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introduction of the curved mould-board and other new principles of design in the + 18th century. Though the mould-board plough first appeared in Europe in early medieval, if not in late Roman, times, pre-eighteenth century mould-boards were usually wooden and straight (Fig. 59). The enormous labour involved in pulling such a clumsy construction necessitated large plough-teams, and this meant that large areas of land had to be reserved as pasture. In China, where much less animal power was required, it was not necessary to maintain the mixed arable-pasture economy typical of Europe: fallows could be reduced and the arable area expanded, and a considerably larger population could be supported than on the same amount of land in Europe.
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part with a trapezoidal shape. It cuts the soil horizontally and lifts it. Common types are regular, winged-plane, bar-point, and share with mounted or welded point. The regular share conserves a good cut but is recommended on stone-free soils. The winged-plane share is used on heavy soil with a moderate amount of stones. The bar-point share can be used in extreme conditions (hard and stony soils). The share with a mounted point is somewhere between the last two types. Makers have designed shares of various shapes (trapesium, diamond, etc.) with bolted point and wings, often separately renewable. Sometimes the share-cutting edge is placed well in advance of the mould board to reduce the pulverizing action of the soil.
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rubs against the furrow sole, is known as the heel. A heel iron is bolted to the end of the rear of the land side and helps to support the back of the plough. The land side and share are arranged to give a "lead" towards the unploughed land, so helping to sustain the correct furrow width. The land side is usually made of solid medium-carbon steel and is very short, except at the rear bottom of the plough. The heel or rear end of the rear land side may be subject to excessive wear if the rear wheel is out of adjustment, and so a chilled iron heel piece is frequently used. This is inexpensive and can be easily replaced. The land side is fastened to the frog by plough bolts.
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1384:. These commonly have from two to as many as seven mould boards – and semi-mounted ploughs (whose lifting is assisted by a wheel about halfway along their length) can have as many as 18. The tractor's hydraulics are used to lift and reverse the implement and to adjust furrow width and depth. The plougher still has to set the draughting linkage from the tractor, so that the plough keeps the proper angle in the soil. This angle and depth can be controlled automatically by modern tractors. As a complement to the rear plough a two or three mould-board plough can be mounted on the front of the tractor if it is equipped with front three-point linkage.
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lift is used on the plough, the hydraulic hoses will also usually uncouple automatically when the plough uncouples. Most plough makers offer an automatic reset system for tough conditions or rocky soils. The re-set mechanism allows each body to move rearward and upward to pass without damage over obstacles such as rocks hidden below soil surface. A heavy leaf or coil-spring mechanism that holds the body in its working position under normal conditions resets the plough after the obstruction is passed.
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up to pass over the obstruction. It is necessary to back up the tractor and plough to reset the bottom. This construction is used to protect the individual bottoms. The automatic reset design has only recently been introduced on US ploughs, but has been used extensively on
European and Australian ploughs. Here the beam is hinged at a point almost above the point of the share. The bottom is held in the normal position by a set of springs or a hydraulic cylinder on each bottom.
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field. Each layer of soil and the gutter it came from forms a classic furrow. The mould-board plough greatly reduced the time needed to prepare a field and so allowed a farmer to work a larger area of land. In addition, the resulting pattern of low (under the mould board) and high (beside it) ridges in the soil forms water channels, allowing the soil to drain. In areas where snow build-up causes difficulties, this lets farmers plant the soil earlier, as the
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861:(standard) is the central part of the plough bottom to which the other components of the bottom are attached. It is an irregular piece of metal, which may be made of cast iron for cast iron ploughs or welded steel for steel ploughs. The frog is the foundation of the plough bottom. It takes the shock resulting from hitting rocks, and therefore should be tough and strong. The frog is in turn fastened to the plough frame.
714:) that is being cut lifts and rolls over as the plough moves forward, dropping back upside down into the furrow and onto the turned soil from the previous run down the field. Each gap in the ground where the soil has been lifted and moved across (usually to the right) is called a furrow. The sod lifted from it rests at an angle of about 45 degrees in the adjacent furrow, up the back of the sod from the previous run.
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them. Not long after that the first riding ploughs appeared, whose wheels kept the plough at an adjustable level above the ground, while the ploughman sat on a seat instead of walking. Direction was now controlled mostly through the draught team, with levers allowing fine adjustments. This led quickly to riding ploughs with multiple mould boards, which dramatically increased ploughing performance.
1074:, England, in 1730, used new shapes based on the Rotherham plough, which covered the mould board with iron. Unlike the heavy plough, the Rotherham, or Rotherham swing plough consisted entirely of the coulter, mould board and handles. It was much lighter than earlier designs and became common in England. It may have been the first plough widely built in factories and commercially successful there.
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satisfactory when using a tractor with wide front tyres. Although these make better use of the tractor power, the tyres may compact some of the last furrow slice turned on the previous run. The problem is overcome by using a furrow widener or longer mould board on the rear body. The latter moves the soil further towards the ploughed land, leaving more room for the tractor wheels on the next run.
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1158:. The plough was usually worked clockwise around each land, ploughing the long sides and being dragged across the short sides without ploughing. The length of the strip was limited by the distance oxen (later horses) could comfortably work without rest, and their width by the distance the plough could conveniently be dragged. These distances determined the traditional size of the strips: a
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raising short-term nitrogen availability for turning organic matter into humus. It erases wheel tracks and ruts from harvesting equipment. It controls many perennial weeds and delays the growth of others until spring. It accelerates spring soil warming and water evaporation due to lower residues on the soil surface. It facilitates seeding with a lighter seed, controls many crop enemies (
886:, and the earliest iron ploughshares from about 500 BC in China. Early mould boards were wedges that sat inside the cut formed by the coulter, turning over the soil to the side. The ploughshare spread the cut horizontally below the surface, so that when the mould board lifted it, a wider area of soil was turned over. Mould boards are known in Britain from the late 6th century onwards.
1026:. The Greek and Roman mould-boards were usually tied to the bottom of the shaft with bits of rope, which made them more fragile than the Chinese ones, and iron mould-boards did not appear in Europe until the 10th century. The first indisputable appearance after the Roman period is in a northern Italian document of 643. Old words connected with the heavy plough and its use appear in
1346:. It is designed to break up new farming land that contains tree stumps and rocks expensive to remove. It uses a moveable weight to hold the ploughshare in position. When a tree stump or rock is encountered, the ploughshare is thrown up clear of the obstacle, to avoid breaking its harness or linkage. Ploughing can continue when the weight is returned to the earth.
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suit different soil conditions and crop requirements, mould boards have been designed in different shapes, each producing its own furrow profile and surface finish, but essentially they still conform to the original plough body classification. The various types have been traditionally classified as general purpose, digger, and semi-digger, as described below.
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transport width. Wider machines may have the wings supported by individual wheels and hinge joints to allow flexing of the machine over uneven ground. The wider models usually have a wheel each side to control working depth. Three-point hitch-mounted units are made in widths from about 1.5 to 9 metres (4 ft 11 in to 29 ft 6 in).
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motion. The automatic reset design permits higher field efficiencies since stopping for stones is practically eliminated. It also reduces costs for broken shares, beams and other parts. The fast resetting action helps produce a better job of ploughing, as large areas of unploughed land are not left, as they are when lifting a plough over a stone.
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1089:, started casting ploughshares in a disused malting at St Margaret's Ditches. A broken mould in his foundry caused molten metal to come into contact with cold metal, making the metal surface extremely hard. This process, chilled casting, resulted in what Ransome advertised as "self-sharpening" ploughs. He received patents for his discovery.
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suction, varies with different makes and types of plough. Share configuration is related to soil type, particularly in the down suction or concavity of its lower surface. Generally three degrees of clearance or down suction are recognised: regular for light soil, deep for ordinary dry soil, and double-deep for clay and gravelly soils.
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dragged forward, the sharp edge of the disc cuts the soil, and the concave surface of the rotating disc lifts and throws the soil to the side. It does not work as well as a mould-board plough (but this is not seen as a drawback, because it helps to fight wind erosion), but it does lift and break up the soil (
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Mould-board ploughing in cold and temperate climates, down to 20 cm (7.9 in), aerates the soil by loosening it. It incorporates crop residues, solid manures, limestone, and commercial fertilisers alongside oxygen, reducing nitrogen losses by denitrification, accelerating mineralisation, and
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A simpler, later system uses a concave disc (or pair of them) set at a wide angle to the direction of progress, using a concave shape to hold the disc into the soil – unless something hard strikes the circumference of the disc, causing it to roll up and over the obstruction. As this is
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The reversible (or roll-over) plough has two mould-board ploughs mounted back to back, one turning right, the other left. While one works the land, the other is borne upside-down in the air. At the end of each row the paired ploughs are turned over so that the other can be used along the next furrow,
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Trip-beam ploughs are constructed with a hinge point in the beam. This is usually located some distance above the top of the plough bottom. The bottom is held in normal ploughing position by a spring-operated latch. When an obstruction is encountered, the entire bottom is released and hinges back and
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The spring release was used in the past almost universally on trailing-type ploughs with one to three or four bottoms. It is not practical on larger ploughs. When an obstruction is encountered, the spring release mechanism in the hitch permits the plough to uncouple from the tractor. When a hydraulic
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In addition, the share has horizontal suction related to the amount its point is bent out of line with the land side. Down suction causes the plough to penetrate to proper depth when pulled forward, while horizontal suction causes the plough to create the desired width of furrow. The share is a plane
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The earliest was the bow ard, which consists of a draft-pole (or beam) pierced by a thinner vertical pointed stick called the head (or body), with one end being the stilt (handle) and the other a share (cutting blade) dragged through the topsoil to cut a shallow furrow suitable for most cereal crops.
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leg, is attached to the frame and a circular section with a larger diameter expander on a flexible link is bolted to the leg. The bullet-shaped share forms a tunnel in the soil about 75 mm (3.0 in) diameter and the expander presses the soil outwards to form a long-lasting drainage channel.
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Mole ploughs are usually trailed and pulled by a crawler tractor, but lighter models for use on the three-point linkage of powerful four-wheel drive tractors are also made. A mole plough has a strong frame that slides along the ground when the machine is at work. A heavy leg, similar to a sub-soiler
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Early steel ploughs were walking ploughs, directed by a ploughman holding handles on either side of the plough. Steel ploughs were so much easier to draw through the soil that constant adjustment of the blade to deal with roots or clods was no longer necessary, as the plough could easily cut through
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Another type of auto-reset mechanism uses an oil (hydraulic) and gas accumulator. Shock loads cause the oil to compress the gas. When the gas expands again, the leg returns to its working ploughing position after passing over the obstacle. The simplest mechanism is a breaking (shear) bolt that needs
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is the flat plate which presses against and transmits the lateral thrust of the plough bottom to the furrow wall. It helps to resist the side pressure exerted by the furrow slice on the mould board. It also helps to stabilise the plough while in operation. The rear bottom end of the landslide, which
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The digger mould board is short, abruptly curved with a concave cross-section both from top to bottom and from shin to tail. It turns the furrow slice rapidly, giving maximum shatter, deeper than its width. It is normally used for very deep ploughing (300 mm (12 in) deep or more). It has a
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is the part of the plough that receives the furrow slice from the share. It is responsible for lifting and turning the furrow slice and sometimes for shattering it, depending on the type of mould board, ploughing depth and soil conditions. The intensity of this depends on the type of mould board. To
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The mole plough allows under-drainage to be installed without trenches, or breaks up the deep impermeable soil layers that impede it. It is a deep plough with a torpedo or wedge-shaped tip and a narrow blade connecting it to the body. When dragged over ground, it leaves a channel deep under it that
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Chisel ploughs are becoming more popular as a primary tillage tool in row-crop farming areas. Basically the chisel plough is a heavy-duty field cultivator intended to operate at depths from 15 cm (5.9 in) to as much as 46 cm (18 in). However some models may run much deeper. Each
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on opposite field edges, or by a single engine drawing directly towards it at one end and drawing away from it via a pulley at the other. The balance plough had two sets of facing ploughs arranged so that when one was in the ground, the other was lifted in the air. When pulled in one direction, the
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By the time of the early 1900s, the steel plough had many uses, shapes and names. The "two horse breaking plough" had a point and wing used to break the soil's surface and turn the dirt out and over. The "shovel plough" was used to lay off the rows. The "harrow plough" was used to cover the planted
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Manual loy ploughing was a form used on small farms in
Ireland where farmers could not afford more, or on hilly ground that precluded horses. It was used up until the 1960s in poorer land. It suited the moist Irish climate, as the trenches formed by turning in the sods provided drainage. It allowed
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The semi-digger mould board is somewhat shorter than the general-purpose mould board, but with a concave cross-section and a more abrupt curve. Being intermediate between the two mould boards described above, it has a performance that comes in between (approximately 250 mm (9.8 in) deep),
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The share is the edge that makes the horizontal cut to separate the furrow slice from the soil below. Conventional shares are shaped to penetrate soil efficiently: the tip is pointed downward to pull the share into the ground to a regular depth. The clearance, usually referred to as suction or down
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The upper parts of the frame carry (from the front) the coupling for the motive power (horses), the coulter and the landside frame. Depending on the size of the implement, and the number of furrows it is designed to plough at one time, a fore-carriage with a wheel or wheels (known as a furrow wheel
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Using a bar with square shares mounted perpendicularly and a pivot point to change the bar's angle, the switch plough allows ploughing in either direction. It is best in previously-worked soils, as the ploughshares are designed more to turn the soil over than for deep tillage. At the headland, the
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This variety of ridge plough is notable for having a blade pointing towards the operator. It is used solely by human effort rather than with animal or machine assistance and pulled backwards by the operator, requiring great physical effort. It is particularly used for second breaking of ground and
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blacksmith, noted that ploughing many sticky, non-sandy soils might benefit from modifications in the design of the mould board and the metals used. A polished needle would enter leather and fabric with greater ease and a polished pitchfork also require less effort. Looking for a polished, slicker
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These ploughs date back to the days of the steam engine and the horse. In almost universal use on farms, they have right and left-handed mould boards, enabling them to work up and down the same furrow. Reversible ploughs may either be mounted or semi-mounted and are heavier and more expensive than
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The general-purpose mould board. This has a low draft body with a gentle, cross-sectional convex curve from top to bottom, which turns a furrow three parts wide by two parts deep, e. g. 300 mm (12 in) wide by 200 mm (7.9 in) deep. It turns the furrow slice slowly almost without
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To grow crops regularly in less-fertile areas, it was once believed that the soil must be turned to bring nutrients to the surface. A major advance for this type of farming was the turn plough, also known as the mould-board plough (UK), moldboard plow (U.S.), or frame-plough. A coulter (or skeith)
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Heavy land requires draining to reduce its water content to a level efficient for plant growth. Heavy soils usually have a system of permanent drains, using perforated plastic or clay pipes that discharge into a ditch. The small tunnels (mole drains) that mole ploughs form lie at a depth of up to
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A single draught horse can normally pull a single-furrow plough in clean light soil, but in heavier soils two horses are needed, one walking on the land and one in the furrow. Ploughs with two or more furrows call for more than two horses, and usually one or more have to walk on the ploughed sod,
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In the basic mould-board plough, the depth of cut is adjusted by lifting against the runner in the furrow, which limited the weight of the plough to what a ploughman could easily lift. This limited the construction to a small amount of wood (although metal edges were possible). These ploughs were
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extending from behind the share to the rear of the plough controls the direction of the plough, because it is held against the bottom land-side corner of the new furrow being formed. The holding force is the weight of the sod, as it is raised and rotated, on the curved surface of the mould board.
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partly in the furrows and partly on the ground lifted earlier. Visually, across the rows, there is the land on the left, a furrow (half the width of the removed strip of soil) and the removed strip almost upside-down lying on about half of the previous strip of inverted soil, and so on across the
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When an obstruction is encountered, the plough bottom hinges back and up in such a way as to pass over the obstruction, without stopping the tractor and plough. The bottom automatically returns to normal ploughing position as soon as the obstruction is passed, without any interruption of forward
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In addition, slatted mould boards are preferred by some farmers, though they are a less common type. They consist of a number of curved steel slats bolted to the frog along the length of the mould board, with gaps between the slats. They tend to break up the soil more than a full mould board and
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were not invented in any one place, and hoe cultivation must have been common everywhere agriculture was practised. Hoe-farming is the traditional tillage method in tropical or sub-tropical regions, which are marked by stony soils, steep slope gradients, predominant root crops, and coarse grains
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Pull-type chisel ploughs are made in working widths from about 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) up to 13.7 metres (45 ft). They are tractor-mounted, and working depth is hydraulically controlled. Those more than about 4 metres (13 ft) wide may be equipped with folding wings to reduce
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seed or planting. Ploughs were traditionally drawn by oxen and horses but in modern farms are drawn by tractors. A plough may have a wooden, iron or steel frame with a blade attached to cut and loosen the soil. It has been fundamental to farming for most of history. The earliest ploughs had no
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trailing ploughs were lowered onto the ground by the tension on the cable. When the plough reached the edge of the field, the other engine pulled the opposite cable, and the plough tilted (balanced), putting the other set of shares into the ground, and the plough worked back across the field.
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The turn-wrest plough allows ploughing to be done to either side. The mould board is removable, turning to the right for one furrow, then being moved to the other side of the plough to turn to the left. (The coulter and ploughshare are fixed.) Thus adjacent furrows can be ploughed in opposite
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When dragged through a field, the coulter cuts down into the soil and the share cuts horizontally from the previous furrow to the vertical cut. This releases a rectangular strip of sod to be lifted by the share and carried by the mould board up and over, so that the strip of sod (slice of the
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could be added to cut vertically into the ground just ahead of the share (in front of the frog), a wedge-shaped cutting edge at the bottom front of the mould board with the landside of the frame supporting the under-share (below-ground component). The heavy iron moldboard plow was invented in
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Chinese ploughs from Han times on fulfil all these conditions of efficiency nicely, which is presumably why the standard Han plough team consisted of two animals only, and later teams usually of a single animal, rather than the four, six or eight draught animals common in Europe before the
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Driving a tractor with furrow-side wheels in the furrow bottom provides the most efficient line of draught between tractor and plough. It is also easier to steer the tractor; driving with the front wheel against the furrow wall will keep the front furrow at the correct width. This is less
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Compacting a tennis ball-sized sample from moling depth by hand, then pushing a pencil through is a simple check to find if the subsoil is in the right condition for mole ploughing. If the hole stays intact without splitting the ball, the soil is in ideal condition for the mole plough.
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are often similar in form to chisel ploughs, but their goals are different. Cultivator teeth work near the surface, usually for weed control, whereas chisel plough shanks work deep under the surface; therefore, cultivation takes much less power per shank than does chisel ploughing.
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seed. The "scratcher" or "geewhiz" was used to deweed or cultivate the crop. The "bulltongue" and "sweeps" were used to plough the middle of the rows. All these metal plough points required being re-sharpened about every ten days, due to their use on rough and rocky ground.
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Driving with all four wheels on unploughed land is another solution to the problem of wide tyres. Semi-mounted ploughs can be hitched in a way that allows the tractor to run on unbroken land and pull the plough in correct alignment without any sideways movement (crabbing).
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right-handed models, but have the great advantage of leaving a level surface that facilitates seedbed preparation and harvesting. Very little marking out is necessary before ploughing can start; idle running on the headland is minimal compared with conventional ploughs.
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Because of this runner, the mould board plough is harder to turn around than the scratch plough, and its introduction brought about a change in the shape of fields – from mostly square fields into longer rectangular "strips" (hence the introduction of the
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breaking it, and is normally used for shallow ploughing (maximum 200 mm (7.9 in) depth). It is useful for grassland ploughing and sets up the land for weathering by winter frosts, which reduces the time taken to prepare a seedbed for spring sown crops.
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with less shattering than the digger mouldboard. It turns an almost square-sectioned furrow and leaves a more broken surface finish. Semi-digger mould boards can be used at various depths and speeds, which suits them for most of the general ploughing on a farm.
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On modern ploughs and some older ploughs, the mould board is separate from the share and runner, so these parts can be replaced without replacing the mould board. Abrasion eventually wears out all parts of a plough that come into contact with the soil.
1007:(202 BC – AD 220), Chinese ploughs were made almost wholly of wood except for the iron blade of the ploughshare. These were V-shaped iron pieces mounted on wooden blades and handles. By the Han period the entire ploughshare was made of
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acts as a drain. Modern mole ploughs may also bury a flexible perforated plastic drain pipe as they go, making a more permanent drain – or may be used to lay pipes for water supply or other purposes. Similar machines, so-called
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and low-till farming practices that attempt to maximise the erosion-preventing benefits of keeping organic matter and farming residues present on the soil surface throughout the year. Thus the chisel plough is considered by some to be more
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Patent litigation is mainly concerned with a
Chancery case of 1863 between John Fowler and his patent assignees in trust against James and Frederick Howard of Bedford for alleged infringement of his patents by the manufacture of balance
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fairly fragile and unsuitable for the heavier soils of northern Europe. The introduction of wheels to replace the runner allowed the weight of the plough to increase, and in turn the use of a larger mould-board faced in metal. These
637:-like ristle could be made to cut deeper furrows ahead of the share. Because the ard left a strip of undisturbed earth between furrows, the fields were often cross-ploughed lengthwise and breadth-wise, which tended to form squarish
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An advance on the basic design was the iron ploughshare, a replaceable horizontal cutting surface mounted on the tip of the share. The earliest ploughs with a detachable and replaceable share date from around 1000 BC in the
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Functionally operating as a saw, but pulled as a plough, this device was created in the 19th century and was mainly used in
Scandinavia, as part of the ice export industry, creating blocks of ice to ship to Great Britain.
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As the share wears away, it becomes blunt and the plough will require more power to pull it through the soil. A plough body with a worn share will not have enough "suck" to ensure it delves the ground to its full working
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operator pivots the bar (and so the ploughshares) to turn the soil to the opposite side of the direction of travel. Switch ploughs are usually lighter than roll-over ploughs, requiring less horsepower to operate.
1305:, an English agricultural engineer and inventor. However the Fisken brothers demonstrated (and went on to patent) a balance plough about 4 years before Fowler. One notable producer of steam-powered ploughs was
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The para-plough, or paraplow, loosens compacted soil layers 3 to 4 dm (12 to 16 inches) deep while maintaining high surface residue levels. It is primary tillage implement for deep ploughing without inversion.
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When a plough hits a rock or other solid obstruction, serious damage may result unless the plough is equipped with some safety device. The damage may be bent or broken shares, bent standards, beams or braces.
1639:, have the potential to build soil levels and humus. These may be suitable for smaller, intensively cultivated plots and for farming on poor, shallow or degraded soils that ploughing would further degrade.
1011:. These are the earliest known heavy, mould-board iron ploughs. Several advancements such as the three-shared plow, the plow-and-sow implement, and the harrow were developed subsequently. By the end of the
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The three basic types of safety devices used on mould-board ploughs are a spring release device in the plough drawbar, a trip beam construction on each bottom, and an automatic reset design on each bottom.
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The spade plough is designed to cut the soil and turn it on its side, minimising damage to earthworms, soil microorganism and fungi. This increases the sustainability and long-term fertility of the soil.
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of
Eastern Prussia, who became the "leading steam plough company on the European continent and penetrated the monopoly of English companies on the world market" at the beginning of the 20th century.
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and support wheel) may be added to support the frame (wheeled plough). In the case of a single-furrow plough there is one wheel at the front and handles at the rear for the ploughman to maneuver it.
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in the 1st and 2nd century and from where it was spread to
Holland which led the Agricultural Revolution. The mould-board plough introduced in the 18th century was a major advance in technology.
300:. The German cognate is "pflug", the Dutch "ploeg" and the Swedish "plog". In many Slavic languages and in Romanian the word is "plug". Words with the same root appeared with related meanings: in
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1802:
1503:. A ridging plough has two back-to-back mould boards cutting a deep furrow on each pass with high ridges either side. The same plough may be used to split the ridges to harvest the crop.
2150:(Berlin: B.R.D.; NY: Walter de Gruyter, 1981), 1–41; Heinrich Beck, 'Zur Terminologie von Pflug und Pflügen – vornehmlich in den nordischen und kontinentalen germanischen Sprachen', in
1170:. The one-sided action gradually moved soil from the sides to the centre line of the strip. If the strip was in the same place each year, the soil built up into a ridge, creating the
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in the later 8th and early 9th centuries, leading to improved agricultural productivity per unit of land in northern Europe. This was accompanied by larger fields, known variously as
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Modern tractor ploughing in South Africa. This plough has five non-reversible mouldboards. The fifth, empty furrow on the left may be filled by the first furrow of the next pass.
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Improvements on this followed developments in metallurgy: steel coulters and shares with softer iron mould boards to prevent breakage, the chilled plough (an early example of
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for potato planting. It is found in
Shetland, some western crofts, and more rarely Central Scotland, typically on holdings too small or poor to merit the use of animals.
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773:, landside and mould board are bolted to the frog, which is an irregular piece of cast iron at the base of the plough body, to which the soil-wearing parts are bolted.
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The plough appears in one of the oldest surviving pieces of written literature, from the 3rd millennium BC, where it is personified and debating with another tool, the
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of sufficient power and traction is required. When ploughing with a chisel plough, 10–20 horsepower (7.5–14.9 kW) per shank is required, depending on depth.
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balance plough. The left-turning set of shares have just completed a pass, and the right-turning shares are about to enter the ground to return across the field.
