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Burkinabé occupation of its territory. Burkina Faso requested the ordered withdrawal of all troops from the region, but Mali argued this contravened the terms of the ANAD truce. The court responded by advising both parties to continue mediation under ANAD's auspices, work out a troop withdrawal agreement, and take all measures to avoid conflict pending the adjudication of the border dispute. The parties began their oral arguments before the ICJ in June, and the court issued a ruling on the matter by a five-member panel of judges on 22 December 1986. The court split the disputed territory among the parties; Mali received the more-densely populated western portion and
Burkina Faso the eastern section centered on the BĂ©li. Both countries indicated their satisfaction with the judgement.
912:
CNR. Some
Burkinabé soldiers were angered by Sankara's failure to prosecute the war more aggressively and rally a counteroffensive against Mali. It also demonstrated the country's weak international position and forced the CNR to craft a more moderate image of its policies and goals abroad. The Burkinabé Government made little reference to supporting revolution in other countries in the conflict's aftermath, while its relations with France modestly improved. At a rally held after the war, Sankara conceded that his country's military was not adequately armed and announced the commutation of sentences for numerous political prisoners. Burkina Faso subsequently acquired additional combat aircraft.
55:
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conducting its decennial national census from 10 to 20 December. On 14 December military personnel entered the
Agacher to assist with the census. Mali accused the military authorities of pressuring Malian citizens in the border villages of Dionouga, Sebba, Kounia, and Douna to register with the census, a charge which Burkina Faso disputed. Dionouga, Sebba, and Kounia lay on the Burkinabé side of the disputed area, while Douna was under Malian jurisdiction. In Dionouga Malian nationals threw stones at the Burkinabé census personnel. In response, a few
223:
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further hostilities. The relatively poor performance of
Burkina Faso during the war damaged the credibility of its revolutionary rulers and led them to project a more moderate international image. In Mali, the war added to the country's economic difficulties but boosted the popularity of Traoré's struggling regime. The International Court of Justice later ruled the Agacher Strip to be split among the two countries, a settlement which both accepted.
132:
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same time period the Malian
Government was threatened with a national strike by educators over delays in compensation. Under pressure from labour unions and student activists, the government contravened its previous position—that there were no funds for wages—and paid the teachers. Feeling threatened by Sankara, Traoré began preparing Mali for hostilities with Burkina Faso. Three
119:
688:, it was also hoped that a war would distract the Malian populace from their country's troubled economy. Former Sankara aide Paul Michaud wrote that the Burkinabé president had actually intended to provoke Mali into conflict with the aim of mobilising popular support for his regime. According to him "an official—and reliable—Malian source" had reported that
865:. Sixteen Burkinabé and two Malian soldiers were held as prisoners of war. Official statistics given list the casualties as 48 Burkinabé and 11 Malians killed. Burkina Faso claimed to have destroyed four Malian tanks. The Burkinabé towns of Ouahigouya, Djibo, and Nassambou were left badly damaged by the fighting.
943:
on 17 January Traoré and
Sankara met and formalised an agreement to end hostilities. On 26 February 15 captured Malian civilians were exchanged for eight Burkinabé civilians in Bamako, marking the second and last of the prisoner exchanges. In March an Economic Community of West Africa summit was held
938:
As per the ceasefire, a 16-member West
African observer force was dispatched to the Agacher to monitor the border. It was withdrawn before the end of January 1986. One Ivorian helicopter crashed while overseeing the ceasefire. On 8 January the Red Cross oversaw the exchange of the two captured Malian
646:
who were preparing a tribunal. Three days later Malian police entered Kounia to "restore order". Burkina Faso made diplomatic representations on the incidents to Mali, but was given no formal response. At the beginning of
December Burkina Faso informed Mali and other surrounding countries that it was
512:
to stall Malian tanks. Mali subsequently occupied most of the
Agacher Strip, while both countries conducted raids on each other's locales. A ceasefire was reached on 30 December, and in early 1986 successful mediation by West African countries resulted in an agreement from Sankara and Traoré to avoid
947:
Following the ceasefire
Burkina Faso and Mali both petitioned the ICJ to impose interim measures to prevent further conflict until the court delivered its decision. Burkina Faso claimed that it had been the victim of Malian aggression, while Mali argued that it acted in self-defence by responding to
836:
escorted by 76 infantrymen staged an attack on the border village of Koloko. Moving along the Sikasso road, Burkinabé forces intercepted it at Mahon, 20 kilometres (12 mi) from the border. Mali reported that one of its soldiers was killed and eight wounded in the raid. The Malian Air Force also
561:
The lack of full demarcation first led to a dispute among riverine peoples along the BĂ©li in 1961. In 1968, a joint Upper Volta-Mali commission was established in an attempt to reach an agreement, but the group did not make any progress. A period of drought and the ensuing population displacement in
507:
In 1985, tensions rose between the Burkinabé and Malian governments as Sankara called for a revolution in Mali while Traoré's regime struggled to manage social unrest. After Burkinabé officials conducted a census in disputed border communities, Malian forces launched an offensive on 25 December with
663:
Despite the declared withdrawal, a "war of the communiques" ensued as Burkinabé and Malian authorities exchanged hostile messages with one another. The Malian government accused Burkina Faso of harassing local customary chiefs and forcing its nationals to accept Burkinabé identity cards. During the
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after he criticised Sankara's regime. In September Sankara delivered a speech in which he called for a revolution in Mali. Malian leaders were particularly sensitive to the inflammatory rhetoric, as their country was experiencing social unrest. Around the same time Sankara and other key figures in
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in the area—known as the Agacher Strip—was drawn using old French maps but never fully demarcated as French colonial ordinances had not carefully delineated the frontier. Upper Volta relied on colonial borders to stake its territorial claims; maps dating from 1920 showed several border communities
911:
Burkina Faso declared that the war was part of an "international plot" to bring down Sankara's government. It also rejected speculation that it was fought over rumoured mineral wealth in the Agacher. The country's relatively poor performance in the conflict damaged the domestic credibility of the
619:
Low rainfall in Mali created a severe drought in 1984, forcing Malian ranchers to drive their cattle south into northern Burkina Faso in search of water and adequate grazing land. This led to conflict with local crop farmers. In July 1985, Burkina Faso declared the Malian secretary general of the
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prohibited a recovery mission while negotiations were ongoing. Sangaré and Dembéle were both arrested after the war. Traoré then held a postwar conference with the leaders of the armed forces at the National Police School. As a result of the tank incident, it was decided at the meeting to demote
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attack. The Burkina Faso Army struggled to repel the offensive in the face of superior Malian firepower and were overwhelmed on the northern front; Malian forces quickly secured the towns of Dionouga, Selba, Kouna, and Douna in the Agacher. The garrison in Dionouga was overwhelmed; 15 Burkinabé
929:
in the country and that Malian teachers had connections with Sankara. The police subsequently arrested seven people over suspicions that they were agents of the Burkinabé government. Six of them were later charged with "insulting the head of state, rumour-mongering, conspiracy and harbouring a
768:
Burkina Faso accused Mali of conducting its offensive with the aid of an unnamed imperialist power and said that the conflict was "no longer a question of territorial claim but a direct open war between forces of reaction and revolution, between retrogression and the progressive Burkinabé
920:
to the government in support of the war effort, and migrant workers in CĂ´te d'Ivoire remitted about 500 million CFA francs. Malians also donated cattle, butter, rice, and petrol to the regime. Despite the appeals for national unity during the war, in his New Year's message broadcast over
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were allowed by both belligerents to visit prisoners of war. On 4 January 1986 Sankara presented military decorations to veterans of the conflict and publicly displayed several captured Malian armoured vehicles: two tanks and three other vehicles. One Malian tank of Daffé's southern
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created a mediation commission to resolve the disagreement and provide for an independent, neutral demarcation of the border. Both the Malian and Upper Voltan governments declared that they would not use armed force to end the dispute. In 1977 Upper Volta, Mali, and several other
915:
In Mali, the war added to the country's economic difficulties but boosted the popularity of Traoré's struggling regime. During the conflict, Malian foreign embassies were flooded with expatriates offering to volunteer for wartime service, businessmen abroad donated 100 million
752:
to reinforce the army, which was also joined by some armed Committees for the Defense of the Revolution and militia units. Mali mitigated Burkinabé counterattacks by conducting sorties with its MiG-21s, and Burkina Faso attempted to counter them by launching its sole
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in Ouagadougou and attended by both Sankara and Traoré. As a sign of reconciliation, the participants elected another Malian to replace the outgoing secretary general of the organisation. Mali and Burkina Faso reestablished formal diplomatic relations in June.
659:
also contacted Sankara and Traoré to encourage a peaceful resolution. At the request of ANAD members, Burkina Faso announced the withdrawal of all military personnel from the disputed region. Not all troops were withdrawn before hostilities broke out.
856:
By the time the truce was reached Mali had occupied most of the Agacher Strip. Over 100 Burkinabé and approximately 40 Malian soldiers and civilians were killed during the war. In addition to this, both belligerents executed some of their
603:(ICJ) and subsequently petitioned the body to resolve the issue. At the same time a new joint commission for bilateral cooperation was established, and the following month Upper Volta lifted its veto to allow Mali to join the
590:
in Upper Volta. Sankara became president and the officers established the Conseil National de la Revolution (CNR) to rule the country in a left-leaning, revolutionary fashion. He personally disliked Malian President
554:
within the colony of Upper Volta. Mali relied on ethnic arguments; Malian people had established several communities in the region to take advantage of grazing land. The Agacher was also rumoured to possess valuable
956:
In Burkina Faso the conflict is often remembered as the "Christmas War". The Agacher Strip War remains the only full-fledged interstate war to be fought over territory in West Africa since European decolonisation.
731:
The Burkinabé Government in Ouagadougou received word of hostilities at about 13:00 and immediately issued mobilisation orders. Various security measures were also imposed across the country, including nighttime
599:'s left-leaning regime. On 17 September 1983, Sankara, a veteran of the 1974 border clashes, visited Mali and met with Traoré. With Algerian mediation, the two agreed to have the border dispute settled by the
491:
between Mali and Burkina Faso since the 1960s. Following armed clashes in 1974, both countries agreed to mediation to resolve their differences. Progress on a solution stalled, and in 1983 Burkinabé President
487:
over a 160-kilometre-long (100 mi) strip of land along the border in northern Burkina Faso from 25 to 30 December 1985. The war ended in a ceasefire. The Agacher Strip had been subject to a
651:
units were sent into the three Burkinabé-administered villages. Malian police confronted the military personnel and, in an attempt to reduce tensions, ANAD dispatched a delegation to Bamako and
643:
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officials, which included the establishment of a military observer force at the border including personnel from both of their countries. Another settlement was created by President of
890:
The conflict was quickly dubbed the "War of the Poor" by the international press; Burkina Faso and Mali were among the poorest states in the world. In its aftermath officials from the
773:
were aiding the Malians. Radio Bamako countered by denouncing Burkina Faso as a country led by "thoughtless and misguided people". Though Burkina Faso had a mutual defence pact with
446:
922:
903:. The tank had been abandoned in Burkina Faso after being damaged in a firefight during the initial invasion and was left behind after the Chief of the General Staff
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attempted to cut off Malian forward units from their support in the rear. On the morning of 30 December Burkina Faso and Mali agreed to an ANAD-brokered ceasefire.
