925:. Soldiers in the Roman army were classified on the basis of the amount of property that they owned, and as such, soldiers with more property had more influence than soldiers with less property. The 193 Centuries in the assembly under the Servian Organization were each divided into one of three different grades: the officer class, the enlisted class, and a class of unarmed adjuncts. The officer class was grouped into eighteen Centuries. The enlisted class was grouped into five separate property classes, for a total of 170 Centuries. The unarmed soldiers were divided into the final five Centuries. Of five enlisted classes, the wealthiest controlled 80 of the votes. During a vote, all of the Centuries of one class had to vote before the Centuries of the next lower class could vote. The first candidate to reach a majority of 97 votes was victorious. When a measure or candidate received 97 votes, a majority of the centuries, the voting ended, and as such, many lower ranking Centuries rarely if ever had a chance to actually vote. Combined the 18 equites and the 80 centuries of the first property class had one more century than needed, and a unanimous vote from the elite would thus elect a candidate.
1059:. However, since one joined the same Tribe that one's father belonged to, the geographical distinctions were eventually lost. The order that the 35 Tribes voted in was selected randomly by lot. The order was not chosen at once, and after each Tribe had voted, a lot was used to determine which Tribe should vote next. The first Tribe selected was usually the most important Tribe, because it often decided the matter. It was believed that the order of the lot was chosen by the Gods, and thus, that the position held by the early voting Tribes was the position of the Gods. Once a majority of Tribes had voted the same way, voting ended.
903:. The Centuriate Assembly could also pass a statute that granted constitutional command authority to Consuls and Praetors, and Censorial powers to Censors. In addition, the Centuriate Assembly served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases, and ratified the results of the Census. Although the voters in this assembly wore white undecorated togas and were unarmed, while participating in the Assembly they were classified as soldiers, and as such were not allowed to meet within the
658:
712:). Speeches from private citizens were only heard if the issue to be voted upon was a legislative or judicial matter. If the purpose of the ultimate vote was for an election, no speeches from private citizens were heard, and instead, the candidates for office used the Convention to campaign. During the Convention, the bill to be voted upon was read to the assembly by an officer known as a "Herald". Then, if the assembly was composed of Tribes, the order of the vote had to be determined. A
907:. The president of the Centuriate Assembly was usually a Consul (although sometimes a Praetor). Only Consuls (the highest-ranking of all Roman Magistrates) could preside over the Centuriate Assembly during elections because the higher-ranking Consuls were always elected together with the lower-ranking Praetors. Once every five years, after the new Consuls for the year took office, they presided over the Centuriate Assembly as it elected the two Censors.
858:
800:. In practice, however, they actually received this authority from the Centuriate Assembly (which formally elected them), and as such, this functioned as nothing more than a reminder of Rome's regal heritage. Other acts that the Curiate Assembly voted on were mostly symbolic and usually in the affirmative. At one point, possibly as early as 218 BC, the Curiate Assembly's thirty Curia were abolished, and replaced with thirty
649:), which was a gathering of citizens of a specific class. In contrast, the Convention was an unofficial forum for communication. Conventions were simply forums where Romans met for specific unofficial purposes, such as, for example, to hear a political speech. Voters always assembled first into Conventions to hear debates and conduct other business before voting, and then into Assemblies or Councils to actually vote.
40:
929:
720:
results to the presiding magistrate. The majority of votes in any Curia, Tribe, or
Century decided how that Curia, Tribe, or Century voted. Each Curia, Tribe, or Century received one vote, regardless of how many electors each Tribe or Century held. Once a majority of Curiae, Tribes, or Centuries voted in the same way on a given measure, the voting ended, and the matter was decided.
880:
was originally the democratic assembly of the Roman soldiers. The
Centuriate Assembly organized the Roman citizens into economic classes, defined by a means test. The Roman army was divided into units called "Centuries", and these gathered into the Centuriate Assembly for legislative, electoral, and
719:
The electors were then told to break up the
Convention and assemble into the formal Assembly or Council. The electors voted by placing a pebble or written ballot into an appropriate jar. The baskets that held the votes were watched by specific officers, who then counted the ballots, and reported the
970:
repealed Sulla's constitutional reforms, including his restoration of the
Servian Organization to this assembly. Thus, they restored the newer organization that had originated in 241 BC. The organization of the Centuriate Assembly was not changed again until its powers were all transferred to the
665:
There were no set dates to hold assemblies, but notice had to be given beforehand if the assembly was to be considered formal. Elections had to be announced 17 days before the election took place. Likewise, 17 days had to pass between the proposal of legislation and its enactment by an assembly.
1009:
was the democratic assembly of Roman citizens. The Tribal
Assembly was organized as an Assembly, and not as a Council. During the years of the Roman Republic, citizens were organized on the basis of thirty-five Tribes which included patricians and plebeians. The Tribes gathered into the Tribal
634:, and as such, it was the presiding magistrate who made all decisions on matters of procedure and legality. Ultimately, the presiding magistrate's power over the assembly was nearly absolute. The only check on that power came in the form of vetoes handed down by other magistrates.
943:
still writes of 193 centuries in his era, and most scholars still use that number. It is known that the first property class was reduced from 80 to 70 centuries, and the order of voting was changed so that the first class would go first, and be followed by the equites.
1150:") only applied to Plebeians. However, in 449 BC, a statute of an Assembly was passed which gave Plebiscites the full force of law over all Romans (Plebeians and Patricians). It was not until 287 BC, however, that the last mechanism which allowed the
681:). On several known occasions, presiding magistrates used the claim of unfavorable omens as an excuse to suspend a session that was not going the way they wanted. Any decision made by a presiding magistrate could be
1054:
The thirty-five Tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather a generic division into which Roman citizens were distributed. When the Tribes were created the divisions were geographical, similar to modern
951:) of the unarmed adjunct class. This Century was the only Century composed of soldiers who had no property, and since it was always the last Century to vote, it never had any real influence on elections.
816:, it witnessed wills and ratified adoptions, inaugurated certain priests, and transferred citizens from Patrician class to Plebeian class (or vice versa). In 44 BC, for example, it ratified the will of
1135:(which also organized on the basis of the Tribes) was that the Tribes of the Plebeian Council only included Plebeians, whereas the Tribes of the Tribal Assembly included both Plebeians and Patricians.
881:
judicial purposes. However, since the number of centuries in each class was fixed, centuries could contain far more than 100 men. Only this assembly could declare war or elect the highest-ranking
630:, citizens, and not elected representatives, voted before each assembly. As such, the citizen-electors had no power, other than to cast a vote. Each assembly was presided over by a single
1117:
enacted a series of constitutional reforms in the 6th century BC. One of these reforms resulted in the creation of a new organizational unit with which to divide citizens. This unit, the
694:
On the day of the vote, the electors first assembled into their conventions for debate and campaigning. In the
Conventions, the electors were not sorted into their respective units (
2291:
808:
clans. Since the Curia had always been organized on the basis of the Roman family, the
Curiate Assembly actually retained jurisdiction over clan matters even after the fall of the
2090:
590:
2030:
637:
In the Roman system of direct democracy, two primary types of gatherings were used to vote on legislative, electoral, and judicial matters. The first was the
Assembly (
1992:
1853:
1146:. Usually the Plebeian Tribune presided over the assembly, although the Plebeian Aedile sometimes did as well. Originally, statutes passed by the Plebeian Council ("
2085:
765:(aristocratic) clans. The Curiae assembled into the Curiate Assembly, for legislative, electoral, and judicial purposes. The Curiate Assembly passed laws, elected
2178:
759:. The Curiae were ethnic in nature, and thus were organized on the basis of the early Roman family, or, more specifically, on the basis of the thirty original
2720:
2062:
1907:
723:
If a law was passed in violation of proper procedures (such as failing to wait 17 days before voting on a law), the Senate could declare the law nonbinding.
2762:
2750:
2067:
2007:
1783:
2809:
2110:
1875:
4125:
917:, less than a century before the founding of the Roman Republic in 509 BC. As such, the original design of the Centuriate Assembly was known as the "
2725:
1641:. Vol. 1 (Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes By Francis Barham, Esq ed.). London: Edmund Spettigue.
4097:
2735:
2045:
1125:. In 471 BC, a law was passed which allowed the Plebeians to begin organizing by Tribe. Before this point, they had organized on the basis of the
641:), which was a gathering that was deemed to represent the entire Roman people, even if it did not contain all of the Roman citizens or, like the
1085:. As the name suggests, the Plebeian Council was organized as a Council, and not as an Assembly. It functioned as a gathering through which the
4042:
2730:
2464:
583:
187:
4012:
2837:
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2100:
177:
786:. While it then fell into disuse, it did retain some theoretical powers, most importantly, the power to ratify elections of the top-ranking
4102:
3977:
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348:
1051:. His was a lifetime appointment, however, and so the Tribal Assembly only elected a new Pontifex Maximus after the previous one died.
2354:
2050:
2035:
933:
620:
619:, the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances. Under the
170:
153:
939:
In 241 BC, the assembly was reorganized, though the exact details are uncertain. Some sources have a new total of 373 Centuries, but
4022:
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2349:
2344:
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1089:(commoners) could pass laws, elect magistrates, and try judicial cases. This council had no political power until the offices of
165:
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2115:
2040:
1803:
Orations and
Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index
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158:
1158:
acts of the
Plebeian Council was revoked. After this point, almost all domestic legislation came out of the Plebeian Council.
3057:
2982:
2740:
615:, it was the people (and thus the assemblies) who had the final say regarding the election of magistrates, the enactment of
3553:
861:
Roman Dictator Sulla, who attempted to increase the power of the Centuriate Assembly at the expense of the Tribal Assembly
3393:
2997:
2449:
2164:
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1639:
The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws
4135:
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2002:
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Assembly for legislative, electoral, and judicial purposes. The president of the Tribal Assembly was usually either a
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2905:
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921:". Under this organization, the assembly was supposedly designed to mirror the Roman army during the time of the
771:(the only elected magistrates at the time), and tried judicial cases. Consuls always presided over the assembly.
426:
128:
1880:
3673:
3583:
3092:
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3067:
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3005:
2945:
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Shortly after the founding of the republic, most of the powers of the Curiate Assembly were transferred to the
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30:
4082:
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691:. In addition, decisions made by presiding magistrates could also be vetoed by higher-ranking magistrates.
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could use his veto against pending legislation until the point when the order of the vote was determined.
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1121:, was based on geography rather than family, and was created to assist in future reorganizations of the
1026:(the second-highest ranking Roman Magistrate). The Tribal Assembly elected three different magistrates:
962:
restored the old Servian Organization to this assembly. Sulla died in 78 BC, and in 70 BC, the Consuls
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3711:
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were members. During these first decades, the People of Rome were organized into thirty units called
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either in attendance or on-call, who would be available to help interpret any signs from the gods (
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1974:
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882:
857:
787:
418:
411:
214:
1871:
Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu
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115:
749:. The Curiate Assembly was organized as an Assembly, and not as a Council even though only
3841:
3653:
3633:
3593:
3528:
3478:
3473:
3348:
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2214:
1962:
1865:
1131:
1114:
992:
914:
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256:
645:, excluded a particular class of Roman citizens (the plebs). The second was the Council (
1858:
947:
The lowest ranking Century in the Centuriate Assembly was the fifth Century (called the
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were often present to act as assistants. There were also religious officials known as
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59:
1791:
Gruen, E. S. "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974)
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1942:
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Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius
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202:
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1129:. The only difference between the Plebeian Council after 471 BC and the ordinary
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3145:
3035:
2429:
1722:
1147:
1047:
In addition to the above-mentioned magistrates, the Tribal Assembly elected the
708:
623:, the people (and thus the assemblies) held the ultimate source of sovereignty.
397:
39:
3926:
3866:
3831:
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3558:
3548:
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1701:
Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar
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208:
88:
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3911:
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2138:
1787:. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 763–765.
616:
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520:
386:
368:
331:
794:) by passing the statute that gave them their legal command authority, the
3916:
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2444:
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824:
820:, and with it Caesar's adoption of his nephew Gaius Octavian (the future
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197:
95:
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281:
20:
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1503:
Roman Elections in the Age of Cicero: Society, Government, and Voting.
1468:
Roman Elections in the Age of Cicero: Society, Government, and Voting.
