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453:, had assumed the characteristics of a new orthodoxy. Wolff's professed ideal was to base theological truths on mathematically certain evidence. Strife with the Pietists broke out openly in 1721, when Wolff, on the occasion of stepping down as pro-rector, delivered an oration "On the Practical Philosophy of the Chinese" (Eng. tr. 1750), in which he praised the purity of the moral precepts of
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517:. (They claimed to the king if Wolff's determinism were recognized, no soldier who deserted could be punished as he would have acted only as it was necessarily predetermined that he should, which so enraged the king that he immediately deprived Wolff of his office, and ordered Wolff to leave Prussian territory within 48 hours or be hanged.)
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as just one determination among others, which a being may lack. Ontology is interested in being at large, not just in actual being. But all beings, whether actually existing or not, have a sufficient reason. The sufficient reason for things without actual existence consists in all the determinations
596:
When Wolff died on 9 April 1754, he was a very wealthy man, owing almost entirely to his income from lecture-fees, salaries, and royalties. He was also a member of many academies. His school, the
Wolffians, was the first school in the philosophical sense to be associated with a German philosopher.
536:
of Hesse received him with every mark of distinction, and the circumstances of his expulsion drew universal attention to his philosophy. It was everywhere discussed, and over two hundred books and pamphlets appeared for or against it before 1737, not reckoning the systematic treatises of Wolff and
780:
Practical philosophy is subdivided into ethics, economics and politics. Wolff's moral principle is the realization of human perfectionâseen realistically as the kind of perfection the human person actually can achieve in the world in which we live. It is perhaps the combination of
Enlightenment
698:. The three disciplines are called empirical and rational because they are independent of revelation. This scheme, which is the counterpart of religious tripartition in creature, creation, and Creator, is best known to philosophical students by Kant's treatment of it in the
612:
Wolffian philosophy has a marked insistence everywhere on a clear and methodic exposition, holding confidence in the power of reason to reduce all subjects to this form. He was distinguished for writing copies in both Latin and German. Through his influence,
2104:
and Arno Mong DaastĂžl ("Exploring the
Genesis of Economic Innovations: The religious Gestalt-Switch and the Duty to Invent as Preconditions for Economic Growth"), and Peter R. Senn ("Christian Wolff in the Pre-History of the Social
544:, "the conflict became one of the most significant cultural confrontations of the 18th century and perhaps the most important of the Enlightenment in Central Europe and the Baltic countries before the French Revolution."
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that make up the essential nature of this thing. Wolff refers to this as a "reason of being" and contrasts it with a "reason of becoming", which explains why some things have actual existence.
363:
as academic disciplines, he concentrated especially in these fields, giving advice on practical matters to people in government, and stressing the professional nature of university education.
632:
recedes into the background, the monads falling asunder into souls or conscious beings on the one hand and mere atoms on the other. The doctrine of the pre-established harmony also loses its
711:'s father, Michael Pedersen. Kierkegaard himself was influenced by both Wolff and Kant to the point of resuming the tripartite structure and philosophical content to formulate his own three
617:
and philosophy were taught at most German universities, in particular those located in the
Protestant principalities. Wolff personally expedited their introduction inside Hesse-Cassel.
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577:
His entry into the town on 6 December 1740 took on the character of a triumphal procession. In 1743, he became chancellor of the university, and in 1745, he received the title of
3265:
431:
At Halle, Wolff at first restricted himself to mathematics, but on the departure of a colleague, he added physics, and soon included all the main philosophical disciplines.
1427:
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1371:
2027:
18/19 (Jg. 1918/19), Chicago: Deutsch-Amerikanische
Gesellschaft von Illinois, 1920, pp. 69â87, details Wolff's impact on the Declaration of Independence.
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In 1738, Frederick
William began the hard labour of trying to read Wolff. In 1740, Frederick William died, and one of the first acts of his son and successor,
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On 12 July 1723, Wolff held a lecture for students and the magistrates at the end of his term as a rector. Wolff compared, based on books by the
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3014:
2182:
2139:
2096:, 3rd Ser. Note especially the essays by JĂŒrgen G. Backhaus ("Christian Wolff on Subsidiarity, the Division of Labor, and Social Welfare"),
835:, London: 1770. Unfortunately, the English version is a translation of Des Champs's French edition instead of the original German of Wolff's
567:
was translated into French by Ulrich
Friedrich von Suhm (1691â1740). Voltaire got the impression Frederick had translated the book himself.
