
1293:
1179:diverged, a situation of
578:Chinese family of scripts
548:
439:
427:
413:
85:
73:
59:
49:
37:
3750:(Thesis). Archived from
3029:– via pinyin.info.
2892:– via pinyin.info.
2874:DeFrancis, John (1989).
2529:Chinese character orders
2054:Spring and Autumn period
1880:oracle bone inscriptions
1873:oracle bone inscriptions
1472:Phono-semantic compounds
1261:Derivation of characters
818:Commonly-Used Characters
810:Commonly Used Characters
399:Traditional Chinese
3865:Demattè, Paola (2022).
3767:Advanced Chinese Reader
2593:Romanization of Chinese
2485:Advanced Chinese Reader
2437:Bamboo and wooden slips
2405:phono-semantic matching
1993:archaeological site in
1807:Frames are closed last.
1547:
1427:
1409:; 'three').
1399:; 'down'),
791:Collation and standards
383:Simplified Chinese
3886:The Languages of China
3720:Björkstén, J. (1994).
3482:10.1080/09557570302045
2607:Perso-Arabic alphabets
2357:
2201:imposes a stroke order
1976:Chinese ritual bronzes
1875:
1834:
1355:; 'tree').
1345:; 'sun'),
1233:
1053:Slavonic transcription
896:Japanese script reform
881:Traditional characters
6458:Classical orthography
6292:Standard Written Form
3185:Rincon, Paul (2003).
3136:Go, Ping-gam (1995).
2640:that correspond to a
2340:
2305:; 'soil' and
2243:traditional character
2128:Chinese script styles
2068:Warring States period
1870:
1832:
1819:Further information:
1430:Ideographic compounds
1389:; 'up'),
1222:
1123:or syllabograms in a
869:Simplified characters
6528:Montenegrin alphabet
3922:Wieger, L. (1965) .
3675:Su, Hsi-Yao (2005).
2601:, systems using the
2100:(221–206 BCE).
2035: 1050 BCE
2012: 6600 BCE
1983: 1000 BCE
1899: 1192 BCE
1205:written Shanghainese
1197:varieties of Chinese
1177:varieties of Chinese
1165: 2500–2000 BCE
7316:Chinese orthography
3950:Chen, Ping (1999).
3694:, pp. 144–154.
3357:, pp. 177–188.
2951:, pp. 155–156.
2389:May Fourth Movement
2167:Semi-cursive script
2113:semi-cursive script
1825:Chinese punctuation
1290: 150 BCE
1173:Chinese calligraphy
840:(Taiwan, 1982)
832:(Taiwan, 2009)
283:Canton Romanization
18:Chinese orthography
6028:Cantonese Bopomofo
5895:Chinese characters
5823:Written Sichuanese
4407:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
4025:2007-01-02 at the
3993:Snow, Don (2004).
3924:Chinese Characters
2905:, pp. 64–65;
2706:languages of China
2568:four-corner method
2523:Chinese dictionary
2358:
1876:
1835:
1742:, "rising", "dot"
1734:, "right-falling"
1234:
1113:Chinese characters
852:(Japan, 2010)
558:Chinese characters
7264:
7263:
6706:
6705:
6555:Cyrillic alphabet
6518:Cyrillic alphabet
6448:Cyrillic alphabet
6297:Kernowek Standard
6119:world's languages
6081:
6080:
6063:
6062:
5890:
5889:
5808:Written Cantonese
5803:
5802:
5585:Classical grammar
5580:Cantonese grammar
5415:
5414:
5312:
5311:
5118:
5117:
5037:
5036:
4899:
4898:
4606:
4605:
4393:
4392:
4283:Chengdu–Chongqing
4076:Sinitic languages
4004:978-9-622-09709-4
3985:978-1-557-29071-7
3963:978-0-521-64572-0
3914:978-0-824-82975-9
3876:978-0-197-63576-6
3814:978-0-824-81892-0
3654:10.1109/30.320824
3618:, pp. 17–18.
3405:, pp. 24–25.
3214:, pp. 69–70.
3202:, pp. 64–67.
3175:, pp. 64–65.
3147:978-0-9623113-4-5
3078:, pp. 46–49.
3066:, pp. 31–43.
3006:, pp. 10–11.
2973:Schuessler (2007)
2936:, pp. 65–70.
2889:978-0-8248-1207-2
2794:World Archaeology
2417:Written Cantonese
2039:cast inscriptions
1856:enumeration comma
1726:, "left-falling"
1271:According to the
1227:redaction of the
1201:written Cantonese
1117:Chinese languages
1102:
1101:
966:Zetian characters
798:Kangxi Dictionary
552:
551:
544:
543:
450:Standard Mandarin
372:
371:
255:Yale Romanization
175:Yale Romanization
96:Standard Mandarin
16:(Redirected from
7328:
7293:
7292:
7291:
7281:
7280:
7272:
6187:
6108:
6101:
6094:
6085:
6073:
6072:
6045:Taiwanese Hangul
5934:Mainland Chinese
5847:
5838:
5763:
5440:Standard Chinese
5423:
5191:
4910:
4803:
4794:
4676:
4664:
4652:
4640:
4628:
4427:
4099:
4090:
4066:Chinese language
4059:
4052:
4045:
4036:
4008:
3989:
3967:
3937:
3918:
3899:
3880:
3861:
3839:
3818:
3799:
3780:
3758:
3756:
3749:
3737:
3707:
3704:DeFrancis (1984)
3701:
3695:
3689:
3683:
3682:
3672:
3666:
3665:
3637:
3631:
3625:
3619:
3616:Björkstén (1994)
3613:
3607:
3601:
3595:
3592:DeFrancis (1984)
3589:
3578:
3572:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3562:
3547:
3541:
3540:
3524:
3518:
3512:
3506:
3500:
3494:
3493:
3465:
3459:
3456:DeFrancis (1984)
3453:
3447:
3441:
3435:
3429:
3423:
3417:
3406:
3400:
3394:
3391:DeFrancis (1984)
3388:
3382:
3376:
3370:
3364:
3358:
3355:DeFrancis (1984)
3352:
3346:
3340:
3334:
3333:
3305:
3299:
3293:
3287:
3281:
3275:
3272:Bruggeman (2006)
3269:
3263:
3257:
3251:
3245:
3239:
3233:
3227:
3221:
3215:
3209:
3203:
3197:
3191:
3190:
3182:
3176:
3170:
3164:
3158:
3152:
3151:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3112:
3106:
3100:
3094:
3093:
3085:
3079:
3076:Björkstén (1994)
3073:
3067:
3064:Björkstén (1994)
3061:
3055:
3052:Björkstén (1994)
3049:
3043:
3037:
3031:
3030:
3013:
3007:
3001:
2988:
2982:
2976:
2970:
2964:
2958:
2952:
2949:DeFrancis (1984)
2946:
2937:
2931:
2925:
2919:
2910:
2900:
2894:
2893:
2871:
2865:
2864:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2789:
2783:
2777:
2768:
2762:
2753:
2750:DeFrancis (1968)
2747:
2738:
2735:DeFrancis (1984)
2732:
2708:
2702:
2659:
2653:
2639:
2633:
2509:of the Northern
2409:Standard Chinese
2382:
2379:
2370:Chinese classics
2366:Literary Chinese
2351:
2348:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2268:overseas Chinese
2211:
2206:
2188:
2176:
2164:
2152:
2140:
2078:
2073:
2064:
2059:
2051:
2048:
2036:
2032:
2029:
2013:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1984:
1981:
1966:
1961:
1950:
1935:
1930:
1919:
1900:
1896:
1893:
1781:
1779:
1773:
1771:
1765:
1763:
1758:, and "turning"
1757:
1755:
1749:
1747:
1741:
1739:
1733:
1731:
1725:
1723:
1717:
1715:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1602:
1597:
1580:
1575:
1564:
1559:
1555:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1464:
1459:
1455:
1444:
1439:
1435:
1423:
1418:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1371:
1366:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1317:
1312:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1288:
1252:
1249:
1211:, among others.
