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In 3b, the chitin exoskeleton of tergites 2 and 3 increase in thickness and gives the structure the look of a mini caldera. Egg release is common in substage 3b, as are fecal coils. The eggs tend to stick to the skin. At about the 3rd week after penetration, stage 4 begins, which is also divided into
716:
By stage 2 (days 1–2), penetration is complete and the flea has burrowed most of its body into the skin. Only the anus, the copulatory organs, and four rear air holes in fleas called stigmata remain on the outside of the epidermis. The anus will excrete feces that is thought to attract male fleas for
744:
and appears near death. As a result, the lesion shrinks in size, turns brown, and appears wrinkled. The death of the flea marks the beginning of substage 4b (around day 25 post-penetration) as the body begins to eliminate the parasite through skin repair mechanisms (e.g. shedding and subsequent skin
628:
About six to eight days after hatching, the larva pupates and builds a cocoon around itself. Because it lives mostly on and below the surface of sand, sand is used to stabilize the cocoon and help to promote its development. An environmental disturbance such as rain or a lack of sand have been shown
817:
There are no drugs currently available with proven effectiveness. Surgical extraction still remains the treatment of choice in patients with a low parasite load, such as tourists returning from endemic areas. The only approach to reduce tungiasis-associated morbidity in heavily affected individuals
808:
after they were shipwrecked on Haiti. Through ship routes and further expeditions, the chigoe flea was spread to the rest of the world, particularly to the rest of Latin
America and Africa. The spread to greater Africa occurred throughout the 17th and 19th centuries, specifically in 1873 when the
624:
After hatching, the flea will progress through two instar phases. This is unique in that most fleas go through three. Over the course of that development, the flea will first decrease in size from its just-hatched size of 1.5 mm to 1.15 mm (first instar) before growing to 2.9 mm (second instar).
704:
development of the female chigoe flea for the first time. In dividing the natural history of the disease, the
Fortaleza Classification formally describes the last part of the female flea's life cycle where it burrows into its host's skin, expels eggs, and dies.
368:. First, it has a wide distribution: some 88 countries, in the Caribbean, Central and South America, tropical (sub-Saharan) Africa, and India. Second, it can infest a wide variety of hosts: at least 26 different species in over five different orders of mammals.
717:
mating, described in a later section. The hypertrophic zone between tergites 2 and 3 in the abdominal region begins to expand a day or two after penetration and takes the appearance of a life belt. During this time, the flea begins to feed on the host's blood.
727:
Due to the expanding flea, the outer layer of the skin is stretched thin, resulting in the appearance of a white halo around the black dot (rear end of the flea) at the center of the lesion. The black dot is the flea's exposed hind legs, respiratory
708:
Stage 1 is characterized by the penetration of the skin by the female chigoe flea. Running along the body, the female uses its posterior legs to push its body upward by an angle between 45 and 90 degrees. Penetration then starts, beginning with the
349:. Mites penetrate the skin and feed on skin cells that are broken down through an enzyme they secrete from their mouth, but they will then leave the host. The adult and the larval forms both feed on other animals. This is not the case with
629:
to decrease incidence, most likely due to decreasing the environmental factors (i.e., sand) on which the flea depends for overall growth. Barring any disturbances to the cocoon, an adult flea will emerge from the puparium after 9–15 days.
1075:
Linardi, P. M.; Calheiros, C. M. L.; Campelo-junior, E. B.; Duarte, E.M.; Heukelbach, J.; Feldmeier, H. (2010). "Occurrence of the off-host life stages of Tunga penetrans (Siphonaptera) in various environments in Brazil".
324:
or irritation which then passes as the area around the flea calluses and becomes insensitive. As the flea's abdomen swells with eggs later in the cycle, the pressure from the swelling may press neighbouring nerves or
662:
Tungiasis lesions almost always occur on the feet (97%), but may occur on any part of the body. The toes are afflicted over 70% of the time, with periungual folds (around the toenail) a preferred site.
1222:
Eisele, Margit; Heukelbach, Jörg; Van Marck, Eric; Mehlhorn, Heinz; Meckes, Oliver; Franck, Sabine; Feldmeier, Hermann (2003). "Investigations on the biology, epidemiology, pathology and control of
666:
Only once the female burrows into the skin can reproduction occur, as the male and female show no interest in each other in the wild. The male flea dies after copulation. The female flea continues
1168:
Nagy, N.; Abari, E.; D’Haese, J.; Calheiros, C.; Heukelbach, J.; Mencke, N.; Feldmeier, H.; Mehlhorn, H. (2007). "Investigations on the life cycle and morphology of Tunga penetrans in Brazil".
621:
eggs, on average, are 0.6 mm long, The larva will hatch from the egg within one to six days, assuming the environmental conditions (e.g., moisture, humidity, etc.) are favorable.
592:
For the most part, the chigoe flea lives 2–5 cm below sand, an observation which helps explain its overall distribution. The temperature is generally too hot for the
1716:
1729:
677:, which it releases through the caudal orifice to fall to the ground when ready to hatch. The flea then dies and is often the cause of infection as the body
681:
under the thick scales its body chemistry created to protect it. The eggs mature into adult fleas within three to four weeks and the process begins anew.
850:
799:
1808:
1690:
1477:
Joseph J.; Bazile J.; Mutter J.; Shin S.; Ruddle A.; Ivers L.; Lyon E.; Farmer P. (2006). "Tungiasis in rural Haiti: a community-based response".
1405:
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species infest only rodents. Two dedicate themselves to armadillos, one to sloths, and another prefers only cattle. Only one,
170:
599:
In a study of off-host stages, samples were taken from the top of the soil (to a maximum depth of 1 cm). The presence of
491:
320:
layer of the skin, it may reach up to 1 cm across. During the first day or two of infestation, the host may feel an
720:
Stage 3 is divided into two substages, the first of which being 2–3 days after penetration is complete. In 3a, maximum
782:
deformation. These seem to be commonplace especially where heavy infestations combine with unsanitary conditions and
1734:
1589:
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like other fleas, but the female flea burrows head-first into the host's skin, leaving the caudal tip of its
329:. Depending on the exact site, this can cause sensations ranging from mild irritation to serious discomfort.
54:
533:
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1002:
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353:, as only the adults feed on mammals, and the mature female remains in the host for the rest of her life.
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in a soil sample was unaffected by soil temperature, air temperature or air humidity. No life stages of
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244:. In its parasitic phase it has significant impact on its hosts, which include humans and certain other
149:
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1664:
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935:
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infected crewmen of the Thomas
Mitchell's ship introduced it into Angola, having sailed from Brazil.
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Linardi, Pedro Marcos; Beaucournu, Jean-Claude; de Avelar, Daniel
Moreira; Belaz, Sorya (2014).
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Hoeppli R (1963). "Early references to the occurrence of Tunga penetrans in tropical Africa".
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954:(Siphonaptera: Tungidae) II – neosomes, morphology, classification, and other taxonomic notes"
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Jarocki, 1838 (Siphonaptera: Tungidae). I – Taxonomie, phylogénie, écologie, rôle pathogène"
644:. This orifice allows the flea to breathe, defecate, mate and expel eggs while feeding from
431:
237:
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748:
If the flea is left within the skin, dangerous complications can occur including secondary
317:
305:
261:
802:, where he discussed the skin infection and its symptoms on crew members from Columbus's
794:
Tungiasis was endemic in pre-Columbian Andean society for centuries before discovery of
1793:
1594:"Epidermal parasitic skin diseases: a neglected category of poverty-associated plagues"
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Beaucournu, J.-C.; Degeilh, B.; Mergey, T.; Muñoz-Leal, S.; González-Acuña, D. (2012).
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to develop on the surface of the sand and the deeper sand does not have enough oxygen.
116:
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as native to the West Indies. The first
European description was published in 1526 by
390:, has also been found infesting humans as well as cows, but only in Ecuador and Peru.
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Over the next two weeks, its abdomen swells with up to several hundred to a thousand
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700:(2003) provided and detailed the five stages of tungiasis, thereby detailing the
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development, described in stages by the
Fortaleza classification of tungiasis.
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are only in the
Western hemisphere, and each only targets one or two specific
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1308:
Feldmeier H, Heukelbach J, Eisele M, Souza A, Barbosa L, Carvalho C (2002).
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Heukelbach, Jörg; Wilcke, Thomas; Harms, Gundel; Feldmeier, Hermann (2005).
827:
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is the application of a repellent to prevent the penetration of sand fleas.
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1411:. Toledo: acostas del autor: por industrias del maestre Ramon de Petras.
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is most recognizable in its parasite phase. While embedded under the
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is achieved and the flea's midsection swells to the size of a pea.
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There is an observable drop in infestations during the wet season.
1479:
Transactions of the Royal
Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
936:
http://pediatrics.about.com/od/dermatologytopics/a/06_chiggers.htm
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issued a bulletin, published online 28 November 2008, entitled
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repair). At this phase, the lesion is seen as brown or black.
467:
461:
413:
407:
1541:"Revision on tungiasis: treatment options and prevention"
1124:"Seasonal variation of tungiasis in an endemic community"
1019:
Linardi, Pedro Marcos; de Avelar, Daniel
Moreira (2014).
1424:"Tungiasis in a young child adopted from South America"
1021:"Neosomes of tungid fleas on wild and domestic animals"
862:
860:
341:, a parasitical mite. However, the jigger is a type of
1128:
The
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
1226:
in Brazil: I. Natural history of tungiasis in man".
1611:
692:In a seminal paper on the biology and pathology of
740:two substages. In 4a, the flea loses its signs of
364:is unusual for the 13 known species of the genus
337:The colloquial name jigger may be confused with
1351:"Evidence of tungiasis in pre-Hispanic America"
1349:Maco, V; Tantaleán, M; Gotuzzo, E (May 2011).
1117:
1115:
1078:Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology
1014:
1012:
345:(Order Siphonaptera). The chigger is a minute
1310:"Bacterial superinfection in human tungiasis"
8:
1401:Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias
1314:Tropical Medicine & International Health
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40:
31:
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1374:
1325:
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854:Clin Dermatol. 2007 Mar-Apr;25(2):158-64.
844:
842:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
934:"Chiggers." About.com. 27 Feb. 2009 <
774:. Lingering effects may include loss of
260:, a type of mite. Jiggers are native to
1545:Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy
848:Cestari TF, Pessato S, Ramos-e-Silva M
838:
371:In contrast, most of the 13 species of
1163:
1161:
1159:
248:species. A parasitical infestation of
1422:Darmstadt GL, Francis JS (May 2000).
640:visible through an orifice in a skin
7:
800:Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés
607:were found in any outdoor sample.
256:. Jiggers are often confused with
25:
495:(southern long-nosed armadillo),
1441:10.1097/00006454-200005000-00024
1327:10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00904.x
1090:10.1179/136485910X12743554759902
1060:
1001:
920:
309:Jigger (sand flea) infested foot
53:
1809:Parasitic arthropods of mammals
632:Males are still mobile after a
1273:Images in clinical medicine".
752:from trapped bacteria such as
268:, and have been introduced to
1:
713:going through the epidermis.
1491:10.1016/j.trstmh.2005.11.006
1398:Oviedo y Valdes, F. (1526).
1355:Emerging Infectious Diseases
1804:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
889:10.1051/parasite/2012194297
537:(Central American agouti),
1825:
1799:Insects described in 1758
1590:World Health Organization
1240:10.1007/s00436-002-0817-y
1182:10.1007/s00436-007-0683-8
1141:10.4269/ajtmh.2005.72.145
1037:10.1007/s00436-014-4081-8
489:(nine-banded armadillo),
155:
148:
50:Scientific classification
48:
39:
34:
1789:Insects of South America
1784:Insects of North America
1557:10.1586/14787210.4.1.151
1539:Jorg Heukelbach (2006).
1269:Muehlstaedt, M (2008). "
970:10.1051/parasite/2014067
573:(Brazilian guinea pig),
1428:Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J
498:Chaetophractus villosus
1367:10.3201/eid1705.100542
851:Tungiasis and myiasis.
310:
302:
1287:10.1056/nejmicm074290
1228:Parasitology Research
1170:Parasitology Research
1025:Parasitology Research
501:(big hairy armadillo)
308:
298:
281:Sarcopsylla penetrans
242:sub-tropical climates
1271:Periungual Tungiasis
1176:(Suppl 2): S233–42.
950:"Notes on the genus
549:(Temminck's mouse),
486:Dasypus novemcinctus
450:Potamochoerus porcus
1464:"Untitled Document"
734:reproductive organs
534:Dasyprocta punctata
287:, and many others.
771:Clostridium tetani
766:enterobacteriaceae
648:. It lives in the
394:Host species for
388:Tunga trimamillata
311:
303:
270:sub-Saharan Africa
193:also known as the
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1770:
1756:Open Tree of Life
1605:Taxon identifiers
1031:(10): 3517–3533.