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Ploughs were initially powered by humans, but the use of farm animals is considerably more efficient. The earliest animals worked were oxen. Later, horses and
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2530:"Farm Machinery and Equipment-I: Lesson 8. Study of mould board plough: accessories, adjustments, operation and material of construction Mould Board Ploughs"
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The
Babylonian disputation poems: with editions of the series of the Poplar, Palm and vine, the Series of the spider, and the Story of the poor, forlorn wren
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individual plough or shank is typically set from 230 mm (9 in) to 360 mm (14 in) apart. Such a plough can meet significant soil drag: a
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3280:
1619:
Ploughing leaves little crop residue on the surface that might otherwise reduce both wind and water erosion. Over-ploughing can lead to the formation of
2529:
1022:
The Romans achieved a heavy-wheeled mould-board plough in the late 3rd and 4th century AD, for which archaeological evidence appears, for instance, in
922:
The gauge wheel is an auxiliary wheel to maintain uniform depths of ploughing in various soil conditions. It is usually placed in a hanging position.
1809:
1401:
is a common tool for deep tillage (prepared land) with limited soil disruption. Its main function is to loosen and aerate the soils, while leaving
1237:
which is hard going for them and means they tread newly ploughed land down. It is usual to rest such horses every half-hour for about ten minutes.
3840:
1095:
further advanced the design. Using mathematical methods, he eventually arrived at a shape cast from a single piece of iron, an improvement on the
2989:. Vol. 47 (2 ed.). Clanton, Al.: Heritage Publishing Consultants, County Heritage, & The Marion County Heritage. 2000. p. 67.
3308:
1477:
The country plough is a slanted plough. The most common plough in India, it is recommended for crops like groundnut after the use of a tractor.
3850:
3504:
3342:
2784:
2146:
Ruth
Schmidt-Wiegand, 'Wörter und Sachen. Zur Bedeutung einer Methode für die Frühmittelalterforschung. Der Pflug und seine Bezeichnungen', in
1653:
2838:
2048:
196:
340:"cart box". The word must have originally referred to the wheeled heavy plough, common in Roman north-western Europe by the 5th century AD.
1564:
950 mm (37 in) at an angle to the pipe drains. Water from the mole drains seeps into the pipes and runs along them into a ditch.
1265:
allowed steam power to be applied to ploughing from about 1850. In Europe, soil conditions were often too soft to support the weight of a
1066:
The basic plough with coulter, ploughshare and mould board remained in use for a millennium. Major changes in design spread widely in the
1115:, who made a three-part Scots plough that allowed a broken piece to be replaced. In 1833 John Lane invented a steel plough. Then in 1837
3815:
1707:
1302:
1058:
2330:
829:
higher power requirement and leaves a very broken surface. Digger ploughs are mainly used for land for potatoes and other root crops.
629:, India, giving insight into the form of the tool used. The ard remained easy to replace if it became damaged and easy to replicate.
3449:
3228:
2994:
2919:
2794:
2265:
2023:
1962:
2949:
606:, perhaps as early as the 6th millennium BC, provided mankind with the draft power needed to develop the larger, animal-drawn true
3335:
2909:
1123:
plough; it was so much stronger than iron designs that it could work soil in US areas previously thought unsuitable for farming.
1142:
58:
3892:
1830:
1787:
3255:
3125:
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2740:
1323:
633:
The ard does not clear new land well, so hoes or mattocks had to be used to pull up grass and undergrowth, and a hand-held,
527:, where the annual flood rejuvenates the soil, to create drills (furrows) in which to plant seeds. Digging sticks, hoes and
1845:: "ox-turning") – an ancient way of writing, each line being read in the opposite direction like reversible ploughing.
3087:
1616:, borers), and raises the number of "soil-eating" earthworms (endogic), but deters vertical-dwelling earthworms (anecic).
1520:
1293:
One set of ploughs was right-handed and the other left-handed, allowing continuous ploughing along the field, as with the
1078:
3440:
3168:
Smith, Clarence
Herbert. Digital Collections, ID: PRG 432/4. State Library of South Australia. Retrieved August 4, 2023.
3010:
2865:
2244:
Lal, BB (2003). Excavations at Kalibangan, the Early Harappans, 1960–1969. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 17 and 98
1545:
1413:. Unlike many other ploughs, the chisel will not invert or turn the soil. This feature has made it a useful addition to
1253:
surface for a plough, he experimented with portions of saw blades, and by 1837 was making polished, cast steel ploughs.
837:
improve soil movement across the mould board when working in sticky soils where a solid mould board does not scour well.
392:
558:
532:
grown at wide intervals. While hoe-agriculture is best suited to these regions, it is used in some fashion everywhere.
1100:
1154:
to the right), as dictated by the shape of the mould board; therefore, a field had to be ploughed in long strips, or
950:
replacement. Shear bolts that break when a plough body hits an obstruction are a cheaper overload protection device.
3497:
2130:
1881:
has a technique for preparing soil for seeding in forests called scarification, which is explained in that article.
1848:
1752:
162:
2718:
142:
soil evens the content of the upper 12 to 25 centimetres (5 to 10 in) layer of soil, where most plant feeder
134:. Trenches cut by the plough are called furrows. In modern use, a ploughed field is normally left to dry and then
3855:
3766:
1301:. The man credited with inventing the ploughing engine and associated balance plough in the mid-19th century was
1183:
directions, allowing ploughing to proceed continuously along the field and so avoid the ridge–furrow topography.
603:
1635:
mitigates soil erosion by ploughing across a slope, along elevation lines. Alternatives to ploughing, such as a
610:(or scratch plough). The earliest surviving evidence of ploughing has been dated to 3500–3800 BCE, on a site in
3461:
1990:
1732:
784:
2194:"Góra Body (Hexentanzplatz – Góra Tańcujących Czarownic ) i Góra Bodo (Brocken) w Harzykowskich Górach (Harz)"
1778:
1772:
Plough-usage was revolutionized with the advent of steam-locomotives (as seen in this German 1890s watercolor)
2219:
3820:
3810:
3805:
1889:
1419:
315:
123:
50:
46:
1669:
546:
3887:
3845:
3835:
1873:
1863:
1858:
1343:
1092:
512:
3825:
3490:
1438:
1245:
1116:
634:
457:
192:
154:
3388:
P. Hill and K. Kucharski, "Early Medieval Ploughing at Whithorn and the Chronology of Plough Pebbles",
2555:
1627:, which acts as a long, sharp knife slicing through the hardened layer of soil deep below the surface.
1000:
led to greater food production and eventually a marked population increase, beginning around AD 1000.
3865:
3860:
3781:
3312:
1374:
1339:
1067:
717:
3830:
476:
Other parts include the frog (or frame), runner, landside, shin, trashboard, and stilts (handles).
38:
3142:
2152:
Untersuchungen zur eisenzeitlichen und frĂĽhmittelalterlichen Flur in Mitteleuropa und ihre Nutzung
1166:(22 yards (20 m)) – an area of one acre (about 0.4 hectares); this is the origin of the
3379:
2680:
2387:
1437:
8110 Farm Tractor using a chisel plough. The ploughing tines are at the rear, the refuse-cutting
1035:
208:
3294:
2618:
570:
1445:
3475:
3470:
3274:
3224:
3218:
3180:
3121:
2990:
2915:
2834:
2826:
2790:
2360:
2326:
2261:
2255:
2044:
2019:
1958:
1952:
1405:
on top. This plough can be used to reduce the effects of soil compaction and to help break up
1381:
1335:
1318:
1151:
883:
436:
42:
3374:
Liam Brunt, "Mechanical Innovation in the Industrial Revolution: The Case of Plough Design".
3206:
Rudder, Debbie. Powerhouse Collection, ID: B526. Powerhouse Museum. Retrieved August 4, 2023.
2043:. Culture and history of the ancient Near East. Leiden ; Boston: Brill. pp. 13–18.
1908:
3897:
3622:
3422:
2851:
2117:, "The Indo-European and Indo-Aryan plough: a linguistic study of technological diffusion",
2013:
1274:
1196:
1171:
1112:
1027:
650:
297:
259:
81:
2953:
2513:
2437:
1130:
steel), and eventually mould boards with faces strong enough to dispense with the coulter.
3465:
2769:(1980) 4#1. pp. 46–56; Mervyn Watson, "Common Irish Plough Types and Tillage Techniques",
1868:
1714:
1632:
1553:
1549:
1414:
1281:
1266:
1104:
563:
440:
310:
293:
268:
229:
3409:
Wainwright, Raymond P.; Wesley F. Buchele; Stephen J. Marley; William I. Baldwin (1983).
2488:"tillage | Definition, Types, Equipment, Practices, Importance, & Facts | Britannica"
1429:
701:
176:
Use of the traditional plough has decreased in some areas threatened by soil damage and
3791:
3632:
3572:
2713:
2281:
1842:
1636:
1163:
1127:
413:
320:
3390:
Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society
1015:
in 1279, Chinese ploughs had reached a state of development that would not be seen in
973:
potatoes to be grown in bogs (peat swamps) and on otherwise unfarmed mountain slopes.