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were granted independence in 1960. In north-eastern Upper Volta an approximately 160-kilometre-long (100 mi) portion of land bordered to the north by Mali and
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Government." Burkinabé official media claimed that white soldiers were fighting alongside Malian forces. There were also rumours that Burkinabé exiles such as
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the region, further escalated tensions. In 1974 a brief armed conflict broke out between the two countries over the border dispute. In response, the
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684:. Once there, they would rally Burkinabé opposition forces to take Ouagadougou and overthrow Sankara. According to an analyses by the United States
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Sangaré from general to the rank of colonel and forcibly retire him, and discharge two lower officers from the army. Dembéle was also dismissed.
757:, though no air-to-air engagements occurred. Burkina Faso retaliated against the bombing of its towns on 26 December by conducting airstrikes on
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Immediately after hostilities began other African leaders attempted to institute a truce. One agreement was proposed by Libyan Foreign Minister
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aircraft and tanks. Overwhelmed by Mali's superior firepower, Burkinabé forces lost control of the Agacher border communities and resorted to
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and plotting to provoke a border war which would be used to support a counterrevolution. In October Burkina Faso and Mali filed their first
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1976:
Naldi, Gino J. (October 1986). "Case concerning the Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso and Mali: Provisional Measures of Protection".
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By 1983, Upper Volta and Mali were in disagreement about the work of the Organization of African Unity commission. On 4 August Captain
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54:
765:, several hundred kilometres away from the Agacher, claiming to have killed 15 Malian soldiers and destroyed two "military targets".
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829:. Mali and Burkina Faso pledged to adhere to a ceasefire beginning at midnight on 27 December, but this was immediately abandoned.
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202:
2103:
Weeramantry, Cristopher G. (1996). "Access to information: a new human right. The Right to Know". In Yusuf, Abdulqawi A. (ed.).
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documents dating to 19 December were found on the bodies of fallen Burkinabé soldiers during the ensuing war. On 20 December
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533:. The colony was abolished in 1932 and merged with surrounding territories until France decided to restore it in 1947. The
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tanks crossed the frontier and attacked several locations. Malian troops also attempted to envelope Bobo-Dioulasso in a
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Tensions at the border first began to rise on 24 November when one Burkinabé national killed another near the border in
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soldiers were captured while they slept and the rest were forced to retreat. At about 08:45 two Malian MiG-21s bombed
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849:, the state party of Mali, claimed the attacks inflicted significant damage and loss of life. Meanwhile, Burkinabé
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2005:
Peterson, Brian (2018). "The Perils of Non-Alignment: Thomas Sankara and the Cold War". In Murrey, Amber (ed.).
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833:
1400:"Mali : Moussa Traore : Une armée pour défendre chaque millimètre carré du territoire national"
642:. Malian police crossed the boundary to arrest the murderer and also detained several members of a local
32:"Christmas War" redirects here. For the controversy sometimes referred to as the "War on Christmas", see
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took command of this western front. Under his leadership soldiers split into small groups and employed
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soldiers and one interned Malian civilian for the 16 captive Burkinabé soldiers. At an ANAD summit in
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1943:
761:, killing four Malians and injuring four others. Burkinabé forces also raided the Malian town of
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526:
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1046:. Vol. 2. Sociéte d'éditions Afrique, Asie, Amérique latine. February 1986. pp. 46–48.
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2109:(in English and French). Vol. 3. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 99–125.
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1985:
1935:
883:
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1958:
Zones of Peace in the Third World: South America and West Africa in Comparative Perspective
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the CNR became convinced that Traoré was harbouring opposition to the Burkinabé regime in
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were formed to attack the country: one in the north led by Army Chief of Staff Colonel
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493:
488:
340:
251:
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1947:
1926:
Johnson, Segun (1 July 1986). "Burkina-Mali War: Is Nigeria Still a Regional Power".
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as a conciliatory measure. In August 1984 the CNR changed the name of Upper Volta to
546:
2007:
A Certain Amount of Madness : The Life, Politics and Legacies of Thomas Sankara
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2721:
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2170:
1247:"Il y a trente ans éclatait la " guerre de Noël " entre le Mali et le Burkina Faso"
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chose not into invoke it. Despite its close relations with Sankara's government,
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At dawn on 25 December 1985, a day during which most Burkinabé were celebrating
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264:
1939:
1989:
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62:
map showing the competing claims of Mali and Burkina Faso in the Agacher Strip
17:
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against Malian tanks, successfully capturing two. Burkina Faso deployed the
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1484:
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762:
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Building Peace in West Africa: Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea-Bissau
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1997:
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deposits, though there was little evidence these actually existed.
877:
819:
782:
774:
721:
542:
2646:
2615:
2043:
Rupley, Lawrence; Bangali, Lamissa; Diamitani, Boureima (2013).
1871:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Athens: Ohio University Press.
1306:. No. 1. Economist Intelligence Unit. 1985. pp. 25–26.
812:
538:
484:
124:
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2143:
2073:, Security Implications of Climate Change in the Sahel Region,
1205:
1203:
611:. On 3 April 1985 the ICJ began examining the border dispute.
1545:
1543:
1541:
1327:. Institute of African American Relations. 1986. p. 39.
1748:. United Press International. 23 December 1986. p. 10.
521:
In 1919, France reorganised its colonial administration in
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and subsequently petitioned the body to resolve the issue.
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1508:
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1423:
1421:
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1755:
1304:
Quarterly Economic Review of Togo, Niger, Benin, Burkina
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1053:
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were to invade Burkina Faso and converge on the city of
2067:
A review of past security events in the Sahel 1967–2007
2009:(first ed.). London: Pluto Press. pp. 36–50.
999:
997:
995:
993:
991:
989:
987:
2049:(revised ed.). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
1720:"Burkina–Mali: ICJ Boundary Decision Backs Both Sides"
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1104:
974:
972:
970:
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in retaliation for the air raids against Sikasso. The
736:. Burkinabé forces regrouped in the Dionouga area to
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The war improved the popularity of Malian President
676:, and one in the south led by Souleymane Daffé. The
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2967:
2926:
2843:
2770:
2657:
2515:
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2314:
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2181:
1928:
India Quarterly: A Journal of International Affairs
1826:
A Strategic Vision for Africa: The Kampala Movement
832:On 28 December a Malian detachment of 14 tanks and
620:Economic Community of West Africa, Drissa Keita, a
2026:Thomas Sankara: A Revolutionary in Cold War Africa
1485:"Burkina Faso : La Police nationale a 70 ans"
500:decided to have the border dispute settled by the
2088:(second ed.). London: Africa Books Limited.
1829:. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
1360:"Traore Trying to Hold Diverse Elements Together"
1300:"Burkina and Mali fight a destructive border war"
1534:. Associated Press. 29 December 1985. p. 4.
1528:"Mali's forces wipe out border fort, radio says"
1455:"Burkina Faso and Mali, Agacher Strip War, 1985"
1978:The International and Comparative Law Quarterly
1847:Burkina Faso: Unsteady Statehood In West Africa
635:with the ICJ concerning the boundary dispute.
47:
1823:Deng, Francis M.; Zartman, I. William (2004).
102:Agacher Strip is divided between the claimants
2631:
2155:
1398:Diarra, Diaoullèn Karamoko (14 August 2017).
1034:
1032:
699:and helicopters began patrolling the border.
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8:
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1294:
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1028:
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1024:
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1888:Annual Register : World Events In 1986
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800:and Organization of African Unity Chairman
644:Committee for the Defense of the Revolution
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2028:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
1713:
1711:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
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1438:
1337:
1209:
1147:"Burkina/Mali : Who started the war"
785:also refrained from aiding Burkina Faso.
1868:Thomas Sankara: An African Revolutionary
1785:
1726:. No. 6. Office of the Geographer,
1597:
1429:
1279:. No. 3. Office of the Geographer,
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1234:
1232:
1230:
1221:
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892:International Committee of the Red Cross
605:West African Economic and Monetary Union
577:Non-Aggression and Defense Aid Agreement
27:1985 war fought by Burkina Faso and Mali
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1626:. Reuters. 1 January 1986. p. A10.
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1346:
1185:, The Border Dispute with Burkina Faso.
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1071:
1003:
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306:
210:
199:
1678:
1321:"A war beyond the Burkina-Mali border"
1127:
549:was subject to a territorial dispute.
2106:African Yearbook of International Law
2046:Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso
1808:. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
1742:"World Court rules on border dispute"
1702:
1690:
1380:from the original on 10 January 2022.
1371:Foreign Broadcast Information Service
1110:
1083:
1040:"Burkina and Mali – War to What End?"
978:
847:Democratic Union of the Malian People
586:and other military officers launched
7:
3165:Territorial disputes of Burkina Faso
1649:Rupley, Bangali & Diamitani 2013
1245:Roger, Benjamin (25 December 2015).
1195:Rupley, Bangali & Diamitani 2013
571:West African states signed a mutual
545:to the east and centered around the
1668:. Vol. 23. 1986. p. 7998.
1373:. 14 January 1987. pp. 34–36.
925:, Traoré declared that there was a
666:Groupements Opérationnels Tactiques
74:25 December 1985 – 30 December 1985
595:, who had taken power by deposing
189:100+ soldiers and civilians killed
25:
1728:United States Department of State
1281:United States Department of State
655:to mediate. President of Algeria
184:~40 soldiers and civilians killed
60:United States Department of State
38:Christmas battle (disambiguation)
2239:
934:Resolution of the border dispute
874:Effects on Mali and Burkina Faso
221:
130:
117:
53:
1955:Kacowicz, Arie Marcelo (1998).
1905:Imperato, Pascal James (2019).
1273:"Burkina–Mali Boundary Dispute"
3185:December 1985 events in Africa
601:International Court of Justice
525:and created the new colony of
502:International Court of Justice
1:
1718:Watson, Nyle (15 July 1987).
1491:(in French). 29 December 2019
564:Organization of African Unity
517:Background and border dispute
269:
256:
243:
3170:Territorial disputes of Mali
2131:Television report on the war
1908:Mali: A Search For Direction
1459:Air Combat Information Group
1453:Cooper, Tom (31 July 2004).
1283:. 27 May 1986. pp. 8–9.
837:attacked Djibo, Ouahigouya,
804:in tandem with President of
777:since 1983, Ghanaian leader
469:Guerre de la Bande d’Agacher
401:2015 elections and aftermath
3175:Wars involving Burkina Faso
2135:Radio Télévision du Burkina
1886:Hodson, H. V., ed. (1986).
686:Central Intelligence Agency
672:, one in the center led by
3201:
2682:History of the Mali Empire
2075:Sahel and West Africa Club
2064:Salliot, Emmanuel (2010),
1940:10.1177/097492848604200306
1844:Englebert, Pierre (2018).
1367:Sub-Saharan African Report
1130:, 4: The State Reimagined.
31:
3096:
2976:
2935:
2852:
2779:
2582:
2462:
2401:
2323:
2257:
2237:
2231:Insurgency (2015–present)
1802:Adebajo, Adekeye (2002).
825:, and President of Niger
649:Burkina Faso Armed Forces
178:
143:
110:
66:
52:
3155:Burkina Faso–Mali border
2024:Peterson, Brian (2021).
1666:Africa Research Bulletin
1622:"Burkinabe peace pact".
341:Assassination of Sankara
2201:Republic of Upper Volta
2082:Uwechue, Ralph (1991).
1990:10.1093/iclqaj/35.4.970
1911:. New York: Routledge.
1865:Harsch, Ernest (2014).
1850:. New York: Routledge.
1774:Deng & Zartman 2004
1662:"Exchange of Prisoners"
863:international standards
535:Republic of Upper Volta
531:Upper Senegal and Niger
1961:. Albany: SUNY Press.
1145:Michaud, Paul (1986).
899:was put on display at
887:
809:Félix Houphouët-Boigny
529:, splitting it off of
479:) was a war fought by
144:Commanders and leaders
36:. For other uses, see
2732:2012 Tuareg rebellion
1325:Africa Special Report
881:
771:Lona Charles Ouattara
496:and Malian President
391:Burkinabé coup d'état
179:Casualties and losses
83:Mali and Burkina Faso
34:Christmas controversy
3145:1985 in Burkina Faso
2806:Environmental issues
1788:, pp. 125, 127.
537:and the Republic of
361:Burkinabè revolution
191:16 soldiers captured
3180:Wars involving Mali
2747:Ebola disease event
1746:The Berkshire Eagle
1705:, pp. 974–975.
1693:, pp. 972–973.
1612:, pp. 298–299.
1212:, pp. 154–155.
1086:, pp. 971–972.
901:Ouagadougou Airport
381:Jihadist insurgency
371:Transitional period
259:11th century – 1896
186:2 soldiers captured
2945:Telecommunications
2697:Kénédougou Kingdom
2426:Telecommunications
2196:French Upper Volta
1890:. Essex: Longman.
888:
816:Gnassingbé Eyadéma
523:French West Africa
279:French Upper Volta
3160:Conflicts in 1985
3132:
3131:
3092:
3091:
3006:Human trafficking
2963:
2962:
2922:
2921:
2899:Political parties
2894:National Assembly
2867:Foreign relations
2839:
2838:
2712:Toucouleur Empire
2672:Pre-Imperial Mali
2613:
2612:
2578:
2577:
2550:Human trafficking
2449:
2448:
2388:
2387:
2370:Political parties
2338:Foreign relations
2310:
2309:
2211:Agacher Strip War
1730:. pp. 18–20.
1224:, pp. 46–47.
1153:. pp. 29–30.
1074:, pp. 22–23.
746:guerrilla tactics
623:persona non grata
510:guerrilla tactics
461:Agacher Strip War
457:
456:
424:
423:
331:Agacher Strip War
302:
301:
195:
194:
106:
105:
48:Agacher Strip War
16:(Redirected from
3192:
3112:
3105:
2974:
2933:
2850:
2777:
2717:Wassoulou Empire
2640:
2633:
2626:
2617:
2598:
2591:
2460:
2399:
2321:
2255:
2243:
2242:
2216:1987 coup d'Ă©tat
2206:1983 coup d'Ă©tat
2164:
2157:
2150:
2141:
2120:
2099:
2078:
2072:
2060:
2039:
2020:
2001:
1972:
1951:
1922:
1901:
1882:
1861:
1840:
1819:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1750:
1749:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1724:Geographic Notes
1715:
1706:
1700:
1694:
1688:
1682:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1658:
1652:
1646:
1640:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1619:
1613:
1607:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1583:
1577:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1550:Weeramantry 1996
1547:
1536:
1535:
1532:Arizona Republic
1524:
1518:
1512:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1481:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1461:. Archived from
1450:
1433:
1427:
1416:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1395:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1369:. United States
1364:
1356:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1328:
1317:
1308:
1307:
1296:
1285:
1284:
1277:Geographic Notes
1269:
1263:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1242:
1225:
1219:
1213:
1207:
1198:
1192:
1186:
1180:
1155:
1154:
1142:
1131:
1125:
1114:
1108:
1099:
1093:
1087:
1081:
1075:
1069:
1063:
1057:
1048:
1047:
1036:
1007:
1001:
982:
976:
861:in violation of
859:prisoners of war
694:Malian Air Force
657:Chadli Bendjedid
449:
442:
435:
327:
326:
320:
319:
317:
281:
271:
258:
246:3rd–13th century
245:
231:
230:
225:
215:
197:
165:Souleymane Daffé
136:
134:
133:
123:
121:
120:
68:
67:
57:
45:
21:
3200:
3199:
3195:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3190:
3189:
3135:
3134:
3133:
3128:
3115:
3108:
3101:
3088:
3084:Public holidays
3035:
2959:
2918:
2884:Law enforcement
2835:
2766:
2727:Mali Federation
2653:
2644:
2614:
2609:
2601:
2594:
2587:
2574:
2511:
2497:Public holidays
2445:
2384:
2360:Law enforcement
2306:
2244:
2240:
2235:
2177:
2168:
2127:
2117:
2102:
2096:
2081:
2070:
2063:
2057:
2042:
2036:
2023:
2017:
2004:
1975:
1969:
1954:
1925:
1919:
1904:
1898:
1885:
1879:
1864:
1858:
1843:
1837:
1822:
1816:
1801:
1798:
1793:
1792:
1784:
1780:
1772:
1768:
1760:
1753:
1740:
1739:
1735:
1717:
1716:
1709:
1701:
1697:
1689:
1685:
1677:
1673:
1660:
1659:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1635:
1631:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1608:
1604:
1596:
1592:
1584:
1580:
1572:
1568:
1560:
1556:
1548:
1539:
1526:
1525:
1521:
1513:
1504:
1494:
1492:
1483:
1482:
1478:
1468:
1466:
1452:
1451:
1436:
1428:
1419:
1409:
1407:
1397:
1396:
1385:
1377:
1362:
1358:
1357:
1344:
1336:
1332:
1319:
1318:
1311:
1298:
1297:
1288:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1256:
1254:
1244:
1243:
1228:
1220:
1216:
1208:
1201:
1193:
1189:
1181:
1158:
1144:
1143:
1134:
1126:
1117:
1109:
1102:
1094:
1090:
1082:
1078:
1070:
1066:
1058:
1051:
1038:
1037:
1010:
1002:
985:
977:
968:
963:
954:
936:
905:Bougary Sangaré
876:
871:
823:Mathieu Kérékou
818:, President of
811:, President of
750:National Police
742:Blaise Compaoré
728:and Nassoumbo.
705:
674:Kafougouna Koné
617:
519:
453:
321:
315:
313:
312:
311:
288:
286:
277:
242:
236:
213:
206:
190:
185:
173:Blaise Compaoré
171:
164:
162:Kafougouna Koné
160:
156:
154:Bougary Sangaré
152:
131:
129:
118:
116:
98:
84:
58:
41:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3198:
3196:
3188:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3137:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3127:
3126:
3121:
3114:
3113:
3106:
3098:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3045:
3043:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2981:Child marriage
2977:
2971:
2965:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2936:
2930:
2924:
2923:
2920:
2919:
2917:
2916:
2914:Vice President
2911:
2909:Prime Minister
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2853:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2816:National parks
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2786:
2780:
2774:
2768:
2767:
2765:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2707:Massina Empire
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2687:Songhai Empire
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2663:
2661:
2655:
2654:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2635:
2628:
2620:
2611:
2610:
2608:
2607:
2600:
2599:
2592:
2584:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2530:Child marriage
2527:
2521:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2463:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2402:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2380:Prime Minister
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2356:
2355:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2324:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2258:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2191:Mossi Kingdoms
2187:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2169:
2167:
2166:
2159:
2152:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2126:
2125:External links
2123:
2122:
2121:
2115:
2100:
2094:
2079:
2061:
2055:
2040:
2035:978-0253053763
2034:
2021:
2015:
2002:
1984:(4): 970–975.
1973:
1967:
1952:
1934:(3): 294–308.
1923:
1917:
1902:
1896:
1883:
1877:
1862:
1856:
1841:
1835:
1820:
1814:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1790:
1778:
1766:
1751:
1733:
1707:
1695:
1683:
1681:, p. 239.
1671:
1653:
1651:, p. lvi.
1641:
1629:
1614:
1602:
1590:
1588:, p. 600.
1578:
1576:, p. 296.
1566:
1564:, p. 298.
1554:
1552:, p. 125.
1537:
1519:
1517:, p. 297.
1502:
1476:
1465:on 14 May 2011
1434:
1417:
1383:
1342:
1340:, p. 154.
1338:Englebert 2018
1330:
1309:
1286:
1264:
1226:
1214:
1210:Englebert 2018
1199:
1187:
1156:
1132:
1115:
1113:, p. 972.
1100:
1088:
1076:
1064:
1049:
1008:
983:
981:, p. 971.
965:
964:
962:
959:
953:
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935:
932:
875:
872:
870:
867:
827:Seyni Kountché
779:Jerry Rawlings
738:counter-attack
704:
701:
682:Bobo-Dioulasso
616:
613:
584:Thomas Sankara
518:
515:
494:Thomas Sankara
489:border dispute
477:Guerre de Noël
455:
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252:Mossi Kingdoms
248:
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239:
227:
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218:
217:
208:
207:
200:
193:
192:
187:
181:
180:
176:
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169:Thomas Sankara
166:
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145:
141:
140:
127:
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100:
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3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2991:Ethnic groups
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2956:
2953:
2951:
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2782:
2781:
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2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2752:2020 protests
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2692:Bamana Empire
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2664:
2662:
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2636:
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2597:
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2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2540:Ethnic groups
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2518:
2514:
2508:
2505:
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2256:
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2247:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2226:2014 uprising
2224:
2222:
2221:2011 protests
2219:
2217:
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2212:
2209:
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2199:
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2124:
2118:
2116:9789041102683
2112:
2108:
2107:
2101:
2097:
2095:9780903274166
2091:
2087:
2086:
2080:
2076:
2069:
2068:
2062:
2058:
2056:9780810867703
2052:
2048:
2047:
2041:
2037:
2031:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2016:9780745337586
2012:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1968:9780791439579
1964:
1960:
1959:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1918:9780429718106
1914:
1910:
1909:
1903:
1899:
1897:9780582503335
1893:
1889:
1884:
1880:
1878:9780821445075
1874:
1870:
1869:
1863:
1859:
1857:9780429970481
1853:
1849:
1848:
1842:
1838:
1836:9780815798439
1832:
1828:
1827:
1821:
1817:
1815:9781588260772
1811:
1807:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1787:
1786:Kacowicz 1998
1782:
1779:
1776:, p. 18.
1775:
1770:
1767:
1764:, p. 22.
1763:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1737:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1699:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1642:
1639:, p. 36.
1638:
1633:
1630:
1625:
1618:
1615:
1611:
1606:
1603:
1600:, p. 48.
1599:
1598:Peterson 2018
1594:
1591:
1587:
1582:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1555:
1551:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1529:
1523:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1490:
1486:
1480:
1477:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1432:, p. 47.
1431:
1430:Peterson 2018
1426:
1424:
1422:
1418:
1405:
1401:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1376:
1372:
1368:
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1305:
1301:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1268:
1265:
1252:
1251:Jeune Afrique
1248:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1222:Peterson 2018
1218:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1197:, p. lv.
1196:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1183:Imperato 2019
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1098:, p. 35.
1097:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1065:
1062:, p. 68.
1061:
1060:Peterson 2021
1056:
1054:
1050:
1045:
1041:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1006:, p. 23.
1005:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
992:
990:
988:
984:
980:
975:
973:
971:
967:
960:
958:
951:
949:
945:
942:
933:
931:
928:
924:
919:
913:
909:
906:
902:
898:
893:
885:
884:Moussa Traoré
880:
873:
868:
866:
864:
860:
854:
852:
848:
844:
840:
835:
834:armoured cars
830:
828:
824:
821:
817:
814:
810:
807:
806:CĂ´te d'Ivoire
803:
799:
795:
791:
786:
784:
780:
776:
772:
766:
764:
760:
756:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
729:
727:
723:
718:
714:
710:
702:
700:
698:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
661:
658:
654:
650:
645:
641:
640:Soum Province
636:
634:
630:
625:
624:
614:
612:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
593:Moussa Traoré
589:
585:
580:
578:
574:
570:
565:
559:
557:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
516:
514:
511:
505:
503:
499:
498:Moussa Traoré
495:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
473:Christmas War
470:
466:
462:
450:
445:
443:
438:
436:
431:
430:
428:
427:
419:
416:
412:
409:
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394:
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389:
388:
384:
382:
379:
378:
374:
372:
369:
368:
364:
362:
359:
358:
354:
352:
351:Compaoré rule
349:
348:
344:
342:
339:
338:
334:
332:
329:
328:
325:
324:
310:
305:
297:
295:
292:
291:
283:
280:
276:
275:
268:
266:
263:
262:
255:
253:
250:
249:
240:
238:
233:
232:
229:
228:
224:
220:
219:
216:
209:
204:
198:
188:
183:
182:
177:
174:
170:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
150:Moussa Traoré
148:
147:
142:
139:
128:
126:
115:
114:
109:
101:
96:
95:
91:
88:
87:
81:
78:
77:
73:
70:
69:
65:
61:
56:
51:
46:
43:
39:
35:
30:
19:
18:Christmas War
3150:1985 in Mali
3016:Prostitution
2986:Demographics
2872:Human rights
2857:Constitution
2788:
2722:French Sudan
2667:Ghana Empire
2565:Prostitution
2517:Demographics
2436:Trade unions
2348:Human rights
2328:Constitution
2210:
2171:Burkina Faso
2105:
2085:Africa Today
2084:
2066:
2045:
2025:
2006:
1981:
1977:
1957:
1931:
1927:
1907:
1887:
1867:
1846:
1825:
1804:
1781:
1769:
1762:Salliot 2010
1745:
1736:
1723:
1698:
1686:
1674:
1665:
1656:
1644:
1637:Adebajo 2002
1632:
1624:Toronto Star
1623:
1617:
1610:Johnson 1986
1605:
1593:
1586:Uwechue 1991
1581:
1574:Johnson 1986
1569:
1562:Johnson 1986
1557:
1531:
1522:
1515:Johnson 1986
1493:. Retrieved
1488:
1479:
1467:. Retrieved
1463:the original
1458:
1408:. Retrieved
1403:
1366:
1333:
1324:
1303:
1276:
1267:
1255:. Retrieved
1250:
1217:
1190:
1150:
1096:Adebajo 2002
1091:
1079:
1072:Salliot 2010
1067:
1043:
1004:Salliot 2010
955:
946:
941:Yamoussoukro
937:
927:fifth column
914:
910:
896:
889:
855:
831:
787:
767:
730:
711:, about 150
706:
690:mobilisation
677:
670:Kokè Dembéle
665:
662:
637:
621:
618:
609:Burkina Faso
597:Modibo KeĂŻta
581:
576:
573:defence pact
560:
520:
506:
481:Burkina Faso
476:
472:
468:
460:
458:
385:2015–present
330:
309:Burkina Faso
214:Burkina Faso
158:Kokè Dembéle
138:Burkina Faso
111:Belligerents
42:
29:
2940:Foreign aid
2877:LGBT rights
2677:Mali Empire
2406:Agriculture
2353:LGBT rights
2277:Departments
2077:Secretariat
1796:Works cited
1679:Hodson 1986
1469:20 November
1406:(in French)
1253:(in French)
1151:New African
1128:Harsch 2014
930:fugitive."
802:Abdou Diouf
713:Malian Army
678:groupements
653:Ouagadougou
569:francophone
527:Upper Volta
417:coup d'Ă©tat
272:1710 – 1898
265:Kong Empire
241:Prehistoric
237:Bura-Asinda
212:History of
97:Territorial
3139:Categories
3064:Literature
2482:Literature
2343:Government
1703:Naldi 1986
1691:Naldi 1986
1495:7 November
1489:lefaso.net
1410:7 November
1257:7 November
1111:Naldi 1986
1084:Naldi 1986
1044:AfricaAsia
979:Naldi 1986
961:References
923:Radio Mali
918:CFA francs
897:groupement
886:'s regime.
740:. Captain
726:Ouahigouya
551:The border
547:BĂ©li River
3011:Languages
2996:Education
2955:Transport
2904:President
2862:Elections
2811:Mountains
2772:Geography
2762:2021 coup
2757:2020 coup
2737:2012 coup
2555:Languages
2535:Education
2441:Transport
2375:President
2333:Elections
2287:Provinces
2250:Geography
1948:154699898
869:Aftermath
851:commandos
790:Ali Treki
734:blackouts
709:Christmas
556:manganese
475:(French:
415:September
405:2015–2022
375:2014–2015
355:1987–2014
298:1958–1984
287:1947–1958
285:1919–1932
92:Ceasefire
3119:Category
3079:Polygamy
3021:Religion
2889:Military
2845:Politics
2831:Wildlife
2801:Communes
2742:Mali War
2651:articles
2605:Category
2570:Religion
2525:Abortion
2411:Currency
2365:Military
2316:Politics
2302:Wildlife
2175:articles
1404:MaliActu
1375:Archived
843:DĂ©dougou
794:Nigerian
579:(ANAD).
294:Republic
203:a series
201:Part of
79:Location
3103:Outline
3049:Cuisine
3041:Culture
3026:Slavery
2969:Society
2950:Tourism
2928:Economy
2821:Regions
2790:Cercles
2784:Borders
2659:History
2589:Outline
2507:Theatre
2472:Cuisine
2455:Culture
2431:Tourism
2394:Economy
2292:Regions
2272:Climate
2262:Borders
2183:History
798:Senegal
759:Sikasso
697:MiG-21s
615:Prelude
411:January
316:present
99:changes
3124:Portal
3001:Health
2826:Rivers
2796:Cities
2702:Kaarta
2649:
2560:People
2545:Health
2467:Cinema
2421:Mining
2416:Energy
2297:Rivers
2267:Cities
2173:
2113:
2092:
2053:
2032:
2013:
1998:759886
1996:
1965:
1946:
1915:
1894:
1875:
1854:
1833:
1812:
952:Legacy
841:, and
839:Tougan
763:ZĂ©goua
755:MiG-17
717:pincer
633:briefs
629:Bamako
588:a coup
575:, the
465:French
314:(1984–
205:on the
135:
122:
89:Result
3110:Index
3074:Music
3069:Media
3054:Films
3031:Women
2596:Index
2502:Sport
2492:Music
2487:Media
2282:Lakes
2071:(PDF)
1994:JSTOR
1944:S2CID
1378:(PDF)
1363:(PDF)
820:Benin
792:with
783:Libya
775:Ghana
722:Djibo
543:Niger
471:) or
3059:Flag
2647:Mali
2477:Flag
2111:ISBN
2090:ISBN
2051:ISBN
2030:ISBN
2011:ISBN
1963:ISBN
1913:ISBN
1892:ISBN
1873:ISBN
1852:ISBN
1831:ISBN
1810:ISBN
1497:2020
1471:2020
1412:2020
1259:2020
813:Togo
539:Mali
485:Mali
483:and
459:The
420:2022
413:and
395:2015
365:2014
345:1987
335:1985
235:Bura
125:Mali
71:Date
2133:by
1986:doi
1936:doi
703:War
3141::
1992:.
1982:35
1980:.
1942:.
1932:42
1930:.
1754:^
1744:.
1722:.
1710:^
1664:.
1540:^
1530:.
1505:^
1487:.
1457:.
1437:^
1420:^
1402:.
1386:^
1365:.
1345:^
1323:.
1312:^
1302:.
1289:^
1275:.
1249:.
1229:^
1202:^
1159:^
1149:.
1135:^
1118:^
1103:^
1052:^
1042:.
1011:^
986:^
969:^
724:,
467::
270:c.
257:c.
244:c.
2639:e
2632:t
2625:v
2163:e
2156:t
2149:v
2119:.
2098:.
2059:.
2038:.
2019:.
2000:.
1988::
1971:.
1950:.
1938::
1921:.
1900:.
1881:.
1860:.
1839:.
1818:.
1499:.
1473:.
1414:.
1261:.
463:(
448:e
441:t
434:v
318:)
40:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