576:Myoprocta acouchy
558:Rattus norvegicus
178:
177:
141:T. penetrans
16:(Redirected from
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579:(red acouchi),
564:Cavia porcellus
546:Mus musculoides
543:(house mouse),
453:(red river hog)
362:Tunga penetrans
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357:Genus and hosts
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318:stratum corneum
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955:
953:
944:
941:
937:
931:
928:
923:
916:
912:
907:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
872:
863:
861:
857:
853:
852:
845:
843:
839:
833:
829:
826:
825:
821:
819:
812:
810:
807:
806:
801:
797:
789:
787:
785:
781:
777:
773:
772:
767:
763:
762:
761:Streptococcus
757:
756:
751:
746:
743:
737:
735:
731:
725:
723:
718:
714:
712:
706:
703:
699:
695:
687:
684:
682:
680:
676:
671:
669:
664:
660:
658:
655:
651:
647:
646:blood vessels
643:
639:
635:
630:
626:
622:
620:
613:
611:
608:
606:
602:
597:
595:
587:
582:
578:
577:
572:
571:
566:
565:
561:(brown rat),
560:
559:
555:(black rat),
554:
553:
552:Rattus rattus
548:
547:
542:
541:
536:
535:
530:
529:
524:
521:
518:
517:
512:
511:
506:
503:
500:
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494:
493:
488:
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479:
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474:Panthera onca
470:
469:
464:
463:
458:
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428:
427:
422:
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416:
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410:
409:
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401:
400:
399:
398:
397:
396:T. penetrans'
391:
389:
385:
380:
378:
374:
369:
367:
363:
356:
354:
352:
348:
344:
340:
332:
330:
328:
327:blood vessels
323:
319:
315:
307:
301:
297:
290:
288:
286:
282:
278:
275:Synonyms for
273:
271:
267:
266:South America
263:
259:
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247:
243:
239:
235:
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228:
224:
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208:
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196:
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154:
151:
150:Binomial name
147:
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137:
134:
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125:
122:
121:
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68:
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62:
61:
56:
51:
47:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
1612:
1548:
1544:
1534:
1517:
1513:
1507:
1482:
1478:
1472:
1458:
1434:(5): 485–7.
1431:
1427:
1417:
1399:
1393:
1358:
1354:
1344:
1317:
1313:
1303:
1278:
1275:N Engl J Med
1274:
1270:
1264:
1234:(2): 87–99.
1231:
1227:
1223:
1173:
1169:
1134:(2): 145–9.
1131:
1127:
1081:
1077:
1070:
1028:
1024:
961:
957:
951:
943:
930:
880:
876:
870:
849:
816:
804:
796:T. penetrans
795:
793:
769:
759:
753:
747:
738:
726:
719:
715:
707:
701:
697:
693:
691:
685:
672:
667:
665:
661:
657:dermal layer
654:subcutaneous
631:
627:
623:
619:T. penetrans
618:
617:
609:
605:T. penetrans
604:
601:T. penetrans
600:
598:
591:
574:
570:Cavia aperea
568:
562:
556:
550:
544:
540:Mus musculus
538:
532:
526:
519:sp. (baboon)
514:
510:Homo sapiens
508:
496:
490:
484:
472:
466:
460:
448:
444:Lama vicugna
442:
436:
430:
424:
420:Capra hircus
418:
412:
406:
403:Artiodactyla
395:
393:
392:
387:
383:
381:
377:warm-blooded
372:
370:
365:
361:
360:
351:T. penetrans
350:
336:
314:T. penetrans
313:
312:
299:
284:
280:
276:
274:
250:T. penetrans
249:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
181:
180:
179:
158:
156:
140:
139:
127:
107:Siphonaptera
35:Jigger flea
29:
1704:iNaturalist
1637:Wikispecies
1520:: 142–152.
1404: [
1281:(24): e30.
