342:. Ladd-Franklin often wrote of the injustice she observed in the oppression of the female sex. In one such journal entry while at Vassar College she describes her disappointment with the views in society about and among women, stating, "I so despise the idea that women are not as competent to take care of themselves as men, that they cannot decide for themselves when to go to bed and when to get up, how much exercise to take, how much to pray and go to church. Still my greatest objection is to the class of girls who come here and to the social and political atmosphere of the place...I know of but one girl who declares herself for the rights of women" (September 22, 1866). In another journal entry she writes about the lack of recognition of women who have earned advanced educational degrees, "That is the case with our clever girls -- they go to Germany and get the parchments, beautifully signed and sealed, that proclaim them to be doctors of philosophy, but no further consequences follow. They have nothing but the empty satisfaction of exhibiting their 'tickets
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decision to marry." Eleven years later, in 1904, she was at last given permission to teach one class per year. For the next five years her position at Johns
Hopkins University had to be approved and renewed on a yearly basis. Women who were able to obtain academic positions in universities at this time often chose these positions despite their lack of compensation. Ladd was no different. Many of the teaching positions that she held were on a volunteer basis, creating substantial financial strain on her and her family. Yet, it is evident that Ladd placed a high value on her ability to earn the academic affiliations necessary to become a successful contributor to her field.
276:. Ladd's application for a fellowship was signed "C. Ladd", and the university offered her the position without realizing she was a woman. When they did realize her gender, the board tried to revoke the offer, but Sylvester insisted that Ladd should be his student, and so she was. She held a fellowship at Johns Hopkins University for three years, but the trustees did not allow her name to be printed in circulars with those of other fellows, for fear of setting a precedent. Furthermore, dissension over her continued presence forced one of the original trustees to resign.
322:. Since women were not allowed to graduate from Johns Hopkins University at that time, Ladd was refused a PhD in mathematics and logic, although she was the first woman to complete all the university's requirements for a PhD. Completing the work for a PhD in mathematics and logic at Johns Hopkins University gave her the tools and the legitimacy she needed, as a woman taking up scientific work. The university eventually officially awarded her a PhD during its 50th-anniversary celebrations in 1926 (44 years after she had earned it) when she was seventy-eight.
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168:, New Hampshire, where she attended school. Ladd's father remarried in 1862 and had two further children, her half-sister Katherine (born 1862) and half-brother George (born 1867). Ladd was reportedly a precocious child who sought to find "a mean to continue her education beyond secondary school." Her father enrolled her in a two-year program at the coeducational
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In the fall of 1866 Ladd enrolled in Vassar
College financed by a loan from her aunt, Juliet Niles, but left at the end of the spring term due to financial hardship. Ladd then worked as a public school teacher until her aunt's aid allowed her to re-enroll in Vassar. She earned an A.B. degree in 1869.
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In 1893, she applied for a teaching position at Johns
Hopkins University, but was denied. Laurel Furumoto, in her work discussing the sociopolitical environment of the time, notes that Ladd's "inability to secure a regular academic position was a predictable consequence, in that time period, of her
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One of the major contributions that Ladd-Franklin made to psychology was her theory of color vision, which was based on evolution. Ladd-Franklin noted that: "some animals are color blind and assumed that achromatic vision appeared first in evolution and color vision came later." She assumed further
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and mathematics. Because women in nineteenth-century
America were prohibited from working in physics laboratories, Ladd chose to study mathematics. Later in life, Ladd would reflected her decision, saying, "had it not been for the impossibility, in those days, in the case of women, of obtaining
283:, at first Ladd was only allowed to attend classes taught by Sylvester. However, after displaying exceptional work in his courses, Ladd was allowed to take courses with additional professors. Even though she was awarded a stipend, she was not allowed to have the title of "
361:, where she carried out experimental work on vision. Although women in academic settings and laboratories were viewed as equally unwelcome as in the United States, she managed to secure a position. Ladd-Franklin was also able to work in the laboratory of
960:
Furumoto, L. (1994). Christine Ladd-Franklin's color theory: Strategy for claiming scientific authority? In. Adler, H.E. & Rieber, R.W. (Eds.) Aspects of the history of psychology in
America: 1892-1992 (pp. 91-100). New York: The New York Academy of
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Ladd-Franklin concluded that color vision evolved in three stages: achromatic vision (black and white), blue-yellow sensitivity and red-green sensitivity. Since red-green sensitivity was the last to evolve it explains why many people suffer from
1153:. Includes an English translation "Christine Ladd Franklin: American Mathematician and her influence on symbolic logic" of the paper "Cristina Ladd Franklin. Matemática americana y su influencia en la lógica simbólica" by Prósper published in
234:; Massachusetts; and New York for nine years, although her diary entries indicate that her interest in teaching may have diminished over time. During this time, Ladd contributed seventy-seven mathematical problems and solutions to the
149:. In 1853 the family moved back to Windsor, Connecticut, where her sister Jane Augusta Ladd McCordia was born the following year. Family correspondence shows that Augusta and one of her sisters were both staunch supporters of
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on August 24, 1882, she adopted the name
Christine Ladd-Franklin. The couple had two children, one of whom died in infancy. The other, Margaret Ladd-Franklin, became a prominent member in the
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and strove to inspire women to gain more self-confidence to enter into the male-dominated academia of the time. Under the guidance of
Mitchell, Ladd became proficient and developed a love for
291:, who has been called the first American experimental psychologist. She wrote a dissertation "On the Algebra of Logic" with Peirce as her thesis advisor. The dissertation was published in
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Nubiola, Jaime and Cobo, Jesús (2000), "The
Spanish Mathematician Ventura Reyes Prósper and His Connections with Charles S. Peirce and Christine Ladd-Franklin", Arisbe, Lubbock, TX.
427:. She was also the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in mathematics and logic. The majority of her publications were based on visual processes and logic. Her views on logic influenced
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during 1901-1902 and 1914-1915. Ladd-Franklin remained a member of both scientific societies until her death. She was also a prominent member of the women's rights movement.
365:, where she attended his lectures on theory of color vision. After attending these lectures, Ladd-Franklin developed her own theory of color vision. In 1929 she published
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394:) was more primitive than foveal vision (provided by the cones of the retina) because night vision and movement detection are crucial for survival."
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Due to her studies with
Sylvester and Peirce, Ladd became the first American woman to formally receive graduate instruction in both mathematics and
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that the human eye carries fragments of its earlier evolutionary development. She observed that the most highly evolved part of the eye is the
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455:) in 1919 - member number 118. During their meetings she presented six papers and two exhibits. In 1959, Ladd-Franklin also joined
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Spillman, Scott, "Institutional Limits: Christine Ladd-Franklin, Fellowships, and
American Women's Academic Careers, 1880–1920,"
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in December 1893. From 1894 to 1925, Ladd-Franklin presented ten papers at APA meetings. She was also the first woman member of
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Cadwallader, J. V.; Cadwallader, T.C. (1990). "Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930)". In O'Connell, A. N.; Russo, N. F. (eds.).
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411:. Since achromatic vision was the first to evolve it explains why the majority of the population are not affected by
176:. At Wesleyan Academy she took the same courses her male classmates took to prepare for entrance to colleges such as
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Furumoto, L (December 1994). "Christine Ladd-Franklin's color theory: strategy for claiming scientific authority?".
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495:, and was surprised that there were no others. Coming from a logician and a solipsist, her surprise surprised me."
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wrote: "I once received a letter from an eminent logician, Mrs. Christine Ladd-Franklin, saying that she was a
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626:"The Reddish Blue Arcs and the Reddish Blue Glow of the Retina; an Emanation from Stimulated Nerve Fibre." in
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Niles) Ladd. During her early childhood, she lived with her parents and younger brother Henry (born 1850) in
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382:, where, at least in daylight, visual acuity and color sensitivity are greatest. Ladd-Franklin assumed that
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Furumoto, Laurel (1992). "Joining Separate Spheres: Christine Ladd-Franklin, Woman-Scientist (1847–1930)".
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Furumoto, Laurel (1992). "Joining separate spheres: Christine Ladd-Franklin, woman-scientist (1847-1930)".
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Russell, B. (1948). Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 180.
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Christine Ladd, sometimes known by the nickname "Kitty", was born on December 1, 1847, in
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After graduating from Vassar, Ladd taught science and mathematics at secondary level in
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Supplementary Material For Pioneering Women In American Mathematics: The Pre-1940 PhD's
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1170:, edited by Charlene Morrow and Teri Perl, Greenwood Press, 1998. pp 107–113
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153:. Before Ladd turned five, her mother had taken her to a lecture given by
980:(6th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. pp. 243–244.
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Peirce's Ph.D. student Christine Ladd-Franklin found the truth table in
892:"Christine Ladd-Franklin - Vassar College Encyclopedia - Vassar College"
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Untold lives : the first generation of american women psychologists
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579:"A Method for the Experimental Determination of the Horopter" in the
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After leaving Hopkins, Ladd-Franklin worked with German psychologist
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This article incorporates material from Christine Ladd-Franklin on
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Pioneering Women in American Mathematics — The Pre-1940 PhD's
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Women's Intellectual Contributions to the Study of Mind and Society
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VIIIth International Congress of Psychology: Proceedings and Papers
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Ladd-Franklin was the first woman to have a published paper in the
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While attending Vassar, Ladd began working under the mentorship of
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Verhandlungen des III. Internationalen Kongresses fur Philosophie.
