660:. It seems that the most essential of all these connections is the SFO’s projections to the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus. Based on their functional relevance, the SFO neurons can be branded as either GE, featuring nonselective cation channels, or GI, featuring potassium channels. While the afferent projections of the SFO are considered less important than the various efferent connections, it is still notable that the subfornical organ receives synaptic input from the
877:
fenestrated peripheral capillaries. They are tightly packed on the capillaries, forming a seal between the third ventricle and the median eminence. This seal can be attributed to the tight junctions observed between tanycytes and functions to restrict the travel of molecules between the median eminence and the third ventricle. The median eminence is also closely linked to the transport of
606:
increase in osmolarity results in a reversible depolarization of the VOLT neurons. This can be seen through the predominantly excitatory effects of ANG on the VOLT through the TRPV1 receptor. In this context, it is worthy to note the VOLT neurons typically feature a resting membrane potential in the range of -50 to -67 mV with input resistances ranging from 65 to 360 MΩ.
769:, which influences water and sodium intake. During water deprivation, it will also reduce its innervation to the SCO. The reduction of input to the SCO causes a marked decrease in RF production. This finding implies that the subcommissural organ and its associated Reissner's fiber are integral parts of fluid electrolyte balance and water homeostasis.
342:
29:
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343:
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supports the SFO’s importance in energy homeostasis. Additionally, it is assumed that the SFO is the lone forebrain structure capable of constant monitoring of circulating concentrations of glucose. This responsiveness to glucose again serves to solidify the SFO’s integral role as a regulator of energy homeostasis.
399:
362:
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323:
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382:
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Uenoyama Y.; Inoue N.; Pheng V.; Homma T.; Takase K.; Yamada S.; Ajiki K.; Ichikawa M.; Okamura H.; Maeda K.-I.; Tsukamura H. (2011). "Ultrastructural
Evidence of Kisspeptin-Gonadotrophin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) Interaction in the Median Eminence of Female Rats: Implication of Axo-Axonal Regulation
684:
The subfornical organ is active in many bodily processes including, but not limited to, osmoregulation, cardiovascular regulation, Both hyper- and hypotonic stimuli facilitated an osmotic response. This observation demonstrated the fact that the SFO is involved in the maintenance of blood pressure.
911:
of the brain, as well as its size and shape. Under these conditions, the human pineal gland is classified as type A. A type A pineal gland rests proximally to the posterior section of the diencephalon. It is located within 1-2mm of the midline of the brain. The pineal gland starts to develop during
671:
Study of subfornical organ anatomy is still ongoing but evidence has demonstrated slow blood transit time which may facilitate the sensory capability of SFO, enabling increased contact time for blood-borne signals to penetrate its permeable capillaries and influence regulation of blood pressure and
577:
type I receptors, which are used by circulating angiotensin II to initiate water intake and sodium consumption. In addition to the angiotensin receptors, the neurons of the VOLT are also characterized by the presence of a nonselective cation channel deemed the transient receptor potential vanilloid
912:
the second month of gestation. In the average adult, the dimensions are as follow: 5-9mm in length, 1-5mm in width and 3-5mm in thickness. Its average weight is 100–180 mg. The pineal gland consists of a central core made up of small lobes and a cortex that possesses a diffuse distribution of
618:
mechanism. It is also hypothesized that the VOLT may be the mechanism through which pyrogens function to initiate a febrile response in the CNS. Finally, VOLT neurons have been observed to respond to temperature changes indicating that the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis is subject to
704:
Recent research has focused on the subfornical organ as an area particularly important in the regulation of energy. The observation that subfornical neurons respond to a wide range of circulating energy balance signals, and that electrical stimulation of the SFO in rats resulted in food intake
640:
and neuronal cell bodies. Conversely, the rostral and caudal areas are mostly made of nerve fibers while few neurons and glial cells can be seen in this area. Functionally, however, the SFO may be viewed in two portions – the dorsolateral peripheral division and the ventromedial core segment.
438:
605:
In experiments, mammalian VOLT neurons were shown to transduce hypertonicity by the activation of the TRPV1 nonselective cation channels. These channels are highly permeable to calcium and are responsible for membrane depolarization and increased action potential discharge. Stated simply, an
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line the floor of the third ventricle and can be characterized by a singular long projection that delves deep inside the hypothalamus. Tanycytes have been evolutionarily linked to radial glial cells of the central nervous system. The tanycytes of the median eminence are often found along the
636:, the absence of which characterizes the circumventricular organs. Protruding into the third ventricle of the brain, the highly vascularized SFO can be divided into 3–4 anatomical zones, especially by its capillary density and structure. The central zone is composed exclusively of the
401:
365:
422:
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and is ventral to the third ventricle. While some publications do not list the ME as a CVO, when it is considered to be a circumventricular organ, it is classified as a secretory organ. The median eminence is rich in fenestrated capillaries, allowing for the passage of proteins and
325:
441:
403:
731:. It differs from other CVOs in that it does not have highly permeable capillaries. Its role as a neuroendocrine structure associated with the ventricular system qualifies it for classification as a CVO. Related to its secretory function, the SCO is partially composed of
1482:
RodrĂguez
Esteban M.; Blázquez Juan L.; Guerra Montserrat (2010). "The design of barriers in the hypothalamus allows the median eminence and the arcuate nucleus to enjoy private milieus: The former opens to the portal blood and the latter to the cerebrospinal fluid".