3881:
3730:
3642:
3627:
3547:
2809:
2176:
1838:
1794:
1695:
1660:
1613:
1023:
792:
721:
591:
516:
363:
with its double meaning of 'plough' and 'livelihood'. Guus Kroonen (2013) proposes a
135:
131:
2154:, eds. Heinrich Beck et al. (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1980), 2: 82–98.
173:
was a notable invention for ploughing out orchard strips in Australia in the 1930s.
3745:
3735:
3679:
3567:
3527:
2090:
1951:
Collingwood, R. G.; Collingwood, Robin George; Nowell, John; Myres, Linton (1936).
1878:
1757:
1691:
1676:
1628:
1402:
1262:
1082:
1012:
987:
638:
541:
404:
292:, and is therefore Germanic, but it appears relatively late (it is not attested in
277:
170:
158:
108:
841:
122:
The prime purpose of ploughing is to turn over the uppermost soil, bringing fresh
2744:
2649:
2320:
1933:
3786:
3776:
3720:
3689:
3667:
3637:
3582:
3557:
3513:
2114:
1853:
1370:
1365:
1354:
1327:
1224:
1108:
1004:
967:
789:
725:
665:
599:
506:
445:
212:
2883:
2463:"Animal Drawn Plough | Definition, Equipment Features & Uses | Golden Crop"
1548:, are even used under the sea for laying cables or for preparing the earth for
365:
3740:
3715:
3710:
3694:
3577:
3410:
3060:
2462:
1820:
1718:
1699:
1609:
1465:
1434:
1150:
The first mould-board ploughs could only turn the soil over in one direction (
679:
646:
622:
611:
583:
520:
188:
2869:
2412:
1985:
37:"Furrow", "Plow", and "Plowman" redirect here. For the Canadian soldier, see
3617:
3587:
3542:
3035:
1624:
1380:
Modern ploughs are usually multiply reversible, mounted on a tractor with a
1306:
1286:
1071:
1008:
738:
551:
466:
284:
250:
2487:
645:
or sandy soils that are naturally fertilised by annual flooding, as in the
359:'to look after, nurse'), which would explain, for example, Old High German
17:
3771:
3537:
1884:
1490:
1249:
1039:
626:
387:'rag, patch, stain'). Finally, Vladimir Orel (2003) tentatively attaches
3426:
2831:
The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World
1030:, suggesting possible early use in that region. General adoption of the
889:
705:
The mouldboard plow leaves distinct furrows (trenches) across the field.
488:
382:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3562:
3383:
2765:
Jonathan Bell, "Wooden Ploughs From the Mountains of Mourne, Ireland",
1620:
1499:
1455:
1410:
1406:
1159:
1086:
1031:
1016:
982:
870:
711:
528:
493:
181:
177:
166:
139:
3403:
Larding the Lean Earth: Soil and Society in Nineteenth-Century America
1191:
3684:
3674:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3552:
3397:
Nanchinadu: Harbinger of Rice and Plough Culture in the Ancient World
2322:
Empires of food: feast, famine and the rise and fall of civilizations
1486:
1103:. A single-piece cast-iron plough was also developed and patented by
654:
301:
103:
62:
Traditional ploughing: a farmer works the land with horses and plough
3458:
2077:
Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language
523:. These were used in highly fertile areas, such as the banks of the
244:
238:
232:
2825:
Evi Margaritis and Martin K. Jones: "Greek and Roman Agriculture",
3725:
3662:
3592:
2223:
1605:
1519:
1444:
1428:
1364:
1322:
1223:
1190:
1141:
1120:
1057:
1050:
1049:
986:
888:
840:
814:
783:
716:
700:
675:
664:
569:
557:
545:
487:
116:
57:
2619:"What is a Plough - Meaning - Types of Plows & Use of Plough"
2386:
Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu.
1034:
heavy plough in Europe seems to have accompanied adoption of the
3118:
Ploughing by Steam A History of Steam Cultivation Over the Years
1167:
928:
The front or rear furrow wheel of the plough runs in the furrow.
796:
642:
524:
215:
150:
143:
127:
99:
3486:
3482:
3011:"What are the types of plough? | Amtec Group (amtec-group.com)"
3532:
1070:, when there was rapid progress in design. Joseph Foljambe in
733:
582:, were pointed and strong enough to clear rocky soil and make
31:
2786:
Production, Growth, and the Environment: An Economic Approach
421:"crack", though the word may not be of Indo-European origin.
180:. Used instead is shallower ploughing or other less-invasive
90:
909:
Disc ploughs can be used where mould plows are not suitable.
2361:"Computersmiths – History of Chinese Invention – Iron Plow"
625:, India. A terracotta model of the early ards was found at
595:
550:
Ancient Egyptian ard, c. 1200 BCE. (Burial chamber of
2599:(New York: Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2006), pp. 11–12.
211:, the plough was traditionally known by other names, e.g.
2591:
2589:
2556:"The 7 Types of Excavators: Which One Should You Choose?"
1631:
due to improper land and plough utilisation is possible.
1493:
grown buried in ridges of soil, using a technique called
2676:"Castlepollard venue to host Westmeath ploughing finals"
732:
A series of ploughings run down a field leaves a row of
925:
The land wheel of the plough runs on the ploughed land.
1934:"Anglo-Saxon 7th Century plough coulter found in Kent"
1269:. Instead, counterbalanced, wheeled ploughs, known as
1162:, (or "furrow's length", 220 yards (200 m)) by a
407:
3061:"The John Deere Plow Invention and the NIHF Inductee"
2148:
Wörter und Sachen im Lichte der Bezeichnungsforschung
1273:, were drawn by cables across the fields by pairs of
2816:(New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982).
1107:
in the United States. This was again improved on by
397:
296:) and is thought to be a loan from one of the north
119:
first came to use wheeled ploughs in the Roman era.
87:
84:
3759:
3703:
3520:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2971:
1204:again working the field in a consistent direction.
749:There are five major parts of a mouldboard plough:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2295:
161:to pull ploughs. These in turn were superseded by
3309:"Agriculture :: Oil Seeds :: Groundnut"
2743:. St Mary's Famine History Museum. Archived from
460:(knife coulter pictured, but disk coulter common)
3459:Breast Ploughs and other antique hand farm tools
3325:Case display notes, Canal and Ice Museum, London
2067:, s.v. "plough" (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996).
991:Chinese iron plough with curved mouldboard, 1637
3454:as developed by John Deere in the United States
1062:'A Champion ploughman', from Australia, c. 1900
902:There are multiple types of ploughs available.
684:
287:
253:
3220:Principles of Soil Conservation and Management
1957:. Biblo & Tannen Publishers. p. 211.
1174:topography still seen in some ancient fields.
102:tool for loosening or turning the soil before
3498:
3445:the first commercially successful iron plough
3217:Blanco-Canqui, Humberto; Lal, Rattan (2008).
2936:"Debate: Who really invented the steel plow?"
912:Rotary ploughs are used to prepare seed beds.
906:Mould board ploughs cut the soil into pieces.
262:
222:
8:
2183:, s.v. "*plĹŤČťuz" (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 292.
2167:, s.v. "*plĹŤga-" (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 398.
1980:
1978:
1976:
1974:
304:
271:
1485:A ridging plough is used for crops such as
1146:Single-sided ploughing in a ploughing match
416:
335:
329:
323:
3505:
3491:
3483:
3471:"Tractor Guide Saves Labor for the Farmer"
3411:"A Variable Approach-Angle Moldboard Plow"
3181:"Richard Smith and his Stump Jumping Plow"
2319:Fraser, Evan D. G.; Rimas, Andrew (2011).
2257:The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives
1623:. Typically, farmers break that up with a
1524:Cutting ice in Norway using an ice plough
1423:
429:The basic parts of the modern plough are:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2349:
2165:Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic
2079:, s.v. "plow" (NY: Gramercy Books, 1996).
1954:Roman Britain and the English Settlements
657:-growing region with light or thin soil.
614:, Czech Republic. A ploughed field, from
515:, soil was turned using simple hand-held
2884:"THE RANSOMES COLLECTION - Archives Hub"
1810:Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cincinnati
1422:than other types of plough, such as the
1280:
669:A reconstruction of a mould-board plough
444:
2220:"Institute of Archeology of CAS report"
1900:
1793:Plough pictured in the coat of arms of
1646:
819:Farmer ploughing with two horses, 1890s
107:wheels; such a plough was known to the
3343:Natural Resources Conservation Service
3279:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3272:
2987:The Heritage of Marion County, Alabama
2065:Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology
1298:
1294:
1228:Early tractor-drawn two-furrow plough.
492:13th century depiction of a ploughing
3143:"Kemna, Julius - Deutsche Biographie"
2644:
2642:
2640:
2307:Medieval Technology and Social Change
2137:, s.v. "ploeg" (Leiden: Brill, 1971).