805:Santa Maria
722:hypertrophy
688:development
588:Environment
583:(porcupine)
492:D. hybridus
468:Felis catus
435:(peccary),
333:Distinction
211:chigoe flea
199:jigger flea
18:Chigoe flea
1778:Categories
869:"Le genre
834:References
750:infections
634:blood meal
614:Life cycle
447:(vicuña),
438:Lama glama
426:Ovis aries
408:Bos taurus
252:is called
229:. It is a
215:chigo flea
87:Arthropoda
1514:Acta Trop
978:1776-1042
897:1252-607X
828:Tungiasis
813:Treatment
730:spiracles
711:proboscis
696:, Eisele
650:cutaneous
513:(human),
481:Cingulata
457:Carnivora
441:(llama),
429:(sheep),
254:tungiasis
246:mammalian
231:parasitic
223:sand flea
135:Species:
73:Kingdom:
67:Eukaryota
1722:10577884
1622:Wikidata
1565:16441216
1526:13963854
1499:16516941
1450:10819355
1385:21529395
1336:12100437
1295:19073971
1256:34842884
1248:12756541
1198:23745194
1190:17823833
1150:15741550
1098:20659395
1055:25141814
996:25514594
958:Parasite
915:23193514
877:Parasite
822:See also
776:toenails
742:vitality
523:Rodentia
477:(jaguar)
423:(goat),
373:Tungidae
347:arachnid
279:include
258:chiggers
238:tropical
167:Linnaeus
113:Family:
83:Phylum:
77:Animalia
63:Domain:
1748:1491254
1696:5051118
1628:Q133413
1573:6854468
1376:3321756
1106:8385878
1046:4172993
987:4270284
906:4898135
790:History
784:poverty
702:in vivo
686:In vivo
668:in vivo
638:abdomen
581:Hystrix
505:Primate
471:(cat),
465:(dog),
417:(pig),
411:(cow),
379:hosts.
339:chigger
322:itching
262:Central
187:species
123:Genus:
103:Order:
97:Insecta
93:Class:
1735:214035
1709:308601
1683:TUNGPE
1670:704514
1571:
1563:
1524:
1497:
1448:
1383:
1373:
1334:
1293:
1254:
1246:
1196:
1188:
1148:
1104:
1096:
1053:
1043:
994:
984:
976:
964:: 68.
913:
903:
895:
768:, and
698:et al.
642:lesion
594:larvae
382:Seven
234:insect
203:chigoe
195:jigger
1794:Fleas
1761:33079
1717:IRMNG
1657:59LSL
1569:S2CID
1408:]
1252:S2CID
1194:S2CID
1102:S2CID
952:Tunga
871:Tunga
516:Papio
384:tunga
366:Tunga
225:, or
219:nigua
207:chigo
185:is a
128:Tunga
1743:OBIS
1730:NCBI
1691:GBIF
1678:EPPO
1588:The
1561:PMID
1522:PMID
1495:PMID
1446:PMID
1381:PMID
1332:PMID
1291:PMID
1244:PMID
1186:PMID
1146:PMID
1094:PMID
1051:PMID
992:PMID
974:ISSN
938:>
911:PMID
893:ISSN
778:and
732:and
679:rots
675:eggs
652:and
343:flea
264:and
240:and
191:flea
171:1758
1665:EoL
1652:CoL
1553:doi
1487:doi
1483:100
1436:doi
1371:PMC
1363:doi
1322:doi
1283:doi
1279:359
1236:doi
1178:doi
1174:101
1136:doi
1086:doi
1082:104
1041:PMC
1033:doi
1029:113
982:PMC
966:doi
901:PMC
885:doi
780:toe
189:of
1780::
1758::
1745::
1732::
1719::
1706::
1693::
1680::
1667::
1654::
1639::
1624::
1567:.
1559:.
1547:.
1543:.
1518:20
1516:.
1493:.
1481:.
1444:.
1432:19
1430:.
1426:.
1406:es
1379:.
1369:.
1359:17
1357:.
1353:.
1330:.
1316:.
1312:.
1289:.
1277:.
1250:.
1242:.
1232:90
1230:.
1206:^
1192:.
1184:.
1172:.
1158:^
1144:.
1132:72
1130:.
1126:.
1114:^
1100:.
1092:.
1080:.
1049:.
1039:.
1027:.
1023:.
1011:^
990:.
980:.
972:.
962:21
960:.
956:.
909:.
899:.
891:.
881:19
879:.
875:.
859:^
841:^
786:.
764:,
758:,
736:.
659:.
525::
507::
459::
405::
283:,
272:.
221:,
217:,
213:,
209:,
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201:,
197:,
169:,
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1555::
1549:4
1528:.
1501:.
1489::
1466:.
1452:.
1438::
1387:.
1365::
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1324::
1318:7
1297:.
1285::
1258:.
1238::
1200:.
1180::
1152:.
1138::
1108:.
1088::
1057:.
1035::
998:.
968::
917:.
887::
173:)
165:(
20:)
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