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506:
296:
3731:
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3180:
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927:
856:
755:
696:
674:
656:
745:) was the principal assembly during the first two decades of the
3941:
3508:
3448:
3030:
2406:
1155:
1044:. The Tribal Assembly also had the power to try judicial cases.
910:
The Centuriate Assembly was supposedly founded by the legendary
682:
678:
2160:
1889:
2502:
1772:
457:
404:
1692:. Vol. 2 (Fifth ed.). Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter.
1138:
The Plebeian Council elected two 'Plebeian Magistrates', the
827:) as his son and heir. However, this might not have been the
669:
In addition to the presiding magistrate, several additional
1690:
The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek
1611:
A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions
1632:. US Government Printing Office Senate Document 103–23.
1881:
What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us
1796:
Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution
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1983:
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1721:
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1647:
19:"Comitia" redirects here. Not to be confused with
1840:The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity
983:, after the fall of the Roman Republic in 27 BC.
1342:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1574:
1572:
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1533:
1531:
1529:
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1901:
1650:Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic
1431:
1429:
1410:
1408:
1081:) was the principal popular gathering of the
932:Chart Showing the Checks and Balances of the
584:
8:
1876:The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero
1842:. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975.
1297:
1295:
1228:
1226:
661:Growth of the city region during the kingdom
605:legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1249:
1247:
611:. According to the contemporary historian
607:were political institutions in the ancient
3261:
2587:
2219:
2179:
2165:
2157:
1908:
1894:
1886:
591:
577:
25:
1833:The Development of the Roman Constitution
1492:. Cornell University Press, 1972, p. 127.
1448:. Cornell University Press, 1972, p. 126.
1750:Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13.
16:Political institutions in Roman Republic
1213:
433:
385:
320:
265:
230:
186:
137:
50:
28:
1671:The Constitution of the Roman Republic
812:in 27 BC. Under the presidency of the
905:physical boundary of the city of Rome
7:
1805:. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891.
1705:. The University of Michigan Press.
1490:Greek and Roman Voting and Elections
1446:Greek and Roman Voting and Elections
1101:were created in 494 BC, due to the
934:Constitution of the Roman Republic
621:Constitution of the Roman Republic
14:
4126:Government of the Roman Republic
1854:Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two
1630:The Senate of the Roman Republic
1505:Routledge, Mar 12, 2012, p. 123.
1470:Routledge, Mar 12, 2012, p. 113.
804:, one from each of the original
626:Since the Romans used a form of
38:
1637:Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841).
1183:Elections in the Roman Republic
23:, a Japanese comics convention.
1810:The Emperor in the Roman World
1:
2751:Frontiers and fortifications
1801:Johnston, Harold Whetstone.
1720:McCullough, Colleen (1990).
1609:Abbott, Frank Frost (1901).
1057:Parliamentary constituencies
2810:Decorations and punishments
1769:Greenidge, Abel Hendy Jones
1673:. Oxford University Press.
876:or "Army Assembly") of the
685:by a magistrate known as a
4152:
3717:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
2292:historiography of the fall
1835:. D. Apple & Co. 1886.
1812:, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992).
1798:. William Pickering. 1853.
1697:Taylor, Lily Ross (1966).
1066:
990:
850:
844:
730:
18:
4098:External wars and battles
2222:
2195:
1110:According to legend, the
841:Assembly of the Centuries
427:Senatus consultum ultimum
322:Extraordinary magistrates
1817:Roman Constitutional Law
1764:, (Fontana Press, 1978).
1757:, (Fontana Press, 1993).
1669:Lintott, Andrew (1999).
958:from 82 BC until 80 BC,
31:Politics of ancient Rome
4131:Historical legislatures
4093:Roman–Iranian relations
2568:Optimates and populares
1784:Encyclopædia Britannica
968:Marcus Licinius Crassus
4103:Civil wars and revolts
3369:Sextus Pompeius Festus
3016:Conflict of the Orders
2375:Legislative assemblies
2134:Conflict of the Orders
1755:The Later Roman Empire
1654:. Random House Books.