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1849:
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194:
Philosophia practica universalis, methodo mathematica conscripta (On
Universal Practical Philosophy, Composed from the Mathematical Method)
1527:
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1586:
1078:
707:
In the "Preface" of the 2nd edition of Kant's book, Wolff is defined as "the greatest of all dogmatic philosophers." Wolff was read by
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optimism and worldly realism that made Wolff so successful and popular as a teacher of future statesmen and business leaders.
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Wolff wrote in German as his primary language of scholarly instruction and research, although he did translate his works into
2063:(Cambridge University Press, 1995), the standard source in English; includes biography and details of his work in many fields
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574:, was to acquire him for the Prussian Academy. Wolff refused, but accepted on 10 September 1740 an appointment in Halle.
341:. His life work spanned almost every scholarly subject of his time, displayed and unfolded according to his demonstrative-
153:
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2066:
Richards, Robert J. "Christian Wolff's
Prolegomena to Empirical and Rational Psychology: Translation and Commentary,"
1044:
2595:
491:
had been teaching in an empty classroom but Wolff attracted with his lectures around 1,000 students from all over.
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2210:
2031:
Ingrao, Charles (October 1982). ""Barbarous
Strangers": Hessian State and Society during the American Revolution".
1726:
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428:(the two men engaged in an epistolary correspondence), of whose philosophy his own system is a modified version.
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906:, a translation with critical introduction and annotation by Klaus Ottmann, Thompson: Spring Publications (2022).
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136:
1370:. San Francisco: University of San Francisco Ricci Institute for Chinese-Western Cultural History. p.
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457:, pointing to them as an evidence of the power of human reason to reach moral truth by its own efforts.
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180:
117:
2025:
Deutsch-Amerikanische GeschichtsblÀtter. Jahrbuch der Deutsch-Amerikanischen Gesellschaft von Illinois
1015:, Jean Ăcole et al. (eds.), 3 series (German, Latin, and Materials), Hildesheim-New York: Olms, 1962â.
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Seize the Book, Jail the Author. Johann Lorenz Schmidt and Censorship in Eighteenth-century Germany
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571:
342:
270:
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1987:
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for his transnational European audience. A founding father of, among other fields, economics and
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VernĂŒnftige Gedanken von Gott, der Welt und der Seele des Menschen, auch allen Dingen ĂŒberhaupt
32:
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1845:
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1286:. Philosophische Bibliothek (in German). Hamburg, Germany: Felix Meiner Verlag. p. XXXIX.
1223:
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651:
Wolff had philosophy divided into a theoretical and a practical part. Logic, sometimes called
590:
425:
346:
330:
282:
261:
220:
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101:
61:
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1008:
Wolff's complete writings have been published since 1962 in an annotated reprint collection:
736:("nothing exists without a sufficient reason for why it exists rather than does not exist").
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2387:
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
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1962:
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Oratio de Sinarum philosophia practica / Rede ĂŒber die praktische Philosophie der Chinesen
768:
are determinations that follow from essentialia and are equally necessary, in contrast to
1643:
1342:
1284:
Oratio de Sinarum philosophia practica/Rede ĂŒber die praktische Philosophie der Chinesen
1019:
This includes a volume that unites the three most important older biographies of Wolff.
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1918:
1801:
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and ordered the Berlin minister Jean Deschamps, a former pupil of Wolff, to translate
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1169:
1069:
843:
Vern. Ged. von Gott, der Welt und der Seele des Menschen, auch allen Dingen ĂŒberhaupt
656:
598:
548:
510:
439:
338:
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define the nature of a being and are therefore necessary properties of this being.
633:
416:, where he lectured until 1706, when he was called as professor of mathematics and
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1892:
1022:
An excellent modern edition of the famous Halle speech on Chinese philosophy is:
809:
Dissertation on the Algebra of Solving Differential Equations Using Infinitesimals
1827:
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192:
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2300:
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2191:
1269:
880:
621:
614:
435:
349:
333:. Wolff is characterized as one of the most eminent German philosophers between
240:
162:
2994:
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888:
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532:) he had received a call even before this crisis, which was now renewed. The
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2092:
4(2) (Summer 1997), special issue on Christian Wolff, reprinted 1998 in the
1837:
884:
721:
637:
563:
in his first letter to the philosopher from 8 August 1736. In 1737, Wolff's
533:
454:
399:, Poland), into a modest family. He studied mathematics and physics at the
371:
2023:
Goebel, Julius, "Christian Wolff and the Declaration of Independence", in
589:, possibly the first scholar to have been created hereditary Baron of the
3094:
2655:
2510:
2285:
2250:
2149:
1297:
Lang, Donald F. (1953). "The Sinophilism of Christian Wolf (1679â1754)".
873:
Vern. Ged. von dem Gebrauche der Theile in Menschen, Thieren und Pflanzen
725:
666:
560:
495:
484:
447:
324:
288:
256:
1258:
On Universal Practical Philosophy, Composed from the Mathematical Method
1191:. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 774.
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2515:
2450:
2408:
2393:
2260:
2052:
2018:
1324:
1235:
1203:
586:
521:
503:
443:
388:
53:
2071:
1945:
1082:. Stanford, California: Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
2540:
2490:
2403:
2275:
1636:"UC Davis Philosophy 175 (Mattey) Lecture Notes: Rational Psychology"
748:, which can't involve a contradiction. Determinates come in 3 types:
187:
70:
2145:
2125:
Christian Wolff's Ontology: Existence as "Complement of Possibility"
2044:
2008:
1869:
1316:
1219:
648:
which Wolff seeks to make the fundamental principle of philosophy.
520:
The same day, Wolff passed into Saxony, and presently proceeded to
2640:
2590:
2130:
Selected Bibliography on the Metaphysical Works of Christian Wolff
876:
788:
582:
506:
459:
450:
370:
356:
805:
Dissertatio algebraica de algorithmo infinitesimali differentiali
2585:
2565:
2560:
2485:
2443:
2428:
2003:
Blackwell, Richard J. "Christian Wolff's Doctrine of the Soul,"
1423:
The Sciences of the Soul. The Early Modern Origins of Psychology
1254:
Philosophia practica universalis, methodo mathematica conscripta
875:(1725); the last seven may briefly be described as treatises on
825:
VernĂŒnftige Gedanken von den KrĂ€ften des menschlichen Verstandes
2164:
883:, moral philosophy, political philosophy, theoretical physics,
732:("it cannot happen that the same thing is and is not") and the
2160:
1270:
Leibniz to Christian Wolff (selections) - Leibniz Translations
998:(The Law of Nations According to the Scientific Method) (1749)
3045:
Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments
1397:
Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity
513:, a pietist, and his son, who had gained the ear of the king
3286:
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
557:
Logique ou réflexions sur les forces de l'entendement humain
1696:"Christian Wolff. 8.3 Psychology (Empirical and Rational)"
1670:"1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics"
679:, which arises as a preliminary to the distinction of the
480:(1623â1693), Moses, Christ, and Mohammed with Confucius.
855:
Vern. Ged. von dem gesellschaftlichen Leben der Menschen
498:
and atheism, and ousted in 1723 from his first chair at
2985:
A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge
2100:("Christian Wolff (1679â1754): A Biographical Essay"),
1582:"Christian Wolff. 8.1 Ontology (or Metaphysics Proper)"
547:
Prussian crown prince Frederick defended Wolff against
1367:
China and Christianity. Burdened Past, Hopeful Future
1944:
Borchert, Donald M. (2006). "Ontology, History of".
3087:
2886:
2626:
2354:
2198:
989:(in Latin). Vol. 4. Verona: Dionigi Ramanzini.
978:(in Latin). Vol. 3. Verona: Dionigi Ramanzini.
967:(in Latin). Vol. 2. Verona: Dionigi Ramanzini.
345:, mathematical method, which some deem the peak of
246:
230:
216:
201:
186:
168:
152:
142:
132:
108:
78:
39:
23:
1451:Spalding, Paul S.; Schmidt, Johann Lorenz (1998).
867:Vern. Ged. von den Absichten der natĂŒrlichen Dinge
831:, Berlin: 1736. English translation by anonymous,
555:into French. Frederick proposed to send a copy of
494:In the follow-up, Wolff was accused by Francke of
2070:Vol. 124, No. 3 (30 June 1980), pp. 227â239
2068:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
1947:Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd Edition
1132:, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 192 n. 41.
936:, collected and edited by G.F. Hagen (1736â1740).
815:AnfangsgrĂŒnde aller mathematischen Wissenschaften
2013:Corr, Charles A. "Christian Wolff and Leibniz,"
1117:Hegel and the Metaphysics of Absolute Negativity
1029:, Michael Albrecht (ed.), Hamburg: Meiner, 1985.
438:appeared impious to his theological colleagues.
434:However, the claims Wolff advanced on behalf of
1925:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
827:(1712). French translation by Jean Des Champs,
772:, which are merely contingent. Wolff conceives
464:Delftware plaque with chinoiserie, 17th century
424:. By this time he had made the acquaintance of
329:in 1745; 24 January 1679 â 9 April 1754) was a
2176:
1829:Kierkegaard and the Rise of Modern Psychology
800:Wolff's most important works are as follows:
728:and based on two fundamental principles: the
8:
1610:"Christian Wolff. 8. Theoretical Philosophy"
604:Wolff was married and had several children.
3266:Academic staff of the University of Marburg
2078:Christian Wolff and Experimental Philosophy
1885:SandkĂŒhler, Hans Jörg (2010). "Ontologie".
849:Vern. Ged. von der Menschen Thun und Lassen
636:significance (while remaining an important
2183:
2169:
2161:
1963:"Christian Wolff. 9. Practical Philosophy"
1912:
1910:
1868:Craig, Edward (1996). "Wolff, Christian".
1642:, Department of Philosophy. Archived from
1339:"Auditorium Maximum der UniversitÀt Halle"
1282:Wolff, C. (1985). Michael Albrecht (ed.).
1119:, Cambridge University Press, 2013, p. 66.
1072:; Horstmann, Rolf-Peter (30 August 2015).
996:Jus Gentium Methodo Scientifica Pertractum
31:
20:
3276:Members of the French Academy of Sciences
3261:Academic staff of the University of Halle
2082:Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy
1341:(in German). Rathausseite. Archived from
509:of the 18th century. His successors were
383:) where Wolff was born and lived, 1679â99
2017:April 1975, Vol. 36 Issue 2, pp 241â262
1863:
1861:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1095:Robert Theis, Alexander Aichele (eds.),
1923:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1776:"Christian Wolff. 8.4 Natural Theology"
1426:. University of Chicago Press. p.
1091:
1089:
1061:
951:English trans.: Marcel Thomann, trans.
644:is once more discarded in favor of the
597:It dominated Germany until the rise of
446:, which, after a long struggle against
861:Vern. Ged. von den Wirkungen der Natur
3015:Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics
2140:Lectures on the History of Philosophy
2089:European Journal of Law and Economics
1364:Uhalley, Stephen; Xiaoxin Wu (2001).
686:on the soul, world and God: rational
312:
7:
3256:Academic staff of Leipzig University
3115:Interpretations of quantum mechanics
3035:The World as Will and Representation
1871:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1111:
1109:
1107:
1105:
593:on the basis of his academic work.
1917:Hettche, Matt; Dyck, Corey (2019).
1079:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
894:Philosophia rationalis, sive logica
2061:The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz
1961:Hettche, Matt (11 November 2014).
1800:Hettche, Matt (11 November 2014).
1774:Hettche, Matt (11 November 2014).
1748:Hettche, Matt (11 November 2014).
1694:Hettche, Matt (11 November 2014).
1608:Hettche, Matt (11 November 2014).
1580:Hettche, Matt (11 November 2014).
1395:Israel, Jonathan I. (2002). "29".
206:Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus
14:
3301:People from the Habsburg monarchy
2116:Works by or about Christian Wolff
1988:Göttinger Digitalisierungszentrum
1420:Vidal, Fernando (December 2011).
900:Philosophia prima, sive Ontologia
3246:18th-century German philosophers
3221:18th-century German male writers
3178:
3168:
3167:
2153:
2015:Journal of the History of Ideas,
2005:Journal of the History of Ideas,
1750:"Christian Wolff. 8.2 Cosmology"
1720:Duignan, Brian (20 April 2009).
1309:University of Pennsylvania Press
1161:
1099:, Springer-Verlag, 2017, p. 442.
940:Philosophia practica universalis
620:The Wolffian system retains the
287:Coining the philosophical term "
271:special metaphysical disciplines
3271:Barons of the Holy Roman Empire
2965:Meditations on First Philosophy
1640:University of California, Davis
1524:Springer Science+Business Media
1300:Journal of the History of Ideas
1208:Journal of the History of Ideas
934:Kleine philosophische Schriften
245:
2033:The American Historical Review
734:principle of sufficient reason
730:principle of non-contradiction
642:principle of sufficient reason
502:in one of the most celebrated
16:German philosopher (1679â1754)
1:
1204:"Christian Wolff and Leibniz"
1175:Pringle-Pattison, Andrew Seth
1076:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
904:First Philosophy, or Ontology
902:(1730). Part 1 translated as
3281:Fellows of the Royal Society
3150:Philosophy of space and time
1826:Klempe, Sven Hroar (2017) .
986:Elementa matheseos universae
975:Elementa matheseos universae
964:Elementa matheseos universae
819:Elementa matheseos universae
794:Elementa matheseos universae
655:, forms the introduction or
3216:18th-century German writers
3025:The Phenomenology of Spirit
2152:(public domain audiobooks)
1567:
1399:. Oxford University Press.
1045:Wawrzyniec Mitzler de Kolof
946:Jus naturae and Jus Gentium
528:, to whose university (the
403:, soon adding philosophy.
3317:
3236:Enlightenment philosophers
1634:Mattey, George J. (2012).
1516:Fellmann, Emil A. (2007).
646:principle of contradiction
212:(epistolary correspondent)
3291:University of Jena alumni
3226:18th-century philosophers
3163:
1554:Eigene Lebensbeschreibung
1551:Wolff, Christian (1841).
1202:Corr, Charles A. (1975).
1130:Schopenhauer: A Biography
983:Wolff, Christian (1751).
972:Wolff, Christian (1746).
961:Wolff, Christian (1746).
406:In 1703, he qualified as
295:
128:
30:
3140:Philosophy of psychology
3075:Simulacra and Simulation
2146:Works by Christian Wolff
1891:. Meiner. Archived from
1888:EnzyklopÀdie Philosophie
1097:Handbuch Christian Wolff
948:. Magdeburg, 1740â1748.
720:Wolff saw ontology as a
442:was the headquarters of
3005:Critique of Pure Reason
1727:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
1463:Purdue University Press
1459:West Lafayette, Indiana
1188:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
701:Critique of Pure Reason
137:18th-century philosophy
2596:Typeâtoken distinction
2424:Hypostatic abstraction
2206:Abstract object theory
2059:Jolley, Nicholas, ed.
922:Psychologia rationalis
797:
663:Theoretical philosophy
653:philosophia rationalis
585:) from the Elector of
489:August Hermann Francke
465:
384:
375:Plaque on building in
253:Theoretical philosophy
3185:Philosophy portal
3065:Being and Nothingness
2481:Mental representation
1722:"Rational psychology"
1502:MacDonogh, G. (1999)
1489:MacDonogh, G. (1999)
1177:; Anonymous (1911). "
1128:David E. Cartwright,
792:
740:are defined by their
530:University of Marburg
463:
374:
361:public administration
181:University of Marburg
118:University of Leipzig
3231:Writers from WrocĆaw
3110:Feminist metaphysics
1986:Available online on
916:Psychologia empirica
910:Cosmologia generalis
837:VernĂŒnftige Gedanken
714:Stages on Life's Way
436:philosophical reason
159:Age of Enlightenment
2955:Daneshnameh-ye Alai
2466:Linguistic modality
2007:1961, 22: 339â354.
1668:(31 October 2014).
1504:Frederick the Great
1491:Frederick the Great
1345:on 11 February 2013
1002:Philosophia moralis
928:Theologia naturalis
684:special metaphysics
677:general metaphysics
572:Frederick the Great
515:Frederick William I
422:University of Halle
267:general metaphysics
237:Philosophical logic
177:University of Halle
3145:Philosophy of self
3135:Philosophy of mind
2399:Embodied cognition
2311:Scientific realism
2098:Wolfgang Drechsler
1834:Abingdon-on-Thames
1666:van Inwagen, Peter
1646:on 8 December 2018
817:(1710); in Latin,
798:
724:science, knowable
665:had for its parts
608:Philosophical work
542:Jonathan I. Israel
466:
418:natural philosophy
414:Leipzig University
401:University of Jena
387:Wolff was born in
385:
331:German philosopher
255:has for its parts
173:Leipzig University
147:Western philosophy
113:University of Jena
98:Kingdom of Prussia
94:Duchy of Magdeburg
90:Halle an der Saale
58:Duchies of Silesia
3193:
3192:
2372:Category of being
2341:Truthmaker theory
2076:Vanzo, Alberto. "
1919:"Christian Wolff"
1802:"Christian Wolff"
1252:thesis title was
955:. NY: Olms, 1972.