327:
701:. Additional research has demonstrated that the subfornical organ may be an important intermediary though which leptin acts to maintain blood pressure within normal physiological limits via descending autonomic pathways associated with cardiovascular control.
524:
neural activity, blood pressure control, and thirst. The area postrema also has integrative capacities that enable it to send major and minor efferents to sections of the brain involved in the autonomic control of cardiovascular and respiratory activities.
1957:
Ott D.; Murgott J.; Rafalzik S.; Wuchert F.; Schmalenbeck B.; Roth J.; Gerstberger R. (2010). "Neurons and glial cells of the rat organum vasculosum laminae terminalis directly respond to lipopolysaccharide and pyrogenic cytokines".
754:. Reissner's fiber is a long fibrous projection that travels caudally through the Sylvian aqueduct and terminates in the spinal cord. This fiber is thought to contribute to the maintenance of the patency of the Sylvian aqueduct.
862:. More specifically, the median eminence allows for the transport of neurohormones between the CSF and the peripheral blood supply. The major cell type that makes up the median eminence are specialized ependymal cells known as
954:, which also form the bilateral nervi conarii. The second set of fibers enters the pineal gland anteriorly via the commissural peduncles. The third set of fibers is myelinated and forms the ventro-lateral pineal tract.
250:
include the area postrema, the subfornical organ, and the vascular organ of lamina terminalis, all having the ability to sense signals in blood, then pass that information neurally to other brain regions. Through their
609:
Despite a solid understanding of the VOLT’s role in the maintenance of body fluid homeostasis, other functions are less understood. For example, it is thought that the VOLT may also play a role in the regulation of
345:
982:
Other peptides aside from melatonin have been detected in the pineal. They are most likely associated with a type of innervation deemed "pineal peptidergic innervation." These include vasopressin, oxytocin,
2451:
Elgot A.; Ahboucha S.; Bouyatas M. M.; Fèvre-Montange M.; Gamrani H. (2009). "Water deprivation affects the serotoninergic system and glycoprotein secretion in the sub-commissural organ of a desert rodent
364:
421:
974:. Melatonin production is controlled by the previously mentioned circadian timing and is suppressed by light. Pineal tumors can affect sexual development, but the mechanism has yet to be established.
866:. These contribute to the organ's ability to selectively allow macromolecules to pass from the central to the peripheral neuroendocrine systems. Ventromedial subregions of the bilateral hypothalamic
383:
2064:
Issa A.T.; Miyata K.; Heng V.; Mitchell K.D.; Derbenev A.V. (2012). "Increased neuronal activity in the OVLT of Cyp1a1-Ren2 transgenic rats with inducible Ang II-dependent malignant hypertension".
440:
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and neurons of the VOLT to perceive a wide variety of plasma molecules whose signals may be transduced into other regions of the brain, thereby eliciting autonomic and inflammatory reactions.
582:. Though there are other receptors within the TRPV family, a study by Ciura, Liedtke, and Bourque demonstrated that hypertonicity sensing operated via a mechanical mechanism of TRPV1 but not
278:
Circumventricular organs contain capillary networks that vary between one another and within individual organs both in density and permeability, with most CVO capillaries having a permeable
326:
573:
As a major player in the maintenance of the mammalian body fluid homeostasis, the VOLT features the primary neurons responsible for osmosensory balance. These neurons, in turn, feature
881:
between the median eminence and the anterior pituitary. Neuronal projections of GnRH neurons actually end at the median eminence, allowing for its release into the portal blood system.
672:
body fluids. This observation coincides with the fact that SFO neurons have been shown to be intrinsically osmosensitive. Finally, it has been established that SFO neurons maintain
2555:
1825:
1751:
2511:
Lamacz, M.; Tonon, M. C.; Louiset, E.; Cazin, L.; Vaudry, H. (1991). "Le lobe intermédiaire de l'hypophyse, modèle de communication neuroendocrinienne (abstract in
English)".
2250:
Medeiros N.; Dai L.; Ferguson A.V. (2012). "Glucose-responsive neurons in the subfornical organ of the rat—a novel site for direct CNS monitoring of circulating glucose".
870:
display relatively high capillary permeability, indicating this nucleus may have moment-to-moment regulatory roles for sensing and neurally conveying hormonal signals.
512:
trigger zone for vomiting, which is triggered by the presence of noxious stimulation from the blood. There is also evidence that the area postrema is the site at which
924:
The level of vascularization in the pineal gland is high. It receives a large supply of blood from branches of the posterior choroidal arteries that derive from
735:. These ependymocytes are characterized by elongated cell bodies that contain secretory materials and are covered in cilia. The most prominent of these is the
594:
As previously mentioned, the vascular organ of lamina terminalis features neurons responsible for the homeostatic conservation of osmolarity. In addition, the
74:
2403:
Saha S.; Subhedar N. (2011). "Calcitonin-like immunoreactivity in the subcommissural organ–Reissner's fiber complex of some freshwater and marine teleosts".
2645:
Shaver, SW; Pang, JJ; Wainman, DS; Wall, KM; Gross, PM (1992). "Morphology and function of capillary networks in subregions of the rat tuber cinereum".
2598:"Differential distribution of tight junction proteins suggests a role for tanycytes in blood-hypothalamus barrier regulation in the adult mouse brain"
1919:
Gross, P. M; Wainman, D. S; Shaver, S. W; Wall, K. M; Ferguson, A. V (1990). "Metabolic activation of efferent pathways from the rat area postrema".
508:
Relatively little is known about the function of the area postrema in humans. However, there is strong evidence that the area postrema acts as the
750:
One function of the SCO is the secretion of the glycoprotein SCO-spondin, which is released into the third ventricle where it aggregates to create
819:
which are indirectly controlled by "releasing hormones" from the median eminence of the hypothalamus, through the hypophyseal portal circulation.
653:
302:
496:
for its capillary distribution and morphology, the area postrema has numerous subregions separated according to capillary permeability, rates of
1533:
Morita S.; Miyata S. (2012). "Different vascular permeability between the sensory and secretory circumventricular organs of adult mouse brain".
916:. The principal cell type of the pineal is the pinealocyte sensu stricto. This type of cell has a prominent nucleus and a granular appearance.
2198:
Kawano H.; Masuko S. (2010). "Region-specific projections from the subfornical organ to the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus in the rat".
1147:
1388:
Fry M, Ferguson AV (2007). "The sensory circumventricular organs: Brain targets for circulating signals controlling ingestive behavior".
546:. Characteristically of the CVOs, it lacks the tight endothelial blood brain barrier. The vascular organ is further characterized by the
539:
149:
2365:
1277:
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varies greatly among mammals. The most commonly used classification for this gland takes into account its location relative to the
282:
layer, except for those in the subcommissural organ. Furthermore, all CVOs contain neural tissue, enabling a neuroendocrine role.
125:(BBB) at the capillary level. Although the term "circumventricular organs" was originally proposed in 1958 by Austrian anatomist
81:
2156:
Gross, P. M (1991). "Morphology and physiology of capillary systems in subregions of the subfornical organ and area postrema".
648:
projections to regions involved in cardiovascular regulation including the lateral hypothalamus with fibers terminating in the
271:(SCO), the pituitary gland, the median eminence, and the pineal gland. These organs are responsible for secreting hormones and
1224:(1936). "The permeability of the hypophysis and hypothalamus to vital dyes, with a study of the hypophyseal vascular supply".
727:(SCO) is a small secretory organ located on the ventral surface of the posterior commissure near the anterior entrance of the
1434:
Cottrell G. T.; Ferguson A. V. (2004). "Sensory circumventricular organs: Central roles in integrated autonomic regulation".
1154:
Neurons in the sensory CVOs are ideally positioned at the blood–brain interface to monitor major constituents of body fluids.
936:
686:
2012:"Hypertonicity Sensing in Organum Vasculosum Lamina Terminalis Neurons: A Mechanical Process Involving TRPV1 But Not TRPV4"
1873:
Shaver, S. W; Kadekaro, M; Gross, P. M (1989). "High metabolic activity in the dorsal vagal complex of
Brattleboro rats".
984:
69:
1752:"Neuropathology of the Area Postrema in Sudden Intrauterine and Infant Death Syndromes Related to Tobacco Smoke Exposure"
789:(also known as the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis (or neural lobe), respectively). Each one functions as a separate
563:
2954:
947:
1702:
Duvernoy HM, Risold P-Y (2007). "The circumventricular organs: An atlas of comparative anatomy and vascularization".
136:, the penetration of blood-borne dyes into small specific CVO regions was discovered in the early 20th century. The
2856:"The blood vascular architecture of the rat pineal gland: A scanning electron microscopic study of corrosion casts"
951:
940:
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925:
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While the function of the subcommissural organ remains under investigation, it may be part of the mechanism of
256:
44:
633:
122:
2110:
Sposito, N. M; Gross, P. M (1987). "Topography and morphometry of capillaries in the rat subfornical organ".
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Sisó, S; Jeffrey, M; González, L (December 2010). "Sensory circumventricular organs in health and disease".
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943:, in addition to fibers from the central nervous system. The most important set of fibers involved are the
289:
also has permeable capillaries, it does not contain neural tissue; rather, its primary role is to produce
188:
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under neural control by the hypothalamus. It is not commonly included among circumventricular organs.
796:
The pituitary neural lobe consists of axonal projections that directly extend from cell bodies in the
724:
645:
547:
521:
268:
260:
1201:
Hofer H (1958). "Zur
Morphologie der circumventriculären Organe des Zwischenhirns der Säugetiere".
786:
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697:. The induction of the drinking response via the SFO can be antagonized, however, by the peptide,
611:
290:
184:
2690:"Three-dimensional properties of GnRH neuroterminals in the median eminence of young and old rats"
2298:"Dopamine modulates neuronal excitability pre- and post-synaptically in the rat subfornical organ"
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586:. Despite a significant amount of data, the anatomy of the VOLT is not yet fully comprehended.
2352:
RodrĂguez, Esteban M.; RodrĂguez, Sara; Hein, Silvia (1998-04-15). "The subcommissural organ".
991:, peptide histidine isoleucine, calcitonin gene-related peptide, substance P and somatostatin.
812:, thereby qualifying it as a circumventricular organ with both neural and secretory functions.
656:
nuclei, and the anteroventral 3rd ventricle (AV3V) with fibers terminating in the VOLT and the
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into the peripheral blood using feedback from both the brain environment and external stimuli.
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Marieb, Elaine N. Human
Anatomy and Physiology. 6th ed. N.p.: Benjamin Cummings, 2003. Print.
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The subfornical organ is a sensory CVO situated on the underside of the fornix and lacking a
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that have been studied, it consists of swellings on either wall of the fourth ventricle. In
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Reiter, Russel J. (1981). "The mammalian pineal gland: Structure and function (Review)".
1603:
Ferguson A. V.; Bains J. S. (1996). "Electrophysiology of the circumventricular organs".
765:. The SCO is innervated by many systems, the most common of which is associated with the
550:
inputs from the subfornical organ (SFO), the median pre-optic nucleus (MnPO) region, the
2808:
Bruce J. N. (2004). "Human Pineal
Physiology and Functional Significance of Melatonin".
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2011:
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Circumventricular Organs and Brain Fluid
Environment - Molecular and Functional Aspects
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receptor for ANG, the SFO neurons demonstrate an excitatory response when activated by
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American
Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology
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970:– rests when there is no input from the primary circadian pacemaker in the
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Classified as a sensory circumventricular organ (along with the SFO and AP), the
49:
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107:
1826:"Area Postrema: Chemoreceptor Circumventricular Organ of the Medulla Oblongata"
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28:
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Brizzee KR, Klara PM (1984). "The structure of the mammalian area postrema".
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The anterior pituitary contains non-neural secretory cells derived from oral
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10.1002/(sici)1097-0029(19980415)41:2<98::aid-jemt2>3.0.co;2-m
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1940:
1894:
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1810:
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114:) are structures in the brain characterized by their extensive and highly
2854:
Murakami, Takuro; Kikuta, Akio; Taguchi, Takehito; Ohtsuka, Aiji (1988).
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to sample from and secrete to circulating blood. CVOs also have roles in
56:
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The pineal gland is considered a secretory organ and its activity shows
2872:
2855:
2658:
2513:
1179:
1086:
Gross, P. M (1992). "Chapter 31: Circumventricular organ capillaries".
481:
477:
204:
200:
2705:
2613:
87:
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488:, however, the area postrema forms a midline structure dorsal to the
238:
CVOs can be classified as either sensory or secretory organs serving
224:
2169:
1166:
Kaur, C; Ling, EA (September 2017). "The circumventricular organs".
500:, and duration of blood transit through respective capillary beds.
583:
579:
180:
130:
1295:"Sensory circumventricular organs and brain homeostatic pathways"
191:
and peripheral blood. Additionally, they are an integral part of
187:, and they facilitate special types of communication between the
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739:
489:
171:
The circumventricular organs are midline structures around the
2296:
Miyahara N.; Ono K.; Hitomi S.; Hirase M.; Inenaga K. (2012).
1130:
Fry, W.M.; Ferguson, A.V. (2009). "Circumventricular Organs".
1090:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 91. pp. 219–33.
935:
The pineal gland is innervated by fibers from the peripheral
121:, unlike those in the rest of the brain where there exists a
293:(CSF), and therefore is typically not classified as a CVO.
644:
The SFO has many efferent projections, shown to broadcast
1648:"Neural circuits underlying thirst and fluid homeostasis"
33:
Diagram showing locations of the circumventricular organs
2688:
Yin W.; Mendenhall J. M.; Monita M.; Gore A. C. (2009).
2596:
Mullier A.; Bouret S. G.; Prevot V.; Dehouck B. (2010).
2010:
Ciura Sorana; Liedtke Wolfgang; Borque Charles (2011).
1270:
Circumventricular Organs and Body Fluids, Volumes I-III
16:
Interfaces between the brain and the circulatory system
140:
CVOs enabling rapid neurohumoral exchange include the
1203:
Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft
966:. Its main function – secretion of the hormone
1646:Zimmerman, CA; Leib, DE; Knight, ZA (August 2017).
1044:"Peering through the windows of the brain (Review)"
777:The pituitary gland is subdivided into lobes – the
68:
55:
43:
38:
21:
199:allow the CVOs to act as an alternative route for
826:) synthesizes and secretes a hormone stimulating
2591:
2589:
2158:Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
1750:Lavezzi A. M.; Mecchia D.; Matturri L. (2012).