1003:comitia populi tributa
987:Assembly of the Tribes
960:Lucius Cornelius Sulla
936:
862:
797:lex curiata de imperio
727:Assembly of the Curiae
662:
188:Political institutions
3812:Simplicius of Cilicia
3564:Quintus Curtius Rufus
2793:Siege in Ancient Rome
2402:Executive magistrates
1724:The First Man in Rome
1646:Holland, Tom (2005).
1628:Byrd, Robert (1995).
1501:Rachel Feig Vishnia.
1466:Rachel Feig Vishnia.
1016:(the highest ranking
931:
860:
660:
3822:Stephanus Byzantinus
3727:Eusebius of Caesaria
3589:Sidonius Apollinaris
3279:Ammianus Marcellinus
2618:Tribune of the plebs
1613:. Elibron Classics.
919:Servian organization
853:Servian constitution
267:Ordinary magistrates
3998:Distinguished women
3649:Velleius Paterculus
3489:Nicolaus Damascenus
3469:Marcellus Empiricus
2858:Republican currency
2051:reforms of Augustus
867:Centuriate Assembly
847:Centuriate Assembly
777:Centuriate Assembly
4136:Popular assemblies
3772:Phlegon of Tralles
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3053:Naming conventions
2783:Personal equipment
2316:Later Roman Empire
1917:Roman Constitution
1864:2007-02-05 at the
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1762:The Roman Republic
1193:Procurator (Roman)
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3121:Civil engineering
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2046:reforms of Caesar
1838:Von Fritz, Kurt.
1688:Polybius (1823).
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1041:Military Tribunes
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3574:Seneca the Elder
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2674:Magister equitum
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3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3101:Amphitheatres
3099:
3098:
3096:
3094:
3090:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3042:
3039:
3038:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3003:
3001:
2999:
2995:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2878:
2876:
2874:
2870:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2838:Deforestation
2836:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2788:Siege engines
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2721:Establishment
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2704:
2700:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2652:Extraordinary
2650:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2638:Promagistrate
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2580:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2462:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2425:Twelve Tables
2423:
2422:
2420:
2418:
2414:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2314:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2297:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2251:
2245:
2242:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2194:
2189:
2182:
2177:
2175:
2170:
2168:
2163:
2162:
2159:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2126:Miscellaneous
2123:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1985:Roman Kingdom
1982:
1976:
1973:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1950:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1911:
1906:
1904:
1899:
1897:
1892:
1891:
1888:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1841:
1837:
1834:
1830:
1828:
1827:The Histories
1824:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1797:
1793:
1790:
1786:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1759:
1756:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1743:
1737:
1735:0-380-71081-1
1731:
1726:
1725:
1718:
1714:
1712:0-472-08125-X
1708:
1703:
1702:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1680:0-19-926108-3
1676:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1661:1-4000-7897-0
1657:
1652:
1651:
1644:
1640:
1635:
1631:
1626:
1622:
1620:0-543-92749-0
1616:
1612:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1593:
1590:
1584:
1581:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1563:
1560:
1554:
1551:
1545:
1542:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1520:
1517:
1511:
1508:
1504:
1498:
1495:
1491:
1485:
1482:
1476:
1473:
1469:
1463:
1460:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1441:
1438:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1417:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1385:
1382:
1376:
1373:
1367:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1307:
1304:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1286:
1283:
1277:
1274:
1268:
1265:
1259:
1256:
1250:
1248:
1244:
1238:
1235:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1217:
1214:
1208:
1204:
1203:Tricameralism
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1108:
1106:
1105:
1100:
1099:
1094:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1070:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1052:
1050:
1045:
1043:
1042:
1037:
1036:
1031:
1030:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1014:
1008:
1004:
1000:
994:
986:
984:
982:
978:
977:Roman Emperor
975:by the first
974:
969:
965:
964:Pompey Magnus
961:
957:
952:
950:
945:
942:
935:
930:
926:
924:
923:Roman Kingdom
920:
916:
913:
908:
906:
902:
901:
896:
895:
890:
889:
884:
879:
875:
874:
868:
859:
854:
848:
840:
838:
836:
835:
830:
826:
823:
822:Roman emperor
819:
818:Julius Caesar
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
798:
793:
790:(Consuls and
789:
785:
784:
779:
778:
772:
770:
769:
764:
763:
758:
757:
752:
748:
744:
740:
734:
726:
724:
721:
717:
715:
711:
710:
705:
704:
699:
698:
692:
690:
689:
684:
680:
676:
672:
667:
659:
652:
650:
648:
644:
640:
635:
633:
629:
624:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
594:
589:
587:
582:
580:
575:
574:
572:
571:
565:
562:
561:
559:
558:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
536:
532:
530:
529:
525:
523:
522:
518:
516:
515:
511:
509:
508:
504:
502:
501:
497:
495:
494:
490:
488:
487:
483:
481:
480:
476:
474:
473:
469:
467:
466:
462:
460:
459:
455:
453:
452:
448:
447:
443:
440:
439:
438:
437:
432:
429:
428:
421:
420:
416:
414:
413:
409:
407:
406:
402:
400:
399:
395:
394:
392:
391:
388:
384:
378:
377:
373:
371:
370:
366:
364:
363:
359:
357:
356:
352:
350:
347:
345:
344:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
329:
327:
326:
323:
319:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
292:Promagistrate
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
274:
272:
271:
268:
264:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
239:
237:
236:
233:
229:
223:
222:
218:
216:
213:
211:
210:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
195:
193:
192:
189:
185:
179:
176:
172:
169:
168:
167:
164:
160:
157:
156:
155:
152:
150:
147:
146:
144:
143:
140:
136:
131:
130:
126:
125:
119:
118:
114:
110:
109:
105:
104:
97:
94:
90:
87:
86:
80:
79:
75:
71:
70:
66:
62:
61:
60:Roman Kingdom
57:
56:
55:
54:
49:
46:
45:
41:
37:
36:
32:
27:
22:
4113:
4043:Institutions
3907:Leptis Magna
3860:Major cities
3767:Philostratus
3554:Quadrigarius
3374:Rufus Festus
3237:Contemporary
2958:Romanization
2881:Architecture
2488:Collegiality
2337:Constitution
2188:Ancient Rome
2096:Constitution
2078:Roman Empire
2036:Constitution
1998:Constitution
1938:Constitution
1925:Ancient Rome
1839:
1832:
1826:
1816:
1809:
1808:Millar, F.
1802:
1795:
1782:
1761:
1754:
1753:Cameron, A.
1723:
1700:
1689:
1670:
1649:
1638:
1629:
1610:
1592:
1583:
1562:
1553:
1544:
1519:
1510:
1502:
1497:
1489:
1484:
1475:
1467:
1462:
1453:
1445:
1440:
1419:
1384:
1375:
1306:
1285:
1276:
1267:
1258:
1237:
1216:
1198:Acta Senatus
1152:Roman Senate
1143:
1139:
1137:
1130:
1126:
1118:
1109:
1102:
1096:
1090:
1078:
1074:
1072:
1053:
1046:
1039:
1033:
1027:
1021:
1011:
1002:
998:
996:
973:Roman Senate
956:dictatorship
953:
948:
946:
938:
909:
898:
892:
886:
870:
866:
864:
832:
828:
795:
781:
775:
773:
766:
760:
754:
742:
738:
736:
722:
718:
707:
701:
695:
693:
686:
668:
664:
646:
642:
638:
636:
625:
604:
602:
533:
526:
519:
512:
505:
498:
491:
484:
477:
470:
463:
456:
449:
425:
417:
410:
403:
396:
374:
367:
360:
353:
341:
219:
207:
203:Collegiality
139:Constitution
127:
116:
107:
78:Roman Empire
76:
67:
58:
4038:Geographers
3722:Dioscorides
3702:Cassius Dio
3324:Cassiodorus
3227:Renaissance
2833:Agriculture
2805:Auxiliaries
2746:Engineering
2583:Magistrates
2435:Citizenship
2430:Mos maiorum
2365:Late Empire
2116:Magistrates
2068:Magistrates
2013:Magistrates
1975:Magistrates
1819:. 1871-1888
1578:Abbott, 196
1548:Lintott, 51
1539:Abbott, 261
1514:Abbott, 107
1402:Abbott, 257
1370:Abbott, 253
1358:Abbott, 250
1346:Taylor, 3–4
1310:Lintott, 62
1280:Lintott, 46
1262:Lintott, 45
1220:Lintott, 44
1148:Plebiscites
1107:that year.
954:During his
671:magistrates
398:Mos maiorum
178:Late Empire
121:AD 395–1453
4120:Categories
3927:Mediolanum
3867:Alexandria
3832:Themistius
3797:Porphyrius
3624:Tertullian
3559:Quintilian
3549:Propertius
3444:Lactantius
3394:Fulgentius
3329:Censorinus
3151:Sanitation
3136:Metallurgy
3093:Technology
3058:Demography
3006:Patricians
2973:Spectacles
2931:Literature
2926:Hairstyles
2763:Technology
2513:Praefectus
2465:Government
2455:Litigation
2440:Auctoritas
2385:Centuriate
2272:Principate
2267:Pax Romana
2227:Foundation
2144:Obligation
2111:Assemblies
2063:Assemblies
2008:Assemblies
1958:Centuriate
1948:Assemblies
1603:References
1596:Abbott, 51
1566:Taylor, 76
1557:Taylor, 77
1479:Abbott, 75
1457:Taylor, 86
1435:Abbott, 21
1423:Taylor, 87
1414:Taylor, 85
1379:Holland, 5
1301:Taylor, 40
1271:Taylor, 16
1241:Taylor, 96
1232:Taylor, 63
1112:Roman King
949:proletarii
912:Roman King
873:centuriata
851:See also:
751:patricians
617:Roman laws
479:Praefectus
387:Public law
242:Centuriate
232:Assemblies
209:Auctoritas
112:AD 395–476
99:AD 284–641
89:Principate
64:753–509 BC
4083:Quaestors
4013:Empresses
4003:Dynasties
3993:Dictators
3968:and other
3957:Volubilis
3952:Vindobona
3912:Londinium
3837:Theodoret
3807:Procopius
3787:Polyaenus
3762:Pausanias
3664:Vitruvius
3609:Symmachus
3604:Suetonius
3514:Petronius
3499:Obsequens
3464:Macrobius
3459:Lucretius
3384:Frontinus
3359:Eutropius
3344:Columella
3294:Augustine
3284:Appuleius
3232:Neo-Latin
3207:Classical
3198:Versions
3106:Aqueducts
3048:Patronage
2968:Sexuality
2941:Mythology
2916:Education
2906:Cosmetics
2731:Campaigns
2726:Structure
2679:Decemviri
2538:Imperator
2237:overthrow
2139:Roman law
1523:Taylor, 7
1253:Taylor, 2
1087:Plebeians
1029:Quaestors
1005:) of the
806:Patrician
762:Patrician
703:centuries
647:concilium
521:Imperator
369:Decemviri
362:Triumviri
332:Corrector
73:509–27 BC
4088:Tribunes
4078:Praetors
4028:Generals
4008:Emperors
3917:Lugdunum
3902:Eboracum
3892:Carthage
3877:Aquileia
3792:Polybius
3782:Plutarch
3752:Libanius
3742:Josephus
3737:Herodian
3629:Tibullus
3544:Priscian
3519:Phaedrus
3479:Manilius
3424:Jordanes
3409:Hydatius
3339:Claudian
3319:Catullus
3309:Boëthius
3304:Ausonius
3222:Medieval
3194:Alphabet
3166:Theatres
3141:Numerals
3126:Concrete
3116:Circuses
3083:Bagaudae
3073:Adoption
3068:Marriage
3041:Assembly
2946:Religion
2921:Folklore
2901:Clothing
2896:Calendar
2853:Currency
2843:Commerce
2741:Strategy
2703:Military
2689:Triumvir
2669:Dictator
2664:Interrex
2643:Governor
2628:Quaestor
2591:Ordinary
2573:Province
2563:Tetrarch
2553:Augustus
2518:Vicarius
2508:Officium
2445:Imperium
2395:Plebeian
2355:Republic
2277:Dominate
2244:Republic
2205:Timeline
1968:Plebeian
1862:Archived
1823:Polybius
1771:(1911).
1587:Byrd, 31
1326:Byrd, 33
1188:Interrex
1162:See also
1142:and the
981:Augustus
894:Praetors
871:comitia
825:Augustus
792:Praetors
780:and the
613:Polybius
551:Tetrarch
541:Augustus
486:Vicarius
465:Officium
376:Interrex
337:Dictator
312:Governor
287:Quaestor
252:Plebeian
198:Imperium
154:Republic
129:Timeline
96:Dominate
4058:Legions
4018:Fiction
3988:Consuls
3983:Climate
3937:Ravenna
3932:Pompeii
3922:Lutetia
3887:Bononia
3882:Berytus
3872:Antioch
3847:Zosimus
3842:Zonaras
3817:Sozomen
3802:Priscus
3777:Photius
3619:Terence
3614:Tacitus
3599:Statius
3584:Servius
3569:Sallust
3524:Plautus
3504:Orosius
3484:Martial
3439:Juvenal
3414:Hyginus
3399:Gellius
3258:Writers
3189:History
3171:Thermae
3161:Temples
3111:Bridges
3078:Slavery
3026:Equites
2998:Society
2978:Theatre
2951:Deities
2911:Cuisine
2891:Bathing
2873:Culture
2848:Finance
2825:Economy
2716:Borders
2711:History
2613:Tribune
2608:Praetor
2498:Legatus
2493:Emperor
2380:Curiate
2350:Kingdom
2345:History
2321:History
2304:decline
2262:History
2232:Kingdom
2215:History
2200:Outline
2086:History
2031:History
1993:History
1953:Curiate
1933:History
1781:(ed.).
1023:Praetor
1020:) or a
900:Censors
888:Consuls
802:lictors
768:Consuls
639:comitia
472:Praeses
451:Legatus
442:Emperor
302:Tribune
282:Praetor
247:Curiate
149:Kingdom
117:Eastern
108:Western
51:Periods
21:COMITIA
4068:Nomina
4053:Legacy
4033:Gentes
3970:topics
3966:Lists
3947:Smyrna
3827:Strabo
3757:Lucian
3747:Julian
3697:Arrian
3692:Appian
3682:Aelian
3659:Vergil
3434:Justin
3419:Jerome
3404:Horace
3389:Fronto
3379:Florus
3354:Ennius
3334:Cicero
3314:Caesar
3212:Vulgar
3036:Tribes
2963:Romans
2773:Legion
2756:castra
2633:Aedile
2603:Censor
2598:Consul
2558:Caesar
2528:Lictor
2450:Status
2390:Tribal
2370:Senate
2360:Empire
2254:Empire
2190:topics
2106:Senate
2058:Senate
2003:Senate
1963:Tribal
1943:Senate
1732:
1709:
1677:
1658:
1617:
1038:, and
1013:Consul
941:Cicero
756:Curiae
709:tribes
683:vetoed
675:augurs
546:Caesar
507:Lictor
307:Censor
297:Aedile
277:Consul
257:Tribal
166:Empire
3732:Galen
3674:Greek
3644:Varro
3454:Lucan
3266:Latin
3181:Latin
3156:Ships
3146:Roads
3131:Domes
3063:Women
3011:Plebs
2936:Music
2478:Forum
2473:Curia
1777:. In
1209:Notes
1127:Curia
1119:Tribe
697:curia
679:omens
4048:Laws
4023:Film
3942:Roma
3509:Ovid
3449:Livy
3217:Late
3031:Gens
2988:Wine
2800:Navy
2768:Army
2407:SPQR
2309:fall
2287:fall
1730:ISBN
1707:ISBN
1675:ISBN
1656:ISBN
1615:ISBN
1156:veto
1123:army
1095:and
1073:The
997:The
966:and
897:and
865:The
737:The
603:The
3202:Old
2886:Art
2659:Rex
2503:Dux
2417:Law
1154:to
706:or
458:Dux
405:Ius
355:Rex
4122::
1825:.
1571:^
1528:^
1428:^
1407:^
1393:^
1363:^
1351:^
1331:^
1315:^
1294:^
1246:^
1225:^
1032:,
979:,
891:,
885::
837:.
700:,
2180:e
2173:t
2166:v
1909:e
1902:t
1895:v
1738:.
1715:.
1683:.
1664:.
1623:.
1077:(
1001:(
869:(
741:(
592:e
585:t
578:v
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