1193:Standard Chinese
1185:Literary Chinese
1166:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1152:
1094:
1087:
1080:
813:(PRC, 2013)
779:Digital encoding
698:Modern typefaces
581:
568:
554:
540:
539:
538:
523:
522:
509:
508:
507:
493:
492:
479:
478:
465:
464:
441:
409:
408:
393:
392:
368:
367:
344:
343:
320:
319:
315:
309:
291:
290:
277:
276:
263:
262:
242:
241:
221:
220:
200:
199:
198:
183:
182:
169:
168:
155:
154:
153:
139:
138:
125:
124:
111:
110:
87:
55:
54:
53:
30:
21:
7336:
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7330:
7329:
7327:
7326:
7325:
7301:
7300:
7299:
7289:
7287:
7275:
7267:
7265:
7260:
7242:
7219:
7192:Native American
7185:
7162:
7134:
7085:
7062:
7029:
7001:
6941:
6907:
6874:
6791:
6702:
6676:
6604:
6566:
6514:Serbo-Croatian
6429:
6406:
6333:
6324:Scottish Gaelic
6307:Unified Cornish
6287:Kernewek Kemmyn
6263:
6176:
6121:
6112:
6082:
6077:
6059:
5996:Tongyong Pinyin
5976:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
5964:Dungan Cyrillic
5947:
5916:
5886:
5827:
5818:Written Hokkien
5799:
5758:
5752:
5728:Middle Mandarin
5694:
5614:
5589:
5551:
5498:
5431:
5424:
5411:
5360:
5308:
5267:
5244:
5180:
5114:
5033:
5012:
4994:
4971:
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4862:
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4679:
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4658:
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4602:
4584:
4556:
4538:
4512:
4489:
4416:
4389:
4363:
4340:
4264:
4204:
4176:
4153:
4130:
4079:
4068:
4063:
4027:Wayback Machine
4016:
4011:
4005:
3992:
3986:
3976:Chinese Writing
3970:
3964:
3949:
3945:
3943:Further reading
3940:
3934:
3921:
3915:
3902:
3896:
3883:
3877:
3864:
3858:
3842:
3836:
3821:
3815:
3802:
3796:
3783:
3777:
3763:DeFrancis, John
3761:
3754:
3747:
3740:
3734:
3719:
3715:
3710:
3702:
3698:
3690:
3686:
3674:
3673:
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3497:
3467:
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3426:
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3409:
3401:
3397:
3389:
3385:
3377:
3373:
3365:
3361:
3353:
3349:
3341:
3337:
3322:10.2307/3249839
3307:
3306:
3302:
3294:
3290:
3282:
3278:
3270:
3266:
3258:
3254:
3246:
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3206:
3198:
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3179:
3171:
3167:
3159:
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3135:
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3130:
3114:
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3109:
3101:
3097:
3087:
3086:
3082:
3074:
3070:
3062:
3058:
3050:
3046:
3038:
3034:
3021:Mair, Victor H.
3015:
3014:
3010:
3002:
2991:
2983:
2979:
2971:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2947:
2940:
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2928:
2920:
2913:
2901:
2897:
2890:
2873:
2872:
2868:
2845:10.2307/2928708
2837:Representations
2834:
2833:
2829:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2778:
2771:
2763:
2756:
2748:
2741:
2733:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2711:
2703:
2699:
2694:
2686:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
2595:
2589:
2583:
2581:Transliteration
2531:
2525:
2519:
2476:
2464:hanging scrolls
2430:
2397:linguae francae
2380:
2350: 1200 BCE
2349:
2335:
2292:
2235:
2229:
2221:Main articles:
2219:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2180:
2177:
2168:
2165:
2156:
2155:Clerical script
2153:
2144:
2141:
2130:
2129:
2105:clerical script
2090:signature seals
2049:
2034:
2030:
2020:David Keightley
2011:
1987:
1986:
1985:
1982:
1972:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1958:
1953:
1952:
1951:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1927:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1898:
1894:
1865:
1827:
1817:
1775:
1767:
1759:
1751:
1743:
1735:
1727:
1719:
1711:
1708:
1702:
1289:
1269:
1263:
1250:
1223:A 12th-century
1217:
1209:written Hokkien
1164:
1158: 1050 BCE
1157:
1153:
1105:Written Chinese
1098:
1058:
1057:
1049:
1036:
1013:
979:
978:Derived systems
971:
970:
961:
951:
950:
940:
930:
921:
910:
909:
892:
864:
856:
855:
843:
824:
805:
792:
784:
783:
731:
727:Properties and
720:
719:
694:
666:
641:
628:
617:
588:Written Chinese
584:
575:
515:Tongyong Pinyin
505:
485:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
432:Literal meaning
318:
161:Tongyong Pinyin
151:
131:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
81:Chinese writing
78:Literal meaning
33:Written Chinese
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7334:
7332:
7324:
7323:
7318:
7313:
7303:
7302:
7298:
7297:
7285:
7262:
7261:
7259:
7258:
7252:
7250:
7244:
7243:
7241:
7240:
7235:
7233:Haitian Creole
7229:
7227:
7221:
7220:
7218:
7217:
7212:
7207:
7202:
7196:
7194:
7187:
7186:
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7178:
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6994:
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6909:
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6895:
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6884:
6882:
6876:
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6862:
6857:
6852:
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6837:
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6827:
6822:
6817:
6812:
6807:
6801:
6799:
6793:
6792:
6790:
6789:
6784:
6779:
6778:
6777:
6772:
6762:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6742:
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6740:
6735:
6727:
6722:
6716:
6714:
6708:
6707:
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6703:
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6700:
6695:
6690:
6684:
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6678:
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6645:
6635:
6630:
6625:
6620:
6614:
6612:
6606:
6605:
6603:
6602:
6597:
6592:
6587:
6582:
6576:
6574:
6568:
6567:
6565:
6564:
6563:
6562:
6560:Latin alphabet
6557:
6547:
6542:
6537:
6532:
6531:
6530:
6525:
6523:Latin alphabet
6520:
6512:
6507:
6506:
6505:
6500:
6492:
6491:
6490:
6485:
6477:
6472:
6467:
6462:
6461:
6460:
6455:
6453:Latin alphabet
6450:
6439:
6437:
6431:
6430:
6428:
6427:
6422:
6416:
6414:
6408:
6407:
6405:
6404:
6399:
6394:
6389:
6384:
6383:
6382:
6377:
6369:
6364:
6362:Istro-Romanian
6359:
6354:
6349:
6343:
6341:
6335:
6334:
6332:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6316:
6311:
6310:
6309:
6304:
6302:Modern Cornish
6299:
6294:
6289:
6279:
6273:
6271:
6265:
6264:
6262:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6250:
6249:
6244:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6195:
6193:
6184:
6178:
6177:
6175:
6174:
6173:
6172:
6167:
6162:
6157:
6152:
6147:
6137:
6132:
6126:
6123:
6122:
6113:
6111:
6110:
6103:
6096:
6088:
6079:
6078:
6068:
6065:
6064:
6061:
6060:
6058:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6040:Taiwanese kana
6037:
6036:
6035:
6030:
6020:
6019:
6018:
6013:
6011:Lessing-Othmer
6008:
6003:
5998:
5993:
5988:
5983:
5978:
5968:
5967:
5966:
5955:
5953:
5949:
5948:
5946:
5941:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5924:
5918:
5917:
5915:
5914:
5909:
5908:
5907:
5902:
5891:
5888:
5887:
5885:
5880:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5855:
5853:
5844:
5835:
5829:
5828:
5826:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5813:Written Dungan
5810:
5804:
5801:
5800:
5798:
5797:
5792:
5791:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5769:
5767:
5760:
5754:
5753:
5751:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5718:Middle Chinese
5715:
5710:
5704:
5702:
5696:
5695:
5693:
5692:
5687:
5685:Wubi (Wang Ma)
5682:
5677:
5676:
5675:
5670:
5665:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5644:
5643:
5633:
5630:
5624:
5622:
5616:
5615:
5613:
5612:
5605:
5597:
5595:
5591:
5590:
5588:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5567:
5561:
5559:
5553:
5552:
5550:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5518:
5517:
5506:
5504:
5500:
5499:
5497:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5481:
5480:
5479:
5478:
5477:
5472:
5462:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5436:
5434:
5426:
5425:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5412:
5410:
5409:
5404:
5402:Xiangnan Tuhua
5399:
5394:
5389:
5387:Shaozhou Tuhua
5384:
5379:
5374:
5368:
5366:
5362:
5361:
5359:
5358:
5357:
5356:
5351:
5346:
5338:
5337:
5336:
5331:
5322:
5320:
5314:
5313:
5310:
5309:
5307:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5275:
5273:
5269:
5268:
5266:
5265:
5260:
5254:
5252:
5246:
5245:
5243:
5242:
5237:
5232:
5227:
5222:
5217:
5216:
5215:
5210:
5199:
5197:
5188:
5182:
5181:
5179:
5178:
5177:
5176:
5171:
5166:
5156:
5155:
5154:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5128:
5126:
5120:
5119:
5116:
5115:
5113:
5112:
5111:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5090:
5089:
5088:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5063:
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5056:
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5038:
5035:
5034:
5032:
5031:
5026:
5020:
5018:
5014:
5013:
5011:
5010:
5004:
5002:
4996:
4995:
4993:
4992:
4987:
4981:
4979:
4973:
4972:
4970:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
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4929:
4924:
4918:
4916:
4907:
4901:
4900:
4897:
4896:
4894:
4893:
4892:
4891:
4886:
4876:
4870:
4868:
4864:
4863:
4861:
4860:
4855:
4849:
4847:
4841:
4840:
4838:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4811:
4809:
4800:
4791:
4785:
4784:
4782:
4781:
4780:
4779:
4769:
4764:
4763:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4742:
4741:
4740:
4729:
4727:
4721:
4720:
4718:
4717:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4701:
4700:
4689:
4687:
4681:
4680:
4678:
4677:
4665:
4653:
4641:
4629:
4616:
4614:
4608:
4607:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4600:
4594:
4592:
4586:
4585:
4583:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4566:
4564:
4558:
4557:
4555:
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4540:
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4537:
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4531:
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4520:
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4511:
4510:
4505:
4499:
4497:
4491:
4490:
4488:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4435:
4433:
4424:
4418:
4417:
4415:
4414:
4409:
4403:
4401:
4395:
4394:
4391:
4390:
4388:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4371:
4369:
4365:
4364:
4362:
4361:
4356:
4350:
4348:
4342:
4341:
4339:
4338:
4337:
4336:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4310:
4309:
4308:
4307:
4300:Renshou–Fushun
4297:
4296:
4295:
4285:
4274:
4272:
4266:
4265:
4263:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4236:
4235:
4225:
4220:
4214:
4212:
4210:Central Plains
4206:
4205:
4203:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4186:
4184:
4178:
4177:
4175:
4174:
4169:
4163:
4161:
4155:
4154:
4152:
4151:
4146:
4140:
4138:
4132:
4131:
4129:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4107:
4105:
4096:
4087:
4081:
4080:
4073:
4070:
4069:
4064:
4062:
4061:
4054:
4047:
4039:
4031:
4030:
4015:
4014:External links
4012:
4010:
4009:
4003:
3990:
3984:
3968:
3962:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3938:
3932:
3919:
3913:
3900:
3894:
3881:
3875:
3862:
3856:
3840:
3834:
3819:
3813:
3800:
3794:
3781:
3775:
3759:
3757:on 5 May 2006.
3738:
3732:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3708:
3706:, p. 265.
3696:
3684:
3667:
3648:(3): 428–436.
3632:
3620:
3608:
3596:
3579:
3567:
3542:
3519:
3507:
3495:
3476:(2): 298–307.
3460:
3458:, p. 150.
3448:
3446:, p. 109.
3436:
3424:
3407:
3395:
3393:, p. 154.
3383:
3371:
3359:
3347:
3335:
3316:(3): 239–246.
3300:
3298:, p. 147.
3288:
3286:, p. 152.
3276:
3264:
3262:, p. 151.
3252:
3240:
3228:
3216:
3204:
3192:
3177:
3165:
3153:
3146:
3128:
3122:. 4 May 2004.
3107:
3095:
3080:
3068:
3056:
3044:
3032:
3008:
2989:
2977:
2965:
2953:
2938:
2926:
2911:
2907:Demattè (2022)
2895:
2888:
2866:
2827:
2800:(3): 420–436.
2784:
2782:, p. 143.
2769:
2754:
2739:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2710:
2709:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2599:Latin alphabet
2585:Main article:
2582:
2579:
2572:Cangjie method
2544:Kangxi Emperor
2521:Main article:
2518:
2515:
2481:John DeFrancis
2475:
2472:
2460:
2459:
2452:
2446:
2440:
2429:
2426:
2381: 500 BCE
2343:tomb of Fu Hao
2334:
2331:
2218:
2215:
2194:
2193:
2191:Regular script
2190:
2183:
2181:
2179:Cursive script
2178:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2121:Regular script
2117:cursive script
1973:
1955:
1954:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1924:
1923:
1914:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1907:
1864:
1861:
1816:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1704:Main article:
1701:
1698:
1652:
1651:
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1649:
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1541:
1540:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1285:, a text from
1265:Main article:
1262:
1259:
1243:, compiled by
1216:
1213:
1130:morphosyllabic
1109:writing system
1100:
1099:
1097:
1096:
1089:
1082:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1069:
1068:
1060:
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1032:
1027:
1019:
1017:Jurchen script
1012:
1011:
1010:
1009:
1002:
995:
980:
977:
976:
973:
972:
969:
968:
962:
957:
956:
953:
952:
949:
948:
939:
938:
929:
928:
922:
916:
915:
912:
911:
908:
907:
906:
905:
891:
890:
889:
888:
878:
877:
876:
865:
862:
861:
858:
857:
854:
853:
842:
841:
833:
823:
822:
814:
804:
803:
793:
790:
789:
786:
785:
782:
781:
776:
775:
774:
767:
755:
750:
749:
748:
738:
732:
729:classification
726:
725:
722:
721:
718:
717:
716:
715:
710:
705:
693:
692:
687:
682:
677:
672:
665:
664:
663:
662:
657:
652:
640:
639:
634:
627:
626:
618:
612:
611:
608:
607:
606:
605:
600:
595:
590:
583:
582:
570:
569:
561:
560:
550:
549:
546:
545:
542:
541:
531:
525:
524:
517:
511:
510:
501:
495:
494:
487:
481:
480:
473:
467:
466:
459:
453:
452:
446:
445:
444:Transcriptions
437:
436:
433:
429:
428:
425:
424:
421:
415:
414:
411:
410:
401:
395:
394:
385:
379:
378:
374:
373:
370:
369:
362:
353:
352:
346:
345:
338:
329:
328:
322:
321:
317:
316:
310:
303:
299:
293:
292:
285:
279:
278:
271:
265:
264:
257:
251:
250:
248:Yue: Cantonese
244:
243:
236:
230:
229:
223:
222:
215:
209:
208:
202:
201:
191:
185:
184:
177:
171:
170:
163:
157:
156:
147:
141:
140:
133:
127:
126:
119:
113:
112:
105:
99:
98:
92:
91:
90:Transcriptions
83:
82:
79:
75:
74:
71:
70:
67:
61:
60:
57:
56:
45:
39:
38:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7333:
7322:
7319:
7317:
7314:
7312:
7309:
7308:
7306:
7296:
7286:
7284:
7279:
7274:
7270:
7257:
7254:
7253:
7251:
7249:
7245:
7239:
7236:
7234:
7231:
7230:
7228:
7226:
7222:
7216:
7213:
7211:
7208:
7206:
7203:
7201:
7198:
7197:
7195:
7193:
7188:
7182:
7179:
7177:
7174:
7173:
7171:
7169:
7165:
7159:
7156:
7154:
7151:
7149:
7146:
7145:
7143:
7141:
7137:
7131:
7128:
7126:
7123:
7121:
7118:
7116:
7113:
7111:
7108:
7105:
7101:
7098:
7097:
7095:
7093:
7088:
7082:
7079:
7077:
7074:
7073:
7071:
7069:
7065:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7040:
7038:
7036:
7032:
7026:
7023:
7021:
7018:
7016:
7013:
7012:
7010:
7008:
7004:
6998:
6995:
6993:
6990:
6986:
6983:
6982:
6981:
6978:
6976:
6973:
6969:
6966:
6964:
6961:
6960:
6958:
6956:
6953:
6952:
6950:
6948:
6944:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6919:
6917:
6915:
6910:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6896:
6894:
6891:
6889:
6886:
6885:
6883:
6881:
6880:Tungus—Manchu
6877:
6871:
6868:
6866:
6863:
6861:
6858:
6856:
6853:
6851:
6848:
6846:
6843:
6841:
6838:
6836:
6833:
6831:
6828:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6806:
6803:
6802:
6800:
6798:
6794:
6788:
6785:
6783:
6780:
6776:
6773:
6771:
6768:
6767:
6766:
6763:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6746:
6743:
6739:
6736:
6734:
6731:
6730:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6718:
6717:
6715:
6713:
6709:
6699:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6685:
6683:
6679:
6673:
6670:
6668:
6665:
6663:
6660:
6656:
6653:
6652:
6651:
6648:
6644:
6641:
6640:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6615:
6613:
6611:
6607:
6601:
6598:
6596:
6593:
6591:
6588:
6586:
6583:
6581:
6578:
6577:
6575:
6573:
6569:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6553:
6552:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6529:
6526:
6524:
6521:
6519:
6516:
6515:
6513:
6511:
6508:
6504:
6501:
6499:
6496:
6495:
6493:
6489:
6486:
6484:
6481:
6480:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6468:
6466:
6463:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6451:
6449:
6446:
6445:
6444:
6441:
6440:
6438:
6436:
6432:
6426:
6423:
6421:
6418:
6417:
6415:
6413:
6409:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6385:
6381:
6378:
6376:
6373:
6372:
6370:
6368:
6365:
6363:
6360:
6358:
6355:
6353:
6350:
6348:
6345:
6344:
6342:
6340:
6336:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6322:
6320:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6308:
6305:
6303:
6300:
6298:
6295:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6285:
6284:
6283:
6280:
6278:
6275:
6274:
6272:
6270:
6266:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6248:
6245:
6243:
6240:
6239:
6237:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6196:
6194:
6192:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6182:Indo-European
6179:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6153:
6151:
6148:
6146:
6143:
6142:
6141:
6138:
6136:
6135:Orthographies
6133:
6131:
6128:
6127:
6124:
6120:
6116:
6115:Orthographies
6109:
6104:
6102:
6097:
6095:
6090:
6089:
6086:
6076:
6066:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6025:
6024:
6021:
6017:
6014:
6012:
6009:
6007:
6004:
6002:
5999:
5997:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5987:
5984:
5982:
5979:
5977:
5974:
5973:
5972:
5969:
5965:
5962:
5961:
5960:
5959:Cyrillization
5957:
5956:
5954:
5950:
5945:
5942:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5923:
5919:
5913:
5910:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5897:
5896:
5893:
5892:
5884:
5881:
5879:
5876:
5874:
5871:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5852:
5851:Script styles
5848:
5845:
5843:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5830:
5824:
5821:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5805:
5796:
5793:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5775:
5774:
5771:
5770:
5768:
5764:
5761:
5755:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5705:
5703:
5701:
5697:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5660:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5642:
5639:
5638:
5637:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5625:
5623:
5621:
5617:
5611:
5610:
5606:
5604:
5603:
5599:
5598:
5596:
5592:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5566:
5563:
5562:
5560:
5558:
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5545:
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5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5516:
5513:
5512:
5511:
5508:
5507:
5505:
5501:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5467:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5458:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5443:
5442:
5441:
5438:
5437:
5435:
5433:
5427:
5422:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5395:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5385:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5373:
5370:
5369:
5367:
5363:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5345:
5342:
5341:
5339:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5326:
5324:
5323:
5321:
5319:
5315:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5276:
5274:
5270:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5255:
5253:
5251:
5247:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5228:
5226:
5223:
5221:
5218:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5205:
5204:
5201:
5200:
5198:
5196:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5183:
5175:
5172:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5162:
5161:
5160:
5157:
5153:
5150:
5149:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5129:
5127:
5125:
5121:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5095:
5094:
5091:
5087:
5084:
5083:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5051:
5050:
5047:
5046:
5044:
5040:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5021:
5019:
5015:
5009:
5006:
5005:
5003:
5001:
4997:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4982:
4980:
4978:
4974:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4919:
4917:
4915:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4902:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4881:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4871:
4869:
4865:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4850:
4848:
4846:
4842:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4812:
4810:
4808:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4786:
4778:
4775:
4774:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4747:
4746:
4743:
4739:
4736:
4735:
4734:
4731:
4730:
4728:
4726:
4722:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4699:
4696:
4695:
4694:
4691:
4690:
4688:
4686:
4682:
4674:
4669:
4666:
4662:
4657:
4654:
4650:
4645:
4642:
4638:
4633:
4630:
4626:
4621:
4618:
4617:
4615:
4613:
4609:
4599:
4596:
4595:
4593:
4591:
4587:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4567:
4565:
4563:
4559:
4553:
4550:
4549:
4547:
4545:
4541:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4521:
4519:
4515:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4500:
4498:
4496:
4492:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4432:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4419:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4404:
4402:
4400:
4396:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4372:
4370:
4366:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4347:
4343:
4335:
4332:
4331:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4306:
4303:
4302:
4301:
4298:
4294:
4291:
4290:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4280:
4279:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4271:
4267:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4234:
4231:
4230:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4215:
4213:
4211:
4207:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4187:
4185:
4183:
4179:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4164:
4162:
4160:
4156:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4141:
4139:
4137:
4133:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4108:
4106:
4104:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4077:
4071:
4067:
4060:
4055:
4053:
4048:
4046:
4041:
4040:
4037:
4033:
4028:
4024:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4013:
4006:
4000:
3996:
3991:
3987:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3959:
3955:
3954:
3948:
3947:
3942:
3935:
3933:0-486-21321-8
3929:
3925:
3920:
3916:
3910:
3906:
3901:
3897:
3895:0-691-01468-X
3891:
3887:
3882:
3878:
3872:
3868:
3863:
3859:
3857:0-521-29653-6
3853:
3849:
3845:
3844:Norman, Jerry
3841:
3837:
3835:0-804-83206-4
3831:
3827:
3826:
3820:
3816:
3810:
3806:
3801:
3797:
3795:0-824-80866-5
3791:
3787:
3782:
3778:
3776:0-300-01083-4
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3753:
3746:
3745:
3739:
3735:
3733:0-300-05771-7
3729:
3725:
3724:
3718:
3717:
3712:
3705:
3700:
3697:
3693:
3692:Ramsey (1987)
3688:
3685:
3680:
3679:
3671:
3668:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3636:
3633:
3630:, p. 20.
3629:
3624:
3621:
3617:
3612:
3609:
3606:, p. 19.
3605:
3604:Wieger (1915)
3600:
3597:
3594:, p. 92.
3593:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3580:
3577:, p. 72.
3576:
3575:Norman (1988)
3571:
3568:
3557:on 2011-08-15
3556:
3552:
3546:
3543:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3523:
3520:
3517:, p. 99.
3516:
3515:Ramsey (1987)
3511:
3508:
3505:, p. 76.
3504:
3503:Norman (1988)
3499:
3496:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3464:
3461:
3457:
3452:
3449:
3445:
3444:Norman (1988)
3440:
3437:
3434:, p. 87.
3433:
3432:Ramsey (1987)
3428:
3425:
3422:, p. 88.
3421:
3420:Ramsey (1987)
3416:
3414:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3403:Ramsey (1987)
3399:
3396:
3392:
3387:
3384:
3381:, p. 83.
3380:
3379:Norman (1988)
3375:
3372:
3369:, p. 75.
3368:
3367:Norman (1988)
3363:
3360:
3356:
3351:
3348:
3345:, p. 84.
3344:
3343:Norman (1988)
3339:
3336:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3310:Artibus Asiae
3304:
3301:
3297:
3296:Ramsey (1987)
3292:
3289:
3285:
3284:Ramsey (1987)
3280:
3277:
3273:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3260:Ramsey (1987)
3256:
3253:
3250:, p. 43.
3249:
3244:
3241:
3238:, p. 24.
3237:
3232:
3229:
3226:, p. 70.
3225:
3224:Norman (1988)
3220:
3217:
3213:
3212:Norman (1988)
3208:
3205:
3201:
3200:Norman (1988)
3196:
3193:
3188:
3181:
3178:
3174:
3173:Norman (1988)
3169:
3166:
3163:, p. ix.
3162:
3161:Norman (1988)
3157:
3154:
3149:
3143:
3139:
3132:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3111:
3108:
3105:, p. 80.
3104:
3103:Norman (1988)
3099:
3096:
3091:
3084:
3081:
3077:
3072:
3069:
3065:
3060:
3057:
3054:, p. 52.
3053:
3048:
3045:
3042:, p. 30.
3041:
3040:Wieger (1915)
3036:
3033:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3018:
3012:
3009:
3005:
3004:Wieger (1915)
3000:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2987:, p. 67.
2986:
2985:Norman (1988)
2981:
2978:
2974:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2961:Wieger (1915)
2957:
2954:
2950:
2945:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2934:Norman (1988)
2930:
2927:
2924:, p. 63.
2923:
2922:Norman (1988)
2918:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2903:Norman (1988)
2899:
2896:
2891:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2870:
2867:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2839:(56): 68–95.
2838:
2831:
2828:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2785:
2781:
2780:Ramsey (1987)
2776:
2774:
2770:
2767:, p. 73.
2766:
2765:Norman (1988)
2761:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2737:, p. 84.
2736:
2731:
2729:
2725:
2719:
2714:
2707:
2701:
2698:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2658:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2638:
2632:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2616:
2611:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2594:
2588:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2545:
2541:
2535:
2530:
2524:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2507:
2502:
2501:Shuowen Jiezi
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2465:
2457:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2418:
2412:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2384:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2362:
2355:
2344:
2339:
2332:
2330:
2324:
2314:
2304:
2282:
2271:
2270:communities.
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2244:
2240:
2234:
2228:
2224:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2202:
2187:
2182:
2175:
2170:
2163:
2158:
2151:
2146:
2139:
2134:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2082:Shuowen Jiezi
2079:
2069:
2065:
2055:
2044:
2040:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2006:
1996:
1992:
1977:
1967:
1957:
1949:
1936:
1926:
1918:
1906:
1904:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1874:
1869:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1857:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1839:
1831:
1826:
1822:
1814:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1786:
1783:
1718:, "vertical"
1707:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1691:
1681:
1671:
1661:
1660:Shuowen Jiezi
1657:
1639:
1629:
1619:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1603:
1593:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1571:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1538:
1534:
1524:
1514:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1473:
1470:
1465:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1408:
1398:
1388:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1372:
1362:
1359:
1354:
1344:
1334:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1318:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1301:
1284:
1283:
1282:Rites of Zhou
1278:
1277:Shuowen Jiezi
1274:
1273:Shuowen Jiezi
1268:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1255:Shuowen Jiezi
1251: 100 CE
1246:
1242:
1241:
1240:Shuowen Jiezi
1232:
1231:
1230:Shuowen Jiezi
1226:
1221:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1148:
1147:Shang dynasty
1143:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1131:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1095:
1090:
1088:
1083:
1081:
1076:
1075:
1073:
1072:
1067:
1064:
1063:
1062:
1061:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1037:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1014:
1008:
1007:
1003:
1001:
1000:
996:
994:
993:
989:
988:
987:
986:
982:
981:
975:
974:
967:
964:
963:
960:
955:
954:
947:
946:
942:
941:
937:
936:
932:
931:
927:
924:
923:
919:
914:
913:
904:
903:
899:
898:
897:
894:
893:
887:
884:
883:
882:
879:
875:
872:
871:
870:
867:
866:
860:
859:
851:
849:
845:
844:
839:
838:
834:
831:
830:
826:
825:
820:
819:
815:
812:
811:
807:
806:
801:
799:
795:
794:
788:
787:
780:
777:
773:
772:
768:
766:
765:
761:
760:
759:
756:
754:
751:
747:
744:
743:
742:
739:
737:
734:
733:
730:
724:
723:
714:
711:
709:
706:
704:
701:
700:
699:
696:
695:
691:
688:
686:
683:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
667:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
647:
646:
643:
642:
638:
635:
633:
630:
629:
625:
624:
620:
619:
616:
615:script styles
613:Evolution of
610:
609:
604:
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
585:
580:
579:
574:
573:
572:
571:
567:
563:
562:
559:
555:
547:
537:
532:
530:
526:
518:
516:
512:
502:
500:
496:
488:
486:
482:
474:
472:
468:
460:
458:
454:
451:
447:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
420:
416:
412:
407:
402:
400:
396:
391:
386:
384:
380:
375:
363:
361:
358:
354:
351:
347:
339:
337:
334:
330:
327:
323:
314:
311:
308:
305:
304:
300:
298:
294:
286:
284:
280:
272:
270:
266:
258:
256:
252:
249:
245:
237:
235:
231:
228:
224:
216:
214:
210:
207:
203:
197:
192:
190:
186:
178:
176:
172:
164:
162:
158:
148:
146:
142:
134:
132:
128:
120:
118:
114:
106:
104:
100:
97:
93:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
66:
62:
58:
52:
46:
44:
40:
36:
31:
19:
7176:Massachusett
7140:Austronesian
7099:
6254:West Frisian
6160:Prepositions
6134:
5981:Hanyu Pinyin
5971:Romanization
5878:Semi-cursive
5832:
5723:Old Mandarin
5680:Stroke count
5607:
5600:
5522:Old National
5365:Unclassified
4270:Southwestern
4103:Northeastern
4085:Major groups
4074:
4032:
3994:
3975:
3952:
3923:
3904:
3885:
3866:
3847:
3824:
3804:
3785:
3766:
3752:the original
3743:
3722:
3699:
3687:
3677:
3670:
3645:
3641:
3635:
3623:
3611:
3599:
3570:
3559:. Retrieved
3555:the original
3545:
3536:
3532:
3522:
3510:
3498:
3473:
3469:
3463:
3451:
3439:
3427:
3398:
3386:
3374:
3362:
3350:
3338:
3313:
3309:
3303:
3291:
3279:
3267:
3255:
3243:
3231:
3219:
3207:
3195:
3180:
3168:
3156:
3137:
3131:
3123:
3119:
3110:
3098:
3089:
3083:
3071:
3059:
3047:
3035:
3025:
3011:
2980:
2975:, p. 9.
2968:
2956:
2929:
2898:
2879:
2869:
2836:
2830:
2797:
2793:
2787:
2700:
2665:
2661:
2619:
2615:Hanyu Pinyin
2612:
2596:
2576:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2536:
2532:
2517:Dictionaries
2511:Song dynasty
2504:
2500:
2492:
2489:Jerry Norman
2484:
2477:
2461:
2431:
2413:
2385:
2363:
2359:
2320:
2310:
2300:
2278:
2272:
2236:
2208:
2198:
2109:state of Qin
2102:
2081:
2077:liùguó wénzì
2075:
2061:
2043:Western Zhou
2002:
1988:
1963:
1932:
1877:
1854:
1851:
1848:
1840:
1836:
1784:
1709:
1694:
1687:
1677:
1667:
1659:
1653:
1635:
1625:
1615:
1607:
1599:
1591:
1577:
1569:
1561:
1550:Transference
1549:
1544:
1530:
1520:
1510:
1502:
1497:
1493:
1483:
1471:
1461:
1449:
1441:
1429:
1420:
1414:
1404:
1394:
1384:
1376:
1368:
1360:
1350:
1340:
1330:
1322:
1314:
1306:
1297:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1270:
1254:
1238:
1235:
1228:
1225:Song dynasty
1144:
1128:
1104:
1103:
1004:
997:
990:
983:
943:
933:
920:and readings
900:
874:second round
847:
835:
827:
816:
808:
797:
770:
763:
680:Semi-cursive
621:
587:
576:
457:Hanyu Pinyin
419:Hanyu Pinyin
326:Southern Min
275:zung1 man4*2
234:Romanization
213:Romanization
103:Hanyu Pinyin
65:Hanyu Pinyin
7248:Constructed
7007:Niger–Congo
6947:Afroasiatic
6805:Azerbaijani
6738:orthography
6503:orthography
6488:orthography
6247:orthography
6150:Determiners
6130:Phonologies
6050:Xiao'erjing
5912:Punctuation
5905:Traditional
5858:Oracle bone
5842:Logographic
5738:Proto-Hakka
5713:Eastern Han
5708:Old Chinese
5570:Classifiers
5537:Northern Wu
5465:Singaporean
4671: [
4659: [
4647: [
4635: [
4623: [
3713:Works cited
2468:handscrolls
2143:Seal script
2098:Qin dynasty
2086:seal script
2050: 1046
2031: 1250
1903:oracle bone
1895: 1250
1656:ideographic
1361:Indicatives
1307:Pictographs
1169:Qin dynasty
1154: 1250
758:Orthography
632:Oracle bone
435:Han writing
377:Han writing
350:Eastern Min
7305:Categories
7238:Papiamento
7125:Vietnamese
7092:East Asian
6729:Hungarian
6638:Hindustani
6610:Indo-Aryan
6475:Macedonian
6443:Belarusian
6425:Lithuanian
6387:Portuguese
6145:Adjectives
6001:Wade–Giles
5900:Simplified
5795:Vernacular
5788:in Vietnam
5641:Simplified
5628:Biaoxingma
5575:Honorifics
5510:Historical
5455:Philippine
5445:Sichuanese
5372:Badong Yao
5076:Shao–Jiang
4947:Philippine
4755:Xiangxiang
4750:Shuangfeng
4495:Taizhou Wu
4278:Sichuanese
3972:Qiu, Xigui
3828:. Tuttle.
3769:. Murray.
3561:2009-08-24
2715:References
2674:Wade–Giles
2646:aspiration
2622:diacritics
2591:See also:
2527:See also:
2399:, such as
2239:simplified
2231:See also:
2033: – c.
2024:Late Shang
1974:Inscribed
1897: – c.
1592:Loangraphs
1156: – c.
1111:that uses
992:man'yōgana
918:Homographs
771:xin zixing
764:jiu zixing
736:Components
690:Flat brush
499:Wade–Giles
219:tson1 ven1
145:Wade–Giles
7256:Esperanto
7205:Inuktitut
7115:Mongolian
7058:Malayalam
7035:Dravidian
6765:Mordvinic
6650:Maldivian
6550:Ukrainian
6465:Bulgarian
6347:Aromanian
6234:Norwegian
6229:Icelandic
6199:Afrikaans
5939:Taiwanese
5929:Cantonese
5773:Classical
5733:Proto-Min
5668:Microsoft
5527:Cantonese
5503:Phonology
5484:Cantonese
5475:Singdarin
5460:Malaysian
5450:Taiwanese
5354:Rongjiang
5344:Yongjiang
5340:Southern
5325:Northern
5299:Luo–Guang
5208:Hong Kong
5203:Guangzhou
5159:Taiwanese
5152:Changting
5086:Zhanjiang
5000:Zhongshan
4967:Malaysian
4962:Singapore
4927:Zhangzhou
4879:Zhongshan
4772:Yong–Quan
4668:Jing-Zhan
4598:Xuancheng
4575:Jiangshan
4454:Changzhou
4375:Junjiahua
4228:Guanzhong
4111:Changchun
3974:(2000) .
3926:. Dover.
3490:0955-7571
2876:"Chinese"
2853:0734-6018
2814:0043-8243
2720:Citations
2540:canonical
2374:Confucius
2266:and some
2256:Hong Kong
2248:Singapore
2045:dynasty (
1750:, "hook"
1485:xíngshēng
1316:xiàngxíng
1215:Structure
1181:diglossia
1175:. As the
1139:morphemes
1125:syllabary
660:Bird-worm
342:Tiong-bûn
289:Zung men*
240:Chung-Vun
167:Jhong-wún
152:Chung-wen
7283:Language
7200:Cherokee
7153:Hawaiian
7148:Filipino
7081:Okinawan
7076:Japanese
6985:Biblical
6959:Aramaic
6937:Georgian
6914:European
6755:Livonian
6745:Karelian
6733:alphabet
6720:Estonian
6693:Armenian
6688:Albanian
6633:Gurmukhi
6628:Gujarati
6510:Silesian
6498:alphabet
6494:Russian
6483:alphabet
6397:Sicilian
6392:Romanian
6380:alphabet
6242:alphabet
6238:Swedish
6191:Germanic
6165:Pronouns
6140:Grammars
6023:Bopomofo
5952:Phonetic
5944:Two-cell
5873:Clerical
5783:in Japan
5778:Adoption
5766:Official
5757:Literary
5632:Boshiamy
5609:Xiehouyu
5565:Numerals
5542:Mandarin
5470:Standard
5430:Standard
5304:Qin–Lian
5294:Yong–Xun
5279:Gao–Yang
5225:Jiujiang
5213:Malaysia
5147:Tingzhou
5098:Wenchang
5059:Jianyang
5049:Northern
5008:Sanxiang
4922:Quanzhou
4905:Southern
4874:Manjiang
4738:Changsha
4698:Nanchang
4693:Chang–Du
4590:Xuanzhou
4580:Qingtian
4534:Wencheng
4480:Jiangyin
4475:Jinxiang
4465:Shaoxing
4459:Hangzhou
4439:Shanghai
4380:Qinjiang
4288:Minjiang
4260:Xinjiang
4218:Dongping
4182:Jiaoliao
4121:Shenyang
4094:Mandarin
4023:Archived
3846:(1988).
3765:(1968).
3662:40291502
2670:bopomofo
2603:Cyrillic
2564:bopomofo
2497:variants
2474:Literacy
2356:'s name.
2333:Function
2293:'SPEECH'
2289:⾔
2252:Malaysia
2026:period (
1780:⟩
1776:⟨
1772:⟩
1768:⟨
1764:⟩
1760:⟨
1756:⟩
1752:⟨
1748:⟩
1744:⟨
1740:⟩
1736:⟨
1732:⟩
1728:⟨
1724:⟩
1720:⟨
1716:⟩
1712:⟨
1563:zhuǎnzhù
1377:Examples
1323:Examples
1135:syllable
1121:alphabet
1045:Bopomofo
1006:katakana
999:hiragana
959:Variants
902:kyūjitai
753:Radicals
703:Fangsong
670:Clerical
471:Bopomofo
366:Dṳng-ùng
269:Jyutping
261:Jūng mán
181:Jūng-wén
117:Bopomofo
109:Zhōngwén
69:Zhōngwén
7269:Portals
7210:Nahuatl
7100:Chinese
7068:Japonic
7053:Kannada
6992:Maltese
6963:Aramaic
6855:Turkmen
6850:Turkish
6815:Crimean
6810:Bashkir
6725:Finnish
6662:Marathi
6618:Bengali
6595:Persian
6585:Kurdish
6580:Avestan
6572:Iranian
6545:Sorbian
6540:Slovene
6479:Polish
6420:Latvian
6402:Spanish
6367:Italian
6352:Catalan
6339:Romance
6282:Cornish
6259:Yiddish
6219:Faroese
6214:English
6117:of the
5922:Braille
5883:Cursive
5833:Scripts
5700:History
5690:ZhengMa
5636:Cangjie
5602:Chengyu
5557:Grammar
5532:Hokkien
5489:Hokkien
5397:Waxiang
5377:Danzhou
5349:Guandao
5334:Younian
5329:Tongdao
5318:Pinghua
5258:Taishan
5174:Raoping
5142:Huizhou
5132:Meixian
5108:Banqiao
5081:Leizhou
5071:Pu–Xian
5066:Central
5054:Jian'ou
5029:Longyan
4977:Teochew
4914:Hokkien
4889:Nanlang
4845:Fu–Ning
4825:Changle
4807:Houguan
4798:Eastern
4745:Loushao
4733:Changyi
4715:Da–Tong
4710:Ying–Yi
4656:Yanzhou
4524:Wenzhou
4517:Oujiang
4508:Tiantai
4503:Taizhou
4412:Zhi–Yan
4359:Nantong
4354:Nanjing
4329:Gui–Liu
4319:Nanping
4314:Kunming
4240:Luoyang
4195:Qingdao
4167:Tianjin
4144:Beijing
4136:Beijing
3848:Chinese
3330:3249839
3017:Lu, Xun
2861:2928708
2642:voicing
2493:Chinese
2421:Hokkien
2291:
1934:Fāngzūn
1888:Wu Ding
1863:History
1700:Strokes
1608:Example
1584:lattice
1570:Example
1535:; '
1503:Example
1490:radical
1450:Example
1302:):
1245:Xu Shen
1021:Khitan
863:Reforms
741:Strokes
685:Regular