578:Some ancient hoes, like the Egyptian
355:'to take responsibility' (cf. German
197:Debate between the hoe and the plough
7:
3120:. Ashgrove press. pp. 104–105.
2868:. rotherhamweb.co.uk. Archived from
2707:Patrick Freyne (27 September 2009).
2518:. Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung.
2373:
3368:Science and Civilization in China 6
3179:Coleman, Dudley (22 January 1948).
3116:Haining, John; Tyler, John (1985).
2583:, London: Thames and Hudson, p. 59.
2325:. London: Arrow Books. p. 37.
2135:Nederlands Etymologisch Woordenboek
1338:was invented in 1876 by Australian
653:, and to a lesser extent any other
566:seal, circa 2200 BCE. Louvre Museum
3295:"Fodder and Grass: Country plough"
1220:Riding and multiple-furrow ploughs
762:Frog (sometimes called a standard)
741:run-off drains away more quickly.
276:, all presumably referring to the
153:were used in many areas. With the
25:
3092:discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk
2833:, Oxford University Press, 2008,
2018:. India: Ratna Sagar. p. 7.
1042:, ploughlands, and plough gates.
2442:education.nationalgeographic.org
2309:(Oxford: University Press, 1962)
2181:A Handbook of Germanic Etymology
1823:
1801:
1786:
1777:
1765:
1744:
1725:
1706:
1684:
1668:
1652:
1614:seedcorn maggots-bean seed flies
1599:Effects of mould-board ploughing
169:in the early 20th century. The
80:
3405:(New York: Hill and Wang, 2002)
3378:(2003) 56#3, pp. 444–477,
2852:"A Brief History of The Plough"
2597:The Technology of Ancient China
1831:Agriculture and Agronomy portal
1369:A British woman ploughing on a
1241:Improving metallurgy and design
586:, which is why they are called
513:agriculture was first developed
283:The modern word comes from the
138:before planting. Ploughing and
2812:, trans. by K. C. Chang etc.,
207:In older English, as in other
1:
2560:www.heavyequipmentrentals.com
1546:pipe-and-cable-laying ploughs
1525:
615:
347:as a derivative of the verb *
126:to the surface while burying
2674:Paul Hughes (3 March 2011).
2650:"FMP 211 :: Lecture 06"
2413:"FMP 211 :: Lecture 05"
2200:(in Polish). 22 January 2014
2015:Living Sci. 8 Silver Jubilee
2012:Sahgal, A C; Sahgal, Mukul.
1913:Cambridge English Dictionary
1449:Bigham Brother Tomato Tiller
1261:The invention of the mobile
641:. The ard is best suited to
621:BCE, was also discovered at
381:'cloth', Middle High German
3633:Pruning shears or secateurs
3450:History of the steel plough
3036:"Draft Horse Plowing Match"
2534:ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in
1373:recruitment poster for the
1101:James Anderson of Hermiston
408:
3914:
3392:, Vol. LXV, 1990, pp 73–83
3147:www.deutsche-biographie.de
2709:"The plough and the stars"
2581:Greek and Roman Technology
2089:Weller, Judith A. (1999).
1849:Conduit current collection
1753:Ploughing in the Nivernais
1316:
980:
965:
574:Ploughing in Mysore, India
539:
504:
398:
191:, over which is better: a
36:
29:
3800:
3223:. Springer. p. 198.
2841:, pp. 158–174 (166, 170).
2789:. CRC Press. p. 63.
2515:Reisen in den Philippinen
2260:. ABC-CLIO. p. 121.
2121:5, no. 2 (1964): 176–190.
2039:Jiménez, Enrique (2017).
1195:A four-furrow reversible
933:Plough protective devices
788:Two types of traditional
604:Indus Valley Civilisation
223:
193:Sumerian disputation poem
3841:Machine and metalworking
3415:Transactions of the ASAE
3366:Bray, Francesca (1984).
3086:Archives, The National.
2950:"John Deere (1804–1886)"
2717:. Dublin. Archived from
2608:Hill and Kucharski 1990.
1991:Encyclopaedia Britannica
1733:Henry Herbert La Thangue
1019:until the 17th century.
795:-drawn ploughs used for
759:Landside (short or long)
562:Farmers using a plough.
496:, Royal Library of Spain
403:, which supposedly gave
309:"wheeled heavy plough" (
157:came the possibility of
30:Not to be confused with
3851:Measuring and alignment
3376:Economic History Review
3088:"The Discovery Service"
2783:Weber, William (2014).
2254:McIntosh, Jane (2008).
449:Diagram – modern plough
383:
305:
288:
272:
254:
245:
239:
233:
216:
51:Plough (disambiguation)
47:Furrow (disambiguation)
41:. For the surname, see
3893:History of agriculture
3185:The Adelaide Chronicle
3141:Biographie, Deutsche.
2911:Scots Who Made America
2888:archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk
2866:"The Rotherham Plough"
2773:(1985) 5#2. pp. 85–98.
2388:"Single-furrow plough"
2119:Technology and Culture
2095:Roman Traction Systems
1874:Ransome Victory Plough
1864:History of agriculture
1859:Headland (agriculture)
1531:
1450:
1442:
1377:
1344:Clarence Herbert Smith
1342:alongside his brother
1331:
1290:
1229:
1200:
1147:
1138:Single-sided ploughing
1063:
1055:
992:
894:
846:
820:
800:
729:
724:used for ploughing in
706:
695:
670:
575:
567:
555:
497:
450:
417:
336:
330:
324:
263:
63:
45:. For other uses, see
27:Tool or farm implement
3464:24 March 2010 at the
2908:Wilson, Rick (2015).
2872:on 24 September 2015.
2512:Jagor, Fedor (1873).
1552:in a process used in
1523:
1448:
1432:
1368:
1330:in Australia, c. 1900
1326:
1284:
1227:
1194:
1145:
1061:
1053:
990:
892:
844:
818:
787:
720:
704:
668:
661:Mould-board ploughing
573:
561:
549:
491:
448:
155:Industrial Revolution
61:
3816:Cutting and abrasive
3782:Irrigation sprinkler
3441:The Rotherham Plough
2595:Robert Greenberger,
2579:K. D. White (1984):
1663:banknote issued 1908
1340:Richard Bowyer Smith
1068:Age of Enlightenment
893:19th century ploughs
331:plĹŤstrum, plĹŤstellum
182:conservation tillage
130:and crop remains to
3427:10.13031/2013.33944
3336:"Tillage Equipment"
3252:www.hillagric.ac.in
2771:Tools & Tillage
2767:Tools & Tillage
2741:"The Famine Potato"
2623:Tractor Agriculture
2063:C. T. Onions, ed.,
1659:Back side of a 100
1382:three-point linkage
163:internal-combustion
39:Edward Chester Plow
3395:V. Sankaran Nair,
3261:on 4 November 2019
2938:. 9 November 2017.
2827:Oleson, John Peter
2681:Westmeath Examiner
2492:www.britannica.com
2091:"Agricultural Use"
1532:
1451:
1443:
1424:mould-board plough
1388:Specialist ploughs
1378:
1332:
1299:reversible ploughs
1291:
1230:
1201:
1148:
1111:, a blacksmith of
1064:
1056:
1036:three-field system
993:
895:
847:
821:
801:
730:
707:
671:
576:
568:
556:
498:
463:chisel (foreshare)
454:vertical regulator
451:
337:plĹŤxenum, plĹŤximum
280:(scratch plough).
220:(modern dialectal
209:Germanic languages
64:
3875:
3874:
3704:Manual or powered
3476:Popular Mechanics
3187:. pp. 18, 23
3067:. 20 January 2024
2839:978-0-19-518731-1
2688:on 2 October 2011
2226:on 29 August 2018
2050:978-90-04-33625-4
1633:Contour ploughing
1507:Scots hand plough
1375:Women's Land Army
1336:stump-jump plough
1319:Stump-jump plough
1313:Stump-jump plough
1275:ploughing engines
1197:Kverneland plough
1187:Reversible plough
1178:Turn-wrest plough
884:Ancient Near East
377:'sod', Old Norse
373:'sod' (cf. Dutch
319:18, 172), and in
78:(both pronounced
43:Plowman (surname)
16:(Redirected from
3905:
3623:Post hole digger
3507:
3500:
3493:
3484:
3430:
3371:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3349:
3340:
3332:
3326:
3323:
3317:
3316:
3315:on 24 July 2019.