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access to laboratory facilities" she would have studied physics.
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Hurvich, Dorothea Jameson (1975), "Ladd-Franklin, Christine"
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The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods
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593:, v. 2, n. 4, pp. 543–567, August 1889. Google Books
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v. 4, n. 6, pp. 172–4 (Nov 1877). Google Books
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as the five women part of the first Optica Fellow class.
117:(December 1, 1847 – March 5, 1930) was an American
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Psychology's Feminist Voices Multimedia Internet Archive
608:, pp. 64–670, 1908. Also separately as an offprint.
568:, C. S. Peirce, ed., pp. 17–71, 1883. Google Books
1187:. History of Mathematics. Vol. 34 (1st ed.).
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Notable Women in Mathematics, a Biographical Dictionary
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Proposition 5.101, 40 years earlier than Wittgenstein.
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from Wesleyan Academy and pursued further education at
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Christine Ladd (1881), "On the Algebra of Logic", p.62
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The Analyst: A Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics
141:, Connecticut, to Eliphalet, a merchant, and Augusta (
287:". During 1879 and 1880, Ladd took classes taught by
164:, Ladd went to live with her paternal grandmother in
583:, v. 1, n. 1 pp. 99–111, November 1887. JSTOR
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Ladd-Franklin was among the first women to join the
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Following the death of her mother in spring 1860 of
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Women in Psychology: A Bio-bibliographic Sourcebook
615:v. 13, n. 26, 715–723, December 1916. Google Books
589:"On Some Characteristics of Symbolic Logic" in the
295:(C.S. Peirce, ed.) in 1883. In 1884, Ladd attended
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808:. New York, NY: Greenwood Press. pp. 220–225.
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407:. The next one that affects a small population is
716:Scarborough, Elizabeth; Furumoto, Laurel (1989).
349:She died on March 5, 1930 in New York, New York.
215:In 1887, Vassar College awarded Ladd an honorary
1231:Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License
27:American psychologist and logician (1847 - 1930)
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1309:19th-century American mathematicians
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1024:"An Early Start for Women in Optics"
828:"Profile of Christine Ladd-Franklin"
531:(Several journals have been called "
431:logic and she was highly praised by
353:Major contributions and achievements
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604:"Epistemology for the logician" in
1253:Profile of Christine Ladd-Franklin
1120:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1994.tb27502.x
478:Ladd-Franklin was included in the
445:American Psychological Association
244:. She also published six items in
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297:William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
264:In 1878, Ladd was accepted into
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1278:about the lack of women in the
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253:American Journal of Mathematics
1229:, which is licensed under the
1162:History of Education Quarterly
1002:Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
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591:American Journal of Psychology
581:American Journal of Psychology
558:will dominate search results.)
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1210:Green, Judy; Laduke, Jeanne,
1189:American Mathematical Society
638:, Routledge, 320 pages, 1929.
562:"On the Algebra of Logic" in
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832:Psychology's Feminist Voices
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537:The Analyst (disambiguation)
330:Personal life and philosophy
303:and met her future husband,
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1028:Optics & Photonics News
413:black-white color blindness
409:blue-yellow color blindness
232:Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania
191:, supported by her family.
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1262:. In A. Rutherford (Ed.),
1086:10.1037/0003-066x.47.2.175
766:10.1037/0003-066x.47.2.175
636:Colour and Colour Theories
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183:In 1865 Ladd graduated as
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914:"Christine Ladd-Franklin"
858:"Christine Ladd-Franklin"
685:"Christine Ladd-Franklin"
549:"The Analyst" mathematics
545:The Annals of Mathematics
405:red-green color blindness
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539:. Internet searches for
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228:Washington, Pennsylvania
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133:Early life and education
1164:52 (May 2012), 196–221.
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115:Christine Ladd-Franklin
69:March 5, 1930 (aged 82)
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34:Christine Ladd-Franklin
18:Christine Ladd Franklin
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1155:El Progreso Matemático
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289:Charles Sanders Peirce
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1096:Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.
1074:American Psychologist
916:. Agnes Scott College
754:American Psychologist
419:Mathematics and logic
363:Hermann von Helmholtz
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481:Who's Who in America
59:Windsor, Connecticut
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1102:(1 Aspects of th).
941:Scientific American
617:Eprint (badly done)
597:. Internet Archive
572:. Internet Archive
429:Charles S. Peirce's
1304:American logicians
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1258:2018-09-25 at the
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334:After marriage to
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