803:, or contests and other such activities; to provide for separate seating and other facilities for white and negroes ... That all persons, firms, and corporations are prohibited from sponsoring, arranging, participating in or permitting on premises under their control ... such activities involving personal and social contact in which the participants are members of the white and negro races ... That white persons are prohibited from sitting in or using any part of seating arrangements and sanitary or other facilities set apart for members of the negro race. That negro persons are prohibited from sitting in or using any part of seating arrangements and sanitary or other facilities set apart for white persons.
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288:
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511:, they condoned the harsh economic and political tactics which were used against registered voters and activists. The members of the White Citizens Councils collaborated in order to threaten jobs, causing people to be fired or evicted from rental homes; they boycotted businesses, ensured that activists could not get loans, among other tactics. As historian
499:, 95% of Black voters were purged. Similarly, the Council distributed such pamphlets as "Voter Qualification Laws in Louisiana: The Key to Victory in the Segregation Struggle" to white registrars and required them to participate in mandatory seminars about preventing Black registration and purging Black voters.
688:
was established, ostensibly to encourage investment in the state and promote its public image. Although funded by taxes paid by all state residents, it made grants to the segregationist
Citizens' Councils, in some years providing as much as $ 50,000. This state agency also shared information with the
253:, most blacks were still disfranchised in the South in the 1950s. They risked retaliation by challenging the segregation of seating on buses as well as the segregation of seating at lunch counters, including segregation in department stores. The risks did not end immediately after the passage of the
186:
since the late 19th century) and integration of public facilities in general during the 1950s and 1960s. Members employed tactics such as economic boycotts, unjustified termination of employment, propaganda, and outright violence. By the 1970s the influence of the
Councils had waned considerably due
645:
in 1955, the
Citizens' Council published in the local paper the names of 53 signers of a petition for school integration. Soon afterward, the petitioners lost their jobs and had their credit cut off. As Charles Payne puts it, the Councils operated by "unleashing a wave of economic reprisals against
303:
views were similar to the views of its leaders; new chapters developed beyond
Mississippi in the rest of the Deep South. The Council often had the support of the leading white citizens of many communities, including business, law enforcement, civic and sometimes religious leaders, many of whom were
471:
increased in some parts of the South, in some communities the White
Citizens' Council sponsored "council schools," private institutions set up for white children. Such private schools, also called segregation academies, were beyond the reach of the ruling on public schools. Many of these private
640:
of black citizens, denying loans and business credit, pressing employers to fire certain people, and boycotting black-owned businesses. In some cities, the
Councils published lists of names of NAACP supporters and signers of anti-segregation petitions in local newspapers in order to encourage
367:
By the 1970s, as white
Southerners' attitudes towards desegregation began to change following the passage of federal civil rights legislation and the enforcement of integration and voting rights in the 1960s, the activities of the White Citizens' Councils began to wane. The
494:
Before the practice was found illegal in a federal court case of 1963, the
Council pushed a public challenge law allowing two voters to challenge another voter to see if he was lawfully registered, a provision they used to purge the rolls of Black voters. In one parish,
304:
members. Member businesses, such as newspaper publishing, legal representation, medical service, were known for collectively acting against registered voters whose names were first published in local papers before additional retaliatory actions were taken against them.
350:
As a result, interest for the
Councils in the Pacific Northwest and Missouri emerged. Likewise, the 1964 George Wallace campaign created interest in Indiana and Wisconsin. Two full-time organizers were named to create councils outside the Deep South: former
664:. The Citizens' Council paid Beckwith's legal expenses in his two trials in 1964, which both resulted in hung juries. In 1994, Beckwith was tried by the state of Mississippi based on new evidence, in part revealed by a lengthy investigation by the
689:
Councils that it had collected through its secret police-type investigations and surveillance of integration activists. For example, Dr. M. Ney
Williams was both a director of the Citizens' Council and an adviser to governor
711:
the Citizens' Council organization began as (and to a large extent remained) a projection of the Joint Legislative Committee to Maintain Segregation." In Louisiana, leaders of the original Citizens' Council included
646:
anyone, Black or white, seen as a threat to the status quo". Their targets included black professionals such as teachers, as well as farmers, high school and college students, shop owners, and housewives.
218:
that the segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. At the time, schools and other public facilities were segregated by state laws in Southern states. The Citizens' Councils were founded in
2340:
newspaper, 1955–1961. Originally a publication of the Mississippi Citizens' Council, the monthly publication became the official paper of the Citizens' Councils of America in October 1956.
633:
281:
480:
260:
Patterson and his followers formