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society by directing urban planning and social intervention agencies. It recognized that urban expansion was not haphazard but quite strongly controlled by community-level forces such as land values, zoning ordinances, landscape features, circulation corridors, and historical contingency. This was characterized as ecological because the external factors were neither chance nor intended, but rather arose from the natural forces in the environment which limit the adaptive spatial and temporal relationships between individuals. The school sought to derive patterns from a study of processes, rather than to ascribe processes to observed patterns and the patterns they saw emerge, are strongly reminiscent of
Clements' ideas of community development.
447:, and involvement in conventional activities. The greater the social bonds between a youth and society, the lower the odds of involvement in delinquency. When social bonds to conventional role models, values and institutions are aggregated for youth in a particular setting, they measure much the same phenomena as captured by concepts such as network ties or social integration. But the fact that these theories focus on the absence of control or the barriers to progress, means that they are ignoring the societal pressures and cultural values that drive the system
460:
explanation of variation in crime rates among cities. The greater the mobility of the population in a city, the higher the crime rates. These arguments are identical to those proposed by social disorganization theorists and the evidence in support of it is as indirect as the evidence cited by social disorganization theorists. But, by referring to social integration rather than disintegration, this research has not generated the same degree of criticism as social disorganization theory.
428:
non-entrepreneurial and non-self-sustaining, and they fail when local or central government does not make a sustained financial commitment to them. Although with hindsight, the school's attempts to map crime may have produced some distortions, the work was valuable in that it moved away from a study of pattern and place toward a study of function and scale. To that extent, this was work of high quality that represented the best science available to the researchers at the time.
456:
culture. While condemning crime in general, law-abiding citizens may nevertheless respect and admire the criminal who takes risks and successfully engages in exciting, dangerous activities. The depiction of a society as a collection of socially differentiated groups with distinct subcultural perspectives that lead some of these groups into conflict with the law is another form of cultural disorganization, is typically called cultural conflict.
472:
379:. The researchers have provided a clear analysis that the city is a place where life is superficial, where people are anonymous, where relationships are transitory and friendship and family bonds are weak. They have observed the weakening of primary social relationships and relate this to a process of social disorganization (comparison with the concept of
314:(1925) are credited with institutionalizing, if not establishing, sociology as a science. They are also criticized for their overly empiricist and idealized approach to the study of society but, in the inter-war years, their attitudes and prejudices were normative. Three broad themes characterized this dynamic period of Chicago studies:
321:: Studies how ethnic groups interact and compete in a process of community succession and institutional transformation. An important part of this work concerned African Americans; the work of E. Franklin Frazier (1932; 1932), as well as of Drake and Cayton (1945), shaped white America's perception of black communities for decades.
251:
Ecological studies (among sociologists thus) consisted of making spot maps of
Chicago for the place of occurrence of specific behaviors, including alcoholism, homicide, suicides, psychoses, and poverty, and then computing rates based on census data. A visual comparison of the maps could identify the
414:
The structures, forms, and patterns are relatively easy to observe and measure, but they are nothing more than evidence of underlying processes and functions which are the real constitutive forces in nature and society. The
Chicago school wanted to develop tools by which to research and then change
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was a practical attempt by sociologists to apply their theories in a city laboratory. Subsequent research showed that the youth athletic leagues, recreation programs, and summer camp worked best along with urban planning and alternatives to incarceration as crime control policy. Such programs are
374:
Thomas defined social disorganization as "the inability of a neighborhood to solve its problems together" which suggested a level of social pathology and personal disorganization, so the term, "differential social organization" was preferred by many, and may have been the source of
Sutherland's
459:
Modern versions of the theory sometimes use different terminology to refer to the same ecological causal processes. For example, Crutchfield, Geerken and Gove (1982) hypothesize that the social integration of communities is inhibited by population turnover and report supporting evidence in the
455:
or the motivational forces Cohen proposed were generating crime and delinquency. More modern theorists like Empey (1967) argue that the system of values, norms and beliefs can be disorganized in the sense that there are conflicts among values, norms and beliefs within a widely shared, dominant
409:
Will research be effective if it focuses on the individuals composing a group, or is the community itself a proper subject of research independently of the individuals who compose it? If the former, then data on individuals will explain the community, but if the community either directly or
235:
as the object of their study, seeking evidence whether urbanization and increasing social mobility have been the causes of the contemporary social problems. By 1910, the population exceeded two million, many of whom were recent immigrants to the U.S. With a shortage in housing and a lack of
327:
in community institutions as stakeholders and actors in the ebb and flow of ethnic groups. Cressey (1932) studied the dance hall and commercialized entertainment services; Kincheloe (1938) studied church succession; Janowitz (1952) studied the community press; and Hughes (1979) studied the
410:
indirectly affects the behavior of its members, then research must consider the patterns and processes of community as distinct from patterns and processes in populations of individuals. But this requires a definition and distinction between "pattern" and "process".
280:, the research at the school mined the mass of official data including census reports, housing/welfare records and crime figures, and related the data spatially to different geographical areas of the city. Criminologists Shaw and McKay created statistical maps:
405:
If a community is a group of individuals who inhabit the same place, is the community merely the sum of individuals and their activities, or is it something more than an aggregation of individuals? This is critical in planning research into group
223:
inhabits, is a major factor in shaping human behavior, and that the city functions as a microcosm: "In these great cities, where all the passions, all the energies of mankind are released, we are in a position to investigate the process of
439:(1969) argues that variations in delinquent behavior among youth could be explained by variations in the dimensions of the social bond, namely attachment to others, commitments to conventional goals, acceptance of conventional
64:
Conceived in 1892, the
Chicago school first rose to international prominence as the epicenter of advanced sociological thought between 1915 and 1935, when their work would be the first major bodies of research to specialize in
236:
regulation in the burgeoning factories, the city's residents experienced homelessness and poor housing, living, and working conditions with low wages, long hours, and excessive pollution. In their analysis of the situation,
401:, i.e. that the science of biology is oversimplified into rules that are then applied mechanically to explain the growth and dynamics of human communities. The most fundamental difficulties are definitional:
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social institutions or social organizations (including the family, schools, churches, political institutions, policing, business, etc.) in identified communities and/or neighborhoods, or in society at large;
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as demonstrating that animals adapt to their environments. As applied to humans who are considered responsible for their own destinies, members of the school believed that the natural environment, which the
260:, the groups themselves had to reinscribe and reconstruct themselves to prosper. Burgess studied the history of development and concluded that the city had not grown at the edges. Although the presence of
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The Social
Disorganization Theory itself was a landmark concept and, as it focuses on the absence or breakdown of social control mechanisms, there are obvious links with
247:
Like the person who is born, grows, matures, and dies, the community continues to grow and exhibits properties of all of the individuals who had lived in the community.
244:(1918) argued that these immigrants, released from the controls of Europe to the unrestrained competition of the new city, contributed to the city's dynamic growth.
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area (aka "the zone in transition") around the central area; the zone of workingmen's homes farther out; the residential area beyond this zone; and then the
69:. This was considered the Golden Age of Sociology, with influence on many of today's well known sociologists. Their research into the urban environment of
206:. It has focused on human behavior as shaped by social structures and physical environmental factors, rather than genetic and personal characteristics.
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Vasishth and Sloane (2000) argue that while it is tempting to draw analogies between organisms in nature and the human condition, the problem lies in
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Crutchfield, R. D., M. Geerken, and W. R. Gove. 1982. "Crime Rates and Social
Integration: The Impact of Metropolitan Mobility."
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prevented the complete encirclement, he postulated that all major cities would be formed by radial expansion from the center in
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concentration of certain types of behavior in some areas. Correlations of rates by areas were not made until later.
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Thomas also developed techniques of self-reporting life histories to provide subjective balance to the analysis.
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spot maps to demonstrate the location of a range of social problems with a primary focus on juvenile delinquency;
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The
Chicago School of Sociology: Institutionalization, Diversity, and the Rise of Sociological Research
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of
Thrasher (1927), Frazier (1932; 1932), and Sutherland (1924), and for applying the principles of
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rate maps which divided the city into block of one square mile and showed the population by age,
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to develop the social disorganization theory which refers to consequences of the failure of:
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1268:. 1915. "The City: Suggestions for the Investigation of Behavior in the City Environment."
17:
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Primary
Elections: A Study of the History and Tendencies of Primary Election Legislation
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The Chicago school is best known for its urban sociology and for the development of the
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Evaluating Chicago Sociology: A Guide to the Literature, with an Annotated Bibliography
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zone maps which demonstrated that the major problems were clustered in the city center.
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The Taxi-Dance Hall: A Sociological Study in Commercialized Recreation and City Life
162:), to create a new body of work. Luminaries from the second Chicago school include,
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Bursik, Robert J. 1984. "Urban Dynamics and Ecological Studies of Delinquency."
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342:(1927) who researched voting and other forms of participation. Gosnell (1935),
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Jon Snodgrass, "Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay: Chicago Criminologists."
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467:
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social relationships that traditionally encourage co-operation between people.
143:
also forged and maintained close ties with some of the members of the school.
1284:— 1938. "Urbanism as a Way of Life: The City and Contemporary Civilization."
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The Dilemma of Qualitative Method: Herbert Blumer and the Chicago Tradition.
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207:
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The Polish Peasant in Europe and America: Monograph of an Immigrant Group
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A Second Chicago School? The Development of a Postwar American Sociology.
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section and the commuter's zone on the periphery. Under the influence of
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The Social Order of the Slum: Ethnicity and Territory in the Inner City
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which he described as zones, i.e. the business area in the center; the
232:
70:
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Gold Coast and Slum: A Sociological Study of Chicago's Near North Side
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1924. "The Ecological Approach to the Study of the Human Community."
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The Free Negro Family: A Study of Family Origins before the Civil War
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381:
288:
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Park, Robert E. (May 1928). "Human Migration and the Marginal Man".
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and Wilson (1963) placed Chicago city politics in a broader context.
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Shonle, Ruth. 1983. "The Chicago School of Sociology, 1918-1933."
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346:(1960), Grimshaw (1992) considered African American politics; and
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Getting Out the Vote: An Experiment in the Stimulation of Voting
269:
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Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931–1991
139:. The activist, social scientist, and Nobel Peace Prize winner
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Core Areas in Sociology and the Development of the Discipline
1216:
2017. "Qualitative Sociology." Pp. 143–52 (chap.13) in
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Empey L. T. 1967. "Delinquency Theory and Recent Research."
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The Chicago Real Estate Board: The Growth of an Institution
810:
Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City
490:
Aristotelian philosopher, psychologist, and encyclopedist
338:'s commitment to practical reform politics was matched by
150:, a "second Chicago School" arose, whose members combined
27:
Early 1900s school of thought in sociology and criminology
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Negro Politicians: The Rise of Negro Politics in Chicago
231:
Members of the school have concentrated on the city of
83:
Major figures within the first Chicago school included
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whose work was influential in the early 20th century.
525:"An introduction to the Chicago School of Sociology"
73:would also be influential in combining theory and
916:Chicago: A More Intimate View of Urban Politics
759:Where Peoples Meet: Racial and Ethnic Frontiers
1299:Howard Becker, "The Chicago School, So-called"
1208:Human Ecology: A Theory of Community Structure
8:
1278:Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion
1084:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
1036:Vasishth, Ashwani & David Sloane. 2000.
1038:Returning to Ecology: An Ecosystem Approach
808:Drake, St. Clair, and Horace Cayton. 1945.
647:. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
644:The Hobo: The Sociology of the Homeless Man
1024:. 1924, 34, 39. "Principles of Criminology
961:Negro Politics: The Search for Leadership
354:The school is perhaps best known for the
1242:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1152:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1137:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
884:A History of American Political Theories
1275:Stark, et al. 1983. "Beyond Durkheim."
852:The Community Press in an Urban Setting
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523:Lutters, W.G.; Ackerman, M.S. (1996).
202:approach, notably through the work of
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1218:The Cambridge Handbook of Sociology,
662:W. I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki.
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617:
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1199:1943. "Ecology and Human Ecology."
228:, as it were, under a microscope."
496:University President and reformer
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736:Park, Robert E., Ernest Burgess,
502:French sociologist and preceptor
1135:Contributions to Urban Sociology
836:The American City and Its Church
753:Everett Cherrington Hughes, and
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1324:Schools of sociological thought
1177:Machine Politics: Chicago Model
377:differential association theory
1058:University of California Press
1012:. University of Chicago Press.
721:British Journal of Criminology
628:. University of Chicago Press.
1:
1286:American Journal of Sociology
1270:American Journal of Sociology
1259:American Journal of Sociology
586:American Journal of Sociology
532:Interval Research Proprietary
821:Cressey, Paul Goalby. 1932.
319:Culture contact and conflict
1121:University of Chicago Press
972:Grimshaw, William J. 1992.
864:Hughes, Everett Cherrington
834:Kincheloe, Samuel C. 1938.
797:The Negro Family in Chicago
572:University of Chicago Press
393:Ecology and social theories
32:Chicago school of economics
18:Chicago school of sociology
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1226:Cambridge University Press
29:
1210:. New York: Ronald Press.
1220:edited by K. O. Korgen.
774:Frazier, Edward Franklin
553:. Routledge. p. 80.
551:Encyclopedia of the City
41:(sometimes known as the
30:Not to be confused with
1238:Kurtz, Lester R. 1984.
959:Wilson, James Q. 1960.
912:Merriam, Charles Edward
896:Merriam, Charles Edward
880:Merriam, Charles Edward
689:Zorbaugh, Harvey Warren
498:Robert Maynard Hutchins
200:symbolic interactionist
152:symbolic interactionism
97:Edward Franklin Frazier
1115:Bulmer, Martin. 1984.
1062:Transaction Publishers
336:Charles Edward Merriam
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1334:University of Chicago
1319:Sociological theories
1254:McKenzie, Roderick D.
1214:Konecki, Krzysztof T.
1173:Gosnell, Harold Foote
1054:Causes of Delinquency
944:Gosnell, Harold Foote
928:Gosnell, Harold Foote
549:Caves, R. W. (2004).
433:social control theory
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59:University of Chicago
755:Helen MacGill Hughes
425:Chicago Area Project
356:subcultural theories
105:Roderick D. McKenzie
1102:20(3&4):467–78.
986:Banfield, Edward C.
793:E. Franklin Frazier
216:theory of evolution
109:George Herbert Mead
57:originating at the
1183:Hammersley, Martyn
1006:Thrasher, Frederic
723:16.1 (1976): 1-19
451:identified in the
328:real-estate board.
117:Walter C. Reckless
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1022:Sutherland, Edwin
738:Roderick McKenzie
705:Gerald D. Suttles
486:Ruth Shonle Cavan
389:is instructive).
214:had accepted the
194:Theory and method
188:Frances Fox Piven
137:Florian Znaniecki
129:Frederic Thrasher
93:Ruth Shonle Cavan
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43:ecological school
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1099:Criminology
419:Conclusions
184:Lloyd Ohlin
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160:ethnography
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133:Louis Wirth
55:criminology
1308:Categories
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677:Urban Life
626:The Ghetto
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510:References
325:Succession
208:Biologists
1191:Routledge
1052:. 2001 .
742:The City.
710:(1968). .
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293:ethnicity
242:Znaniecki
221:community
78:fieldwork
51:sociology
1288:44:1–24.
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1189:London:
1185:. 1989.
1148:— 1967.
1010:The Gang
1008:. 1927.
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464:See also
385:and the
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312:McKenzie
274:bungalow
1175:.1937.
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799:(1932).
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375:(1947)
360:ecology
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528:(PDF)
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