853:(ME) is located in the inferior portion of the
542:(VOLT) is situated in the anterior wall of the
333:Human brain: Circumventricular organs - General
315:Human brain circumventricular organs in detail
301:The sensory organs are the area postrema, the
1048:Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism
761:secretion and CSF detoxification, along with
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464:The area postrema is located in the caudal
154:organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis
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1756:Autonomic Neuroscience: Basic and Clinical
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558:. Conversely, the vascular organ of the
255:, they provide direct information to the
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529:Vascular organ of the lamina terminalis
303:vascular organ of the lamina terminalis
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833:The pituitary gland is located in the
562:maintains efferent projections to the
85:
18:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2789:
2787:
2785:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2777:
2560:Neurosurgery Clinics of North America
7:
2112:The Journal of Comparative Neurology
1293:Johnson, AK; Gross, PM (May 1993).
822:The intermediate lobe (also called
598:vasculature of the VOLT allows the
540:vascular organ of lamina terminalis
352:Human brain: 3rd and 4th ventricles
150:vascular organ of lamina terminalis
2860:Archives of Histology and Cytology
2556:"Pituitary Anatomy and Physiology"
2264:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.11.028
2212:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.05.065
14:
2354:Microscopy Research and Technique
1716:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.06.002
948:postganglionic sympathetic fibers
428:Human brain: Subcommissural organ
129:concerning structures around the
2752:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2011.02199.x
2554:Amar A. P.; Weiss M. H. (2003).
2405:Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy
1140:10.1016/b978-008045046-9.00462-9
435:
416:
397:
378:
359:
340:
321:
82:Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
2810:Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology
1933:10.1152/ajpregu.1990.258.3.R788
1605:Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology
1272:. CRC Press, Inc. p. 688.
1134:. Elsevier. pp. 997–1002.
920:Vascularization and innervation
676:in the range of -57 to -65 mV.
371:Human brain: Organum vasculosum
2417:10.1016/j.jchemneu.2010.12.004
2314:10.1016/j.brainres.2012.01.063
2028:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1420-11.2011
1972:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.09.083
1497:10.1016/j.peptides.2010.01.003
476:. In humans and in most other
390:Human brain: Subfornical organ
1:
2740:Journal of Neuroendocrinology
2572:10.1016/S1042-3680(02)00017-7
1402:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.04.003
1096:10.1016/S0079-6123(08)62338-9
2470:10.1016/j.neulet.2009.08.058
2078:10.1016/j.neulet.2012.05.006
1887:10.1016/0006-8993(89)91459-5
1843:10.1016/0301-0082(89)90028-2
1768:10.1016/j.autneu.2011.09.001
1652:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
1448:10.1016/j.regpep.2003.09.004
1168:Histology and Histopathology
1132:Encyclopedia of Neuroscience
197:Highly permeable capillaries
2908:American Journal of Anatomy
2822:10.1016/j.yfrne.2004.08.001
2016:The Journal of Neuroscience
1226:American Journal of Anatomy
1042:Gross PM, Weindl A (1987).
2971:
1312:10.1096/fasebj.7.8.8500693
841:at the base of the skull.
674:resting membrane potential
447:Human brain: Area postrema
152:(VOLT — also known as the
2525:10.3109/13813459109146925
1547:10.1007/s00441-012-1421-9
1390:Physiology & Behavior
1356:10.1007/s00401-010-0743-5
952:superior cervical ganglia
468:near the junction of the
409:Human brain: Pineal gland
179:that are in contact with
80:
26:
2647:Cell and Tissue Research
1830:Progress in Neurobiology
1535:Cell and Tissue Research
257:autonomic nervous system
110: ; ventricular: of
100:Circumventricular organs
22:Circumventricular organs
978:Other pineal substances
693:, therefore increasing
623:Subfornical organ (SFO)
2920:10.1002/aja.1001620402
1824:Borison H. L. (1989).
1799:Federation Proceedings
1704:Brain Research Reviews
1617:10.1006/frne.1996.0012
1268:Gross PM, ed. (1987).
1238:10.1002/aja.1000580206
1061:10.1038/jcbfm.1987.120
972:suprachiasmatic nuclei
964:circadian oscillations
899:The morphology of the
783:intermediate pituitary
189:central nervous system
2124:10.1002/cne.902600104
1344:Acta Neuropathologica
1220:Wislocki, George B.;
773:Pituitary neural lobe
654:paraventricular (PVN)
240:homeostatic functions
233:reproductive behavior
162:pituitary neural lobe
2458:Neuroscience Letters
725:subcommissural organ
714:Subcommissural organ
658:median preoptic area
619:different climates.
269:subcommissural organ
261:systemic circulation
2022:(41): 14669–14676.
1927:(3 Pt 2): R788–97.
1664:10.1038/nrn.2017.71
1436:Regulatory Peptides
941:sympathetic systems
787:posterior pituitary
767:serotonergic system
291:cerebrospinal fluid
185:cerebrospinal fluid
123:blood–brain barrier
2955:Ventricular system
2873:10.1679/aohc.51.61
2738:of GnRH Release".
2659:10.1007/BF00319366
1180:10.14670/HH-11-881
779:anterior pituitary
518:glucose metabolism
134:ventricular system
2706:10.1002/cne.22156
2614:10.1002/cne.22273
1805:(15): 2944–2948.
1149:978-0-08-045046-9
928:in the posterior
926:cerebral arteries
729:cerebral aqueduct
616:negative feedback
560:lamina terminalis
466:medulla oblongata
442:
423:
404:
385:
366:
347:
328:
307:subfornical organ
177:fourth ventricles
142:subfornical organ
96:
95:
91:
63:nlx_anat_20090312
2962:
2940:
2939:
2903:
2894:
2893:
2875:
2851:
2842:
2841:
2805:
2772:
2771:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2717:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2625:
2593:
2584:
2583:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2508:
2502:
2499:
2490:
2489:
2448:
2437:
2436:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2349:
2334:
2333:
2293:
2284:
2283:
2247:
2232:
2231:
2206:(3): 1227–1234.
2195:
2182:
2181:
2153:
2144:
2143:
2107:
2098:
2097:
2061:
2050:
2049:
2039:
2007:
1992:
1991:
1954:
1945:
1944:
1916:
1907:
1906:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1845:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1747:
1736:
1735:
1699:
1686:
1685:
1675:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1600:
1567:
1566:
1530:
1517:
1516:
1479:
1468:
1467:
1431:
1422:
1421:
1385:
1376:
1375:
1339:
1333:
1332:
1314:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1265:
1250:
1249:
1217:
1211:
1210:
1198:
1192:
1191:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1127:
1118:
1117:
1083:
1074:
1073:
1063:
1039:
752:Reissner's fiber
709:Secretory organs
650:supraoptic (SON)
614:secretion via a
564:stria medullaris
444:
443:
425:
424:
406:
405:
387:
386:
368:
367:
349:
348:
330:
329:
280:endothelial cell
265:secretory organs
253:neural circuitry
229:feeding behavior
221:immune responses
88:edit on Wikidata
31:
19:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2960:
2959:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2905:
2904:
2897:
2853:
2852:
2845:
2816:(3–4): 177–95.
2807:
2806:
2775:
2746:(10): 863–870.
2736:
2735:
2731:
2694:J. Comp. Neurol
2687:
2686:
2682:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2602:J. Comp. Neurol
2595:
2594:
2587:
2553:
2552:
2548:
2510:
2509:
2505:
2500:
2493:
2450:
2449:
2440:
2402:
2401:
2397:
2351:
2350:
2337:
2295:
2294:
2287:
2249:
2248:
2235:
2197:
2196:
2185:
2170:10.1139/y91-152
2155:
2154:
2147:
2109:
2108:
2101:
2063:
2062:
2053:
2009:
2008:
1995:
1956:
1955:
1948:
1918:
1917:
1910:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1796:
1795:
1791:
1749:
1748:
1739:
1701:
1700:
1689:
1645:
1644:
1640:
1602:
1601:
1570:
1532:
1531:
1520:
1481:
1480:
1471:
1433:
1432:
1425:
1387:
1386:
1379:
1341:
1340:
1336:
1292:
1291:
1287:
1280:
1267:
1266:
1253:
1222:King, Lester S.
1219:
1218:
1214:
1200:
1199:
1195:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1150:
1129:
1128:
1121:
1106:
1085:
1084:
1077:
1041:
1040:
1001:
997:
980:
960:
937:parasympathetic
922:
909:third ventricle
897:
892:
887:
868:arcuate nucleus
851:median eminence
847:
845:Median eminence
824:pars intermedia
791:endocrine organ
775:
748:
733:ependymal cells
721:
716:
711:
682:
666:arcuate nucleus
630:
625:
592:
554:, and even the
544:third ventricle
536:
531:
506:
462:
457:
452:
451:
450:
449:
448:
445:
436:
431:
430:
429:
426:
417:
412:
411:
410:
407:
398:
393:
392:
391:
388:
379:
374:
373:
372:
369:
360:
355:
354:
353:
350:
341:
336:
335:
334:
331:
322:
317:
316:
299:
158:median eminence
127:Helmut O. Hofer
108:circum-: around
98:
92:
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2968:
2966:
2958:
2957:
2947:
2946:
2942:
2941:
2914:(4): 287–313.
2895:
2843:
2773:
2729:
2700:(3): 284–295.
2680:
2637:
2608:(7): 943–962.
2585:
2546:
2519:(3): 205–219.
2503:
2491:
2454:Meriones shawi
2438:
2411:(2): 122–128.
2395:
2335:
2285:
2233:
2183:
2164:(7): 1010–25.
2145:
2099:
2066:Neurosci. Lett
2051:
1993:
1946:
1908:
1875:Brain Research
1865:
1816:
1789:
1762:(1–2): 29–34.
1737:
1710:(1): 119–147.
1687:
1658:(8): 459–469.
1638:
1611:(4): 440–475.
1568:
1541:(2): 589–603.
1518:
1469:
1423:
1396:(4): 413–423.
1377:
1350:(6): 689–705.
1334:
1285:
1279:978-0849367984
1278:
1251:
1232:(2): 421–472.
1212:
1193:
1174:(9): 879–892.
1158:
1148:
1119:
1104:
1075:
998:
996:
993:
979:
976:
959:
956:
921:
918:
896:
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
846:
843:
774:
771:
763:osmoregulation
747:
744:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
695:blood pressure
681:
678:
629:
626:
624:
621:
591:
588:
535:
532:
530:
527:
505:
502:
494:histologically
492:. When viewed
461:
458:
456:
453:
446:
434:
433:
432:
427:
415:
414:
413:
408:
396:
395:
394:
389:
377:
376:
375:
370:
358:
357:
356:
351:
339:
338:
337:
332:
320:
319:
318:
314:
313:
312:
311:
298:
297:Sensory organs
295:
287:choroid plexus
248:sensory organs
217:cardiovascular
193:neuroendocrine
94:
93:
84:
78:
77:
72:
66:
65:
60:
53:
52:
47:
41:
40:
36:
35:
32:
24:
23:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2967:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2902:
2900:
2896:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2804:
2802:
2800:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2790:
2788:
2786:
2784:
2782:
2780:
2778:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2733:
2730:
2725:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2684:
2681:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2653:(3): 437–48.
2652:
2648:
2641:
2638:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2550:
2547:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2507:
2504:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2399:
2396:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2360:(2): 98–123.
2359:
2355:
2348:
2346:
2344:
2342:
2340:
2336:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2234:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1953:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1881:(2): 316–20.
1880:
1876:
1869:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1836:(5): 351–90.
1835:
1831:
1827:
1820:
1817:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1793:
1790:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1642:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1491:(4): 757–76.
1490:
1486:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1338:
1335:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1305:(8): 678–86.
1304:
1300:
1299:FASEB Journal
1296:
1289:
1286:
1281:
1275:
1271:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1213:
1208:
1204:
1197:
1194:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1105:9780444814197
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1054:(6): 663–72.
1053:
1049:
1045:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1006:
1004:
1000:
994:
992:
990:
986:
977:
975:
973:
969:
965:
957:
955:
953:
949:
946:
942:
938:
933:
931:
930:mesencephalon
927:
919:
917:
915:
910:
906:
902:
895:Gross anatomy
894:
889:
884:
882:
880:
875:
871:
869:
865:
861:
860:neurohormones
856:
852:
844:
842:
840:
839:sphenoid bone
836:
835:sella turcica
831:
829:
825:
820:
818:
813:
811:
807:
803:
799:
794:
792:
788:
784:
780:
772:
770:
768:
764:
760:
755:
753:
745:
743:
741:
738:
734:
730:
726:
718:
713:
708:
706:
702:
700:
696:
692:
688:
685:Featuring an
679:
677:
675:
669:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
642:
639:
635:
627:
622:
620:
617:
613:
607:
603:
601:
597:
589:
587:
585:
581:
576:
571:
569:
568:basal ganglia
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
533:
528:
526:
523:
519:
515:
511:
510:chemoreceptor
503:
501:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
459:
455:Area postrema
454:
310:
308:
304:
296:
294:
292:
288:
285:Although the
283:
281:
276:
274:
273:glycoproteins
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
249:
245:
244:water balance
241:
236:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
209:neural tissue
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
169:
167:
163:
159:
156:(OVLT)), the
155:
151:
147:
146:area postrema
143:
139:
135:
132:
128:
124:
120:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
89:
83:
79:
76:
73:
71:
67:
64:
61:
58:
54:
51:
48:
46:
42:
37:
30:
25:
20:
2911:
2907:
2866:(1): 61–69.
2863:
2859:
2813:
2809:
2743:
2739:
2732:
2697:
2693:
2683:
2650:
2646:
2640:
2605:
2601:
2566:(1): 11–23.
2563:
2559:
2549:
2516:
2512:
2506:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2408:
2404:
2398:
2357:
2353:
2305:
2301:
2255:
2252:Neuroscience
2251:
2203:
2200:Neuroscience
2199:
2161:
2157:
2118:(1): 36–46.
2115:
2111:
2072:(1): 26–30.
2069:
2065:
2019:
2015:
1963:
1959:
1924:
1920:
1878:
1874:
1868:
1833:
1829:
1819:
1802:
1798:
1792:
1759:
1755:
1707:
1703:
1655:
1651:
1641:
1608:
1604:
1538:
1534:
1488:
1484:
1442:(1): 11–23.
1439:
1435:
1393:
1389:
1347:
1343:
1337:
1302:
1298:
1288:
1269:
1229:
1225:
1215:
1206:
1202:
1196:
1171:
1167:
1161:
1153:
1131:
1087:
1051:
1047:
981:
961:
945:unmyelinated
934:
923:
905:diencephalon
901:pineal gland
898:
885:Pineal gland
872:
855:hypothalamus
848:
832:
823:
821:
814:
802:infundibulum
800:through the
798:hypothalamus
795:
776:
756:
749:
737:glycoprotein
722:
703:
683:
670:
662:zona incerta
643:
631:
608:
604:
593:
572:
556:hypothalamus
537:
507:
463:
300:
284:
277:
267:include the
264:
247:
237:
215:regulation,
170:
166:pineal gland
153:
137:
103:
99:
97:
2464:(1): 6–10.
2258:: 157–165.
828:melanocytes
810:vasopressin
759:aldosterone
740:SCO-spondin
638:glial cells
596:fenestrated
575:angiotensin
520:, presumed
516:stimulates
514:angiotensin
474:spinal cord
219:functions,
144:(SFO), the
119:capillaries
39:Identifiers
1966:: 93–106.
1209:: 202–251.
995:References
785:, and the
600:astrocytes
498:blood flow
486:lagomorphs
305:, and the
213:body fluid
195:function.
164:, and the
148:(AP), the
2928:0002-9106
2882:0914-9465
2533:0778-3124
2374:1059-910X
2308:: 44–52.
2302:Brain Res
1960:Brain Res
1246:0002-9106
968:melatonin
950:from the
874:Tanycytes
864:tanycytes
552:brainstem
470:brainstem
259:from the
242:and body
138:permeable
116:permeable
112:ventricle
2949:Category
2838:26142713
2830:15589268
2760:21815953
2724:19757493
2675:27789146
2632:20127760
2580:12690976
2486:20941735
2478:19716402
2433:31479100
2425:21184824
2330:24176208
2322:22356889
2280:42666437
2272:22108616
2228:29552630
2220:20678996
2140:26102264
2094:46410313
2086:22579820
2046:21994383
1988:22807384
1980:20883673
1903:32921413
1860:34914186
1784:10455802
1776:21982783
1732:43484965
1724:17659349
1682:28638120
1633:27242916
1563:15228158
1555:22584508
1513:44760261
1505:20093161
1485:Peptides
1464:32634974
1456:14687696
1418:28981416
1410:17531276
1372:33549996
1364:20830478
1329:13339562
1188:28177105
958:Function
907:and the
817:ectoderm
806:oxytocin
746:Function
680:Function
646:efferent
590:Function
548:afferent
522:efferent
504:Function
472:and the
205:hormones
201:peptides
57:NeuroLex
2936:7325124
2890:3137949
2768:2721782
2715:2821827
2667:1571958
2623:2892518
2541:1717055
2382:9579598
2178:1954559
2132:3597833
2037:6703397
1941:2316724
1895:2598049
1852:2660187
1811:6500067
1673:5955721
1625:8905349
1321:8500693
1114:1410407
1070:2891718
914:neurons
890:Anatomy
837:of the
719:Anatomy
628:Anatomy
534:Anatomy
482:rodents
478:mammals
460:Anatomy
207:in the
50:D066280
2934:
2926:
2888:
2880:
2836:
2828:
2766:
2758:
2722:
2712:
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2665:
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2531:
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2320:
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2176:
2138:
2130:
2092:
2084:
2044:
2034:
1986:
1978:
1939:
1901:
1893:
1858:
1850:
1809:
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1670:
1631:
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1146:
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781:, the
578:1, or
263:. The
246:. The
225:thirst
160:, the
2834:S2CID
2764:S2CID
2671:S2CID
2482:S2CID
2429:S2CID
2386:S2CID
2326:S2CID
2276:S2CID
2224:S2CID
2136:S2CID
2090:S2CID
1984:S2CID
1899:S2CID
1856:S2CID
1780:S2CID
1728:S2CID
1629:S2CID
1559:S2CID
1509:S2CID
1460:S2CID
1414:S2CID
1368:S2CID
1325:S2CID
584:TRPV4
580:TRPV1
181:blood
173:third
131:brain
86:[
75:84081
2932:PMID
2924:ISSN
2886:PMID
2878:ISSN
2826:PMID
2756:PMID
2720:PMID
2663:PMID
2628:PMID
2576:PMID
2537:PMID
2529:ISSN
2474:PMID
2421:PMID
2378:PMID
2370:ISSN
2318:PMID
2306:1447
2268:PMID
2216:PMID
2174:PMID
2128:PMID
2082:PMID
2042:PMID
1976:PMID
1964:1363
1937:PMID
1891:PMID
1848:PMID
1807:PMID
1772:PMID
1720:PMID
1678:PMID
1621:PMID
1551:PMID
1501:PMID
1452:PMID
1406:PMID
1360:PMID
1317:PMID
1274:ISBN
1242:ISSN
1184:PMID
1144:ISBN
1110:PMID
1100:ISBN
1066:PMID
939:and
879:GnRH
849:The
808:and
723:The
664:and
652:and
566:and
490:obex
484:and
231:and
203:and
183:and
175:and
104:CVOs
45:MeSH
2916:doi
2912:162
2868:doi
2818:doi
2748:doi
2710:PMC
2702:doi
2698:517
2655:doi
2651:267
2618:PMC
2610:doi
2606:518
2568:doi
2521:doi
2466:doi
2462:466
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2413:doi
2362:doi
2310:doi
2260:doi
2256:201
2208:doi
2204:169
2166:doi
2120:doi
2116:260
2074:doi
2070:519
2032:PMC
2024:doi
1968:doi
1929:doi
1925:258
1883:doi
1879:505
1838:doi
1764:doi
1760:166
1712:doi
1668:PMC
1660:doi
1613:doi
1543:doi
1539:349
1493:doi
1444:doi
1440:117
1398:doi
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1234:doi
1176:doi
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1092:doi
1056:doi
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