3311:. Archived from
3305:
3299:
3298:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3278:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3260:
3254:. Archived from
3249:
3241:
3235:
3234:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3203:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3138:
3132:
3131:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3100:
3098:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3072:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3046:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3021:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2983:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2952:. Archived from
2946:
2940:
2939:
2932:
2926:
2925:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2880:
2874:
2873:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2848:
2842:
2823:
2817:
2814:Han Civilization
2807:
2801:
2800:
2780:
2774:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2737:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2721:on 31 March 2012
2704:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2684:. Archived from
2671:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2660:
2646:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2625:. 2 October 2019
2615:
2609:
2606:
2600:
2593:
2584:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2509:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2459:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2423:
2409:
2403:
2402:
2400:
2398:
2383:
2377:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2357:
2344:
2343:
2341:
2339:
2316:
2310:
2305:Lynn White Jr.,
2303:
2290:
2289:
2286:Story of Farming
2278:
2272:
2271:
2251:
2245:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2222:. Archived from
2216:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2190:
2184:
2174:
2168:
2161:
2155:
2144:
2138:
2128:
2122:
2112:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2086:
2080:
2074:
2068:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2009:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1982:
1969:
1968:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1905:
1833:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1805:
1790:
1781:
1769:
1748:
1729:
1710:
1688:
1672:
1656:
1530:
1527:
1172:ridge and furrow
1128:surface-hardened
1113:Scipio, New York
1046:Improved designs
877:Iron ploughshare
693:
651:Fertile Crescent
620:
617:
420:
411:
401:
400:
386:
369:-derivative of *
339:
333:
327:
308:
298:Italic languages
291:
275:
266:
257:
248:
242:
236:
226:
225:
219:
97:
96:
93:
92:
89:
86:
21:
3913:
3912:
3908:
3907:
3906:
3904:
3903:
3902:
3878:
3877:
3876:
3871:
3870:
3796:
3755:
3699:
3516:
3511:
3479:, December 1934
3466:Wayback Machine
3437:
3408:
3365:
3362:
3360:Further reading
3357:
3347:
3345:
3338:
3334:
3333:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3307:
3306:
3302:
3293:
3292:
3288:
3271:
3264:
3262:
3258:
3247:
3245:"Archived copy"
3243:
3242:
3238:
3231:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3205:
3204:
3200:
3190:
3188:
3178:
3177:
3173:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3152:
3150:
3140:
3139:
3135:
3128:
3115:
3114:
3110:
3096:
3094:
3085:
3084:
3080:
3070:
3068:
3059:
3058:
3054:
3044:
3042:
3034:
3033:
3029:
3019:
3017:
3015:amtec-group.com
3009:
3008:
3004:
2997:
2985:
2984:
2969:
2959:
2957:
2956:on 28 July 2020
2948:
2947:
2943:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2922:
2907:
2906:
2902:
2892:
2890:
2882:
2881:
2877:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2824:
2820:
2808:
2804:
2797:
2782:
2781:
2777:
2764:
2760:
2750:
2748:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2724:
2722:
2706:
2705:
2701:
2691:
2689:
2673:
2672:
2668:
2658:
2656:
2648:
2647:
2638:
2628:
2626:
2617:
2616:
2612:
2607:
2603:
2594:
2587:
2578:
2574:
2564:
2562:
2554:Muth, Reannon.
2553:
2552:
2548:
2538:
2536:
2528:
2527:
2523:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2496:
2494:
2486:
2485:
2481:
2471:
2469:
2461:
2460:
2456:
2446:
2444:
2436:
2435:
2431:
2421:
2419:
2411:
2410:
2406:
2396:
2394:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2372:
2368:
2359:
2358:
2347:
2337:
2335:
2333:
2318:
2317:
2313:
2304:
2293:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2268:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2229:
2227:
2218:
2217:
2213:
2203:
2201:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2175:
2171:
2162:
2158:
2145:
2141:
2129:
2125:
2113:
2109:
2099:
2097:
2088:
2087:
2083:
2075:
2071:
2062:
2058:
2051:
2038:
2037:
2033:
2026:
2011:
2010:
2006:
1996:
1994:
1984:
1983:
1972:
1965:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1940:. 7 April 2011.
1932:
1931:
1927:
1917:
1915:
1907:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1869:Railroad plough
1829:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1812:
1806:
1797:
1791:
1782:
1773:
1770:
1761:
1749:
1740:
1737:The Last Furrow
1730:
1721:
1715:Gefion Fountain
1711:
1702:
1689:
1680:
1673:
1664:
1657:
1645:
1601:
1592:
1583:
1574:
1554:oil exploration
1550:side-scan sonar
1541:
1528:
1518:
1509:
1483:
1475:
1395:
1390:
1363:
1321:
1315:
1271:balance ploughs
1267:traction engine
1259:
1243:
1222:
1189:
1180:
1140:
1105:Charles Newbold
1048:
985:
979:
970:
964:
935:
919:
900:
879:
799:-farming (1873)
747:
694:
691:
663:
618:
564:Akkadian Empire
544:
538:
509:
503:
486:
441:British English
427:
230:Old High German
205:
83:
79:
54:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3911:
3909:
3901:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3880:
3879:
3873:
3872:
3869:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3806:Types of tools
3802:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3794:
3792:String trimmer
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3763:
3761:
3757:
3756:
3754:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3707:
3705:
3701:
3700:
3698:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3671:
3670:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3573:Grass Stitcher
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3524:
3522:
3518:
3517:
3512:
3510:
3509:
3502:
3495:
3487:
3481:
3480:
3468:
3456:
3447:
3436:
3435:External links
3433:
3432:
3431:
3421:(2): 392–396.
3406:
3401:Steven Stoll,
3399:
3393:
3386:
3372:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3355:
3327:
3318:
3300:
3286:
3236:
3229:
3209:
3198:
3171:
3160:
3133:
3126:
3108:
3078:
3065:www.invent.org
3052:
3027:
3002:
2995:
2967:
2941:
2927:
2920:
2900:
2875:
2857:
2843:
2818:
2802:
2795:
2775:
2758:
2747:on 24 May 2011
2732:
2714:Sunday Tribune
2699:
2666:
2636:
2610:
2601:
2585:
2572:
2546:
2521:
2504:
2479:
2467:www.rgexim.com
2454:
2429:
2404:
2378:
2376:, p. 178.
2366:
2345:
2332:978-0099534723
2331:
2311:
2291:
2273:
2266:
2246:
2237:
2211:
2185:
2169:
2163:Guus Kroonen,
2156:
2139:
2123:
2107:
2081:
2069:
2056:
2049:
2031:
2024:
2004:
1970:
1963:
1943:
1925:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1835:
1834:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1813:
1807:
1800:
1798:
1792:
1785:
1783:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1764:
1762:
1750:
1743:
1741:
1731:
1724:
1722:
1712:
1705:
1703:
1690:
1683:
1681:
1674:
1667:
1665:
1658:
1651:
1649:
1648:Ploughs in art
1644:
1641:
1637:no-till method
1600:
1597:
1591:
1588:
1582:
1579:
1573:
1570:
1540:
1537:
1517:
1514:
1508:
1505:
1482:
1481:Ridging plough
1479:
1474:
1473:Country plough
1471:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1362:
1361:Modern ploughs
1359:
1317:Main article:
1314:
1311:
1258:
1257:Balance plough
1255:
1242:
1239:
1221:
1218:
1188:
1185:
1179:
1176:
1152:conventionally
1139:
1136:
1079:Robert Ransome
1047:
1044:
981:Main article:
978:
975:
966:Main article:
963:
960:
934:
931:
930:
929:
926:
923:
918:
915:
914:
913:
910:
907:
899:
896:
878:
875:
845:A steel plough
839:
838:
834:
830:
826:
767:
766:
763:
760:
757:
754:
746:
743:
692:Francesca Bray
689:
662:
659:
540:Main article:
537:
534:
517:digging sticks
505:Main article:
502:
499:
485:
482:
474:
473:
470:
464:
461:
455:
452:
434:
426:
423:
204:
201:
117:Celtic peoples
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3910:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3888:Farming tools
3886:
3885:
3883:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3764:
3762:
3758:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3731:Hedge trimmer
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3706:
3702:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3669:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3628:Potting bench
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3548:Daisy grubber
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3508:
3503:
3501:
3496:
3494:
3489:
3488:
3485:
3478:
3477:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3463:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3442:
3439:
3438:
3434:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3407:
3404:
3400:
3398:
3394:
3391:
3387:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3364:
3363:
3359:
3344:
3337:
3331:
3328:
3322:
3319:
3314:
3310:
3304:
3301:
3296:
3290:
3287:
3282:
3276:
3257:
3253:
3246:
3240:
3237:
3232:
3230:9781402087097
3226:
3222:
3221:
3213:
3210:
3202:
3199:
3186:
3182:
3175:
3172:
3164:
3161:
3148:
3144:
3137:
3134:
3129:
3123:
3119:
3112:
3109:
3105:
3093:
3089:
3082:
3079:
3066:
3062:
3056:
3053:
3041:
3037:
3031:
3028:
3016:
3012:
3006:
3003:
2998:
2996:1-891647-28-8
2992:
2988:
2982:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2972:
2968:
2955:
2951:
2945:
2942:
2937:
2931:
2928:
2923:
2921:9780857908827
2917:
2913:
2912:
2904:
2901:
2889:
2885:
2879:
2876:
2871:
2867:
2861:
2858:
2853:
2847:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2822:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2810:Wang Zhongshu
2806:
2803:
2798:
2796:9781482243062
2792:
2788:
2787:
2779:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2762:
2759:
2746:
2742:
2736:
2733:
2720:
2716:
2715:
2710:
2703:
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1024:Roman Britain
1020:
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998:heavy ploughs
989:
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977:Heavy ploughs
976:
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969:
962:Loy ploughing
961:
959:
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719:
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354:
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328:"farm cart",
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159:steam engines
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3746:Lawn sweeper
3736:Lawn aerator
3680:Watering can
3568:Grass shears
3528:Averruncator
3514:Garden tools
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3097:26 September
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2214:
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2197:
2188:
2180:
2172:
2164:
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2151:
2147:
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2134:
2131:Jan de Vries
2126:
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2110:
2098:. Retrieved
2094:
2084:
2076:
2072:
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2059:
2040:
2034:
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2007:
1997:16 September
1995:. Retrieved
1989:
1953:
1946:
1937:
1928:
1918:16 September
1916:. Retrieved
1912:
1903:
1879:Silviculture
1808:Flag of the
1758:Rosa Bonheur
1751:
1736:
1692:Robert Burns
1677:Italian lira
1629:Soil erosion
1618:
1602:
1593:
1584:
1581:Spade plough
1575:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1542:
1533:
1510:
1498:
1494:
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1460:
1452:
1403:crop residue
1398:
1396:
1379:
1351:
1348:
1333:
1328:Disc ploughs
1292:
1270:
1263:steam engine
1260:
1244:
1235:
1231:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1181:
1155:
1149:
1132:
1125:
1097:Scots plough
1096:
1091:
1083:iron founder
1076:
1065:
1021:
1013:Song dynasty
1002:
997:
994:
971:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
917:Plough wheel
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880:
865:
863:
858:
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808:
806:
802:
779:
775:
770:
768:
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708:
696:
685:
672:
631:
607:
587:
579:
577:
542:Ard (plough)
510:
478:
475:
428:
405:Old Armenian
396:
388:
378:
374:
370:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
342:
334:"cart", and
314:
282:
221:
206:
186:
175:
171:Petty Plough
148:
121:
112:
75:
67:
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3866:Woodworking
3787:Leaf blower
3777:Garden hose
3767:Brushcutter
3760:Power tools
3721:Earth auger
3690:Wheelbarrow
3558:Garden fork
3149:(in German)
3045:13 December
3040:rbogash.com
2960:1 September
2914:. Birlinn.
2198:Białczyński
2115:Jaan Puhvel
1890:Whippletree
1854:Foot plough
1610:crane flies
1572:Para-plough
1539:Mole plough
1529: 1910
1466:Cultivators
1420:sustainable
1371:World War I
1355:disc harrow
1303:John Fowler
1109:Jethro Wood
1093:James Small
1005:Han dynasty
1003:Before the
968:Loy (spade)
809:mould board
726:Si Phan Don
619: 2800
600:Mesopotamia
590:. However,
584:seed drills
507:Hoe-farming
469:(mainshare)
213:Old English
140:cultivating
18:Chisel plow
3882:Categories
3741:Lawn mower
3716:Dethatcher
3711:Cultivator
3695:Wood auger
3521:Hand tools
3265:11 January
3127:0906798493
3071:21 January
3020:5 December
2893:5 December
2497:8 November
2397:8 November
2282:"The Plow"
1896:References
1719:Copenhagen
1700:Pittsburgh
1643:Depictions
1516:Ice Plough
1435:John Deere
1295:turn-wrest
1246:John Deere
1117:John Deere
851:land side
753:Mouldboard
680:Han Empire
647:Nile Delta
623:Kalibangan
472:mouldboard
343:Many view
316:Nat. Hist.
306:plaumorati
246:huohilī(n)
3618:Pitchfork
3588:Hori hori
3543:Broadfork
2417:eagri.org
2374:Bray 1984
2230:28 August
1625:subsoiler
1491:scallions
1433:A modern
1407:ploughpan
1285:A German
1072:Rotherham
1040:carucates
1009:cast iron
765:Tailpiece
739:meltwater
588:hand-ards
552:Sennedjem
371:plag/kkĹŤn
325:plaustrum
285:Old Norse
251:Old Norse
203:Etymology
165:-powered
124:nutrients
3821:Forestry
3811:Cleaning
3772:Chainsaw
3538:Billhook
3462:Archived
3275:cite web
3191:4 August
3104:ploughs.
2659:22 April
2629:22 April
2438:"runoff"
2338:17 April
2100:20 April
1938:BBC News
1909:"Plough"
1885:Snowplow
1817:See also
1694:statue,
1487:potatoes
1439:coulters
1250:Illinois
1077:In 1789
790:Filipino
690:—
627:Banawali
602:and the
529:mattocks
167:tractors
136:harrowed
3898:Ploughs
3846:Masonry
3836:Kitchen
3613:Pickaxe
3608:Mattock
3603:Machete
3598:Loppers
3563:Grafter
3384:3698571
3348:11 June
3153:18 July
2829:, ed.:
1621:hardpan
1500:hilling
1495:ridging
1456:tractor
1415:no-till
1411:hardpan
1307:J.Kemna
1160:furlong
1087:Ipswich
1032:carruca
1017:Holland
983:Carruca
871:furlong
712:topsoil
635:coulter
612:BubeneÄŤ
494:peasant
484:History
458:coulter
443:: hake)
384:pflacke
357:pflegen
267:), and
260:Swedish
178:erosion
113:aratrum
98:) is a
3856:Mining
3826:Garden
3751:Plough
3685:Weeder
3675:Trowel
3658:Sickle
3653:Shovel
3648:Scythe
3643:Riddle
3553:Dibber
3382:
3227:
3124:
2993:
2918:
2837:
2793:
2751:1 June
2725:1 June
2692:1 June
2565:5 July
2539:5 July
2472:2 June
2447:5 July
2422:5 July
2329:
2264:
2204:5 July
2047:
2022:
1986:"Plow"
1961:
1760:(1849)
1739:, 1895
1028:Slavic
866:runner
781:depth.
728:, Laos
655:cereal
501:Hoeing
399:blĹŤkĂł-
395:stem *
389:plough
366:vṛddhi
361:pfluog
353:plegan
349:plehan
345:plough
302:Raetic
294:Gothic
269:Gothic
234:medela
224:sullow
146:grow.
111:as an
109:Romans
104:sowing
68:plough
3861:Power
3726:Edger
3663:Spade
3593:Kirpi
3380:JSTOR
3339:(PDF)
3259:(PDF)
3248:(PDF)
1843:Greek
1675:1975
1606:slugs
1287:Kemna
1248:, an
1164:chain
1156:lands
1121:steel
1081:, an
898:Types
771:share
756:Share
745:Parts
676:China
643:loamy
511:When
467:share
437:hitch
425:Parts
418:bwlch
414:Welsh
409:peɫem
391:to a
379:plagg
321:Latin
311:Pliny
289:plĂłgr
264:ĂĄrder
240:geiza
151:mules
144:roots
132:decay
128:weeds
3831:Hand
3638:Rake
3583:Homi
3350:2012
3281:link
3267:2022
3225:ISBN
3193:2023
3155:2020
3122:ISBN
3099:2017
3073:2024
3047:2023
3022:2023
2991:ISBN
2962:2007
2916:ISBN
2895:2023
2835:ISBN
2791:ISBN
2753:2011
2727:2011
2694:2011
2661:2024
2631:2024
2567:2023
2541:2023
2499:2022
2474:2023
2449:2023
2424:2023
2399:2022
2340:2024
2327:ISBN
2262:ISBN
2232:2018
2206:2023
2102:2012
2045:ISBN
2020:ISBN
1999:2018
1959:ISBN
1920:2018
1795:Aura
1713:The
1679:coin
1661:mark
1409:and
1397:The
1334:The
1297:and
1168:acre
859:frog
857:The
849:The
807:The
797:rice
769:The
734:sods
649:and
596:oxen
525:Nile
521:hoes
519:and
433:beam
375:plag
273:hĹŤha
255:arĂ°r
217:sulh
100:farm
76:plow
70:or (
49:and
3668:Loy
3578:Hoe
3533:Axe
3423:doi
1756:by
1717:in
1497:or
1489:or
1357:).
1352:see
1099:of
1085:in
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678:'s
608:ard
598:in
594:of
536:Ard
393:PIE
351:~ *
278:ard
228:),
189:hoe
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