709:SĂžren Kierkegaard
696:rational theology
672:philosophia prima
640:device), and the
591:Holy Roman Empire
426:Gottfried Leibniz
299:
298:
283:rational theology
262:philosophia prima
221:Mikhail Lomonosov
210:Gottfried Leibniz
202:Academic advisors
102:Holy Roman Empire
62:Holy Roman Empire
3308:
3251:German Lutherans
3183:
3182:
3181:
3171:
3170:
3080:
3070:
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3050:
3040:
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3020:
3010:
3000:
2990:
2980:
2970:
2960:
2950:
2940:
2930:
2920:
2910:
2900:
2576:Substantial form
2388:Cogito, ergo sum
2331:Substance theory
2185:
2178:
2171:
2162:
2157:
2156:
2120:Internet Archive
2094:Gesammelte Werke
2056:
1991:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1941:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1930:
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1905:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1895:on 11 March 2021
1882:
1876:
1875:
1865:
1856:
1855:
1851:978-1-35151022-6
1823:
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1559:
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1542:
1541:
1537:978-3-76437539-3
1513:
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1199:
1193:
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1179:Wolff, Christian
1167:
1165:
1164:
1158:
1133:
1126:
1120:
1113:
1100:
1093:
1084:
1083:
1066:
1013:Gesammelte Werke
990:
979:
968:
624:and optimism of
478:Philippe Couplet
476:(1651â1729) and
317:; also known as
316:
311:
304:(less correctly
225:A. G. Baumgarten
217:Notable students
122:Dr. phil. habil.
85:
49:
47:
35:
21:
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2928:
2925:De rerum natura
2918:
2908:
2898:
2882:
2622:
2526:Physical object
2362:Abstract object
2350:
2336:Theory of forms
2271:Meaning of life
2194:
2189:
2154:
2112:
2102:Erik S. Reinert
2045:10.2307/1857901
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537:his followers.
369:
309:
302:Christian Wolff
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50:24 January 1679
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25:Christian Wolff
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3097:
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3089:
3088:Related topics
3085:
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3061:
3055:Being and Time
3051:
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2628:Metaphysicians
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2382:Causal closure
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2256:Libertarianism
2253:
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2241:Existentialism
2238:
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2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
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2110:External links
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2106:
2085:
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2039:(4): 954â976.
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1183:Chisholm, Hugh
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1115:Brady Bowman,
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742:determinations
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321:; ennobled as
314:[vÉlf]
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3130:Phenomenology
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2887:Notable works
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2291:Phenomenalism
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2211:Action theory
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2179:
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2137:from Hegel's
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82:9 April 1754
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3206:1679 births
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2909:(c. 350 BC)
2899:(c. 350 BC)
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2691:Malebranche
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1899:16 December
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1070:Guyer, Paul
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750:essentialia
690:, rational
622:determinism
615:natural law
350:rationality
277:, rational
241:metaphysics
163:Rationalism
115:(1699â1702)
3200:Categories
2995:Monadology
2929:(c. 80 BC)
2636:Parmenides
2521:Perception
2419:Experience
2306:Relativism
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1557:. Leipzig.
1526:. p.
1465:. p.
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889:physiology
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754:attributes
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688:psychology
630:monadology
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275:psychology
273:(rational
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3155:Teleology
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2846:Armstrong
2796:Heidegger
2771:Whitehead
2756:Nietzsche
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2646:Aristotle
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2501:Necessity
2461:Intention
2414:Existence
2377:Causality
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2246:Free will
1838:Routledge
1506:, p. 134.
1493:, p. 129.
1349:1 January
1228:0022-5037
885:teleology
774:existence
722:deductive
692:cosmology
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638:heuristic
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451:dogmatism
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327:von Wolff
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2251:Idealism
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2150:LibriVox
2072:in JSTOR
2019:in JSTOR
2009:in JSTOR
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1811:24 March
1785:24 March
1759:24 March
1733:12 March
1705:24 March
1679:11 March
1650:11 March
1619:24 March
1593:24 March
1570:, p. 955
1034:See also
726:a priori
667:ontology
579:Freiherr
561:Voltaire
504:academic
496:fatalism
487:, Prof.
485:Voltaire
448:Lutheran
325:Freiherr
289:idealism
257:ontology
2945:Enneads
2939:(c. 50)
2905:Timaeus
2895:Sophist
2841:Dummett
2836:Deleuze
2776:Russell
2766:Bergson
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2701:Leibniz
2681:Spinoza
2666:Aquinas
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2546:Quality
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2476:Meaning
2451:Insight
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1998:Sources
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444:Pietism
420:to the
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877:logic
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