675:Cursive
603:Chữ Hán
521:Hàn-wún
506:Han-wen
491:Hannwen
477:ㄏㄢˋ ㄨㄣˊ
333:Hokkien
137:Jongwen
123:ㄓㄨㄥ ㄨㄣˊ
43:Chinese
7225:Creole
7190:other
7181:Ojibwe
7110:Korean
7104:Dungan
7090:other
7048:Telugu
6997:Somali
6980:Hebrew
6968:Syriac
6955:Arabic
6932:Dargwa
6927:Basque
6922:Abkhaz
6912:other
6898:Manchu
6893:Evenki
6860:Uyghur
6835:Kyrgyz
6830:Khakas
6825:Kazakh
6820:Gagauz
6797:Turkic
6787:Udmurt
6775:Erzyan
6770:Moksha
6712:Uralic
6672:Romani
6655:Thaana
6623:Chakma
6590:Pashto
6535:Slovak
6435:Slavic
6412:Baltic
6371:Latin
6357:French
6277:Breton
6269:Celtic
6224:German
6204:Danish
5991:Postal
5986:MPS II
5863:Bronze
5743:Ba–Shu
5663:Google
5658:Pinyin
5594:Idioms
5407:Yeheni
5289:Wu–Hua
5284:Goulou
5263:Xinhui
5240:Dapeng
5235:Weitou
5220:Xiguan
5195:Yuehai
5164:Sixian
5103:Haikou
5093:Hainan
5024:Zhenan
4990:Haklau
4985:Swatow
4957:Penang
4942:Taiwan
4937:Chawan
4884:Longdu
4853:Ningde
4830:Gutian
4820:Fuqing
4815:Fuzhou
4777:Qiyang
4760:Wugang
4705:Yi–Liu
4632:Xiu-Yi
4620:Ji-She
4570:Quzhou
4562:Chu–Qu
4552:Jinhua
4544:Wuzhou
4529:Rui'an
4470:Ningbo
4444:Suzhou
4334:Wuming
4305:Zigong
4293:Leshan
4255:Lanyin
4250:Dungan
4245:Xuzhou
4223:Gangou
4200:Weihai
4190:Dalian
4149:Taiwan
4116:Harbin
4001:
3982:
3960:
3930:
3911:
3892:
3873:
3854:
3832:
3811:
3792:
3773:
3730:
3660:
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3328:
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3144:
2886:
2859:
2851:
2822:124705
2820:
2812:
2560:pinyin
2354:Fu Hao
2264:Taiwan
2063:jīnwén
1978:dated
1965:Fāngyí
1844:Taiwan
1815:Layout
1601:jiǎjiè
1370:zhǐshì
935:Kanbun
886:debate
802:(1716)
637:Bronze
463:Hànwén
423:Hànwén
357:Fuzhou
7295:China
7215:Osage
7168:Algic
7158:Malay
7130:Nivkh
7043:Tamil
7020:Sotho
6903:Udege
6870:Yakut
6865:Uzbek
6845:Tatar
6840:Nogai
6760:Mansi
6698:Greek
6681:other
6600:Tajik
6470:Czech
6329:Welsh
6314:Irish
6209:Dutch
6170:Verbs
6155:Nouns
6055:Nüshu
5759:forms
5673:Sogou
5620:Input
5494:Hakka
5432:forms
5272:Other
5230:Shiqi
5169:Hailu
5137:Wuhua
5124:Hakka
5042:Other
5017:Other
4952:Pedan
4867:Other
4858:Fu'an
4835:Matsu
4767:Ji–Xu
4725:Xiang
4675:]
4663:]
4651:]
4644:Qi-De
4639:]
4627:]
4485:Shadi
4431:Taihu
4385:Gyami
4368:Other
4324:Wuhan
4233:Xi'an
4172:Jinan
3755:(PDF)
3748:(PDF)
3658:S2CID
3326:JSTOR
2857:JSTOR
2818:JSTOR
2692:Notes
2506:Jiyun
2491:, in
2456:seals
2443:Paper
2428:Media
2401:Latin
2260:Macau
2094:Li Si
1995:Henan
1991:Jiahu
1886:king
1884:Shang
1637:xiōng
1494:water
1443:huìyì
1386:shàng
1107:is a
1040:Nüshu
1030:small
1025:large
850:kanji
800:forms
746:order
655:Small
650:Large
598:Hanja
593:Kanji
227:Hakka
7120:Thai
7015:Fula
6888:Even
6782:Sámi
6750:Komi
6667:Odia
6643:Urdu
6319:Manx
6016:Yale
6006:EFEO
5868:Seal
5653:Dayi
5250:Siyi
4932:Amoy
4449:Wuxi
4346:Huai
4159:Jilu
3999:ISBN
3980:ISBN
3958:ISBN
3928:ISBN
3909:ISBN
3890:ISBN
3871:ISBN
3852:ISBN
3830:ISBN
3809:ISBN
3790:ISBN
3771:ISBN
3728:ISBN
3539:(3).
3486:ISSN
3142:ISBN
2884:ISBN
2849:ISSN
2810:ISSN
2684:and
2682:EFEO
2678:Yale
2664:and
2654:and
2634:and
2605:and
2466:and
2449:Silk
2341:The
2312:nàng
2302:rǎng
2250:and
2225:and
2072:六国文字
1823:and
1579:wǎng
1537:grue
1532:qīng
1512:qíng
1463:dōng
1207:and
985:Kana
848:Jōyō
708:Ming
645:Seal
7025:Vai
5748:Gan
5648:CKC
5515:Old
5392:She
5382:Mai
5186:Yue
4789:Min
4685:Gan
4612:Hui
4461:(?)
4399:Jin
4126:Taz
3650:doi
3478:doi
3318:doi
3120:BBC
2841:doi
2802:doi
2562:or
2407:in
2322:wàn
2280:ràn
2241:or
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1679:zhǔ
1669:zhù
1496:or
1406:sān
1396:xià
1332:rén
1299:wén
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713:Hei
529:IPA
360:BUC
336:POJ
297:IPA
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4661:zh
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4625:zh
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2004:mù
1980:c.
1962:;
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1617:gē
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1576:;
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1560:;
1558:轉注
1556:;
1554:转注
1522:rì
1505::
1482:;
1480:形聲
1478:;
1476:形声
1456:;
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1440:;
1438:會意
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1434:会意
1422:zì
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1365:指事
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406:漢文
390:汉文
206:Wu
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1999:目
1960:彝
1929:樽
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1778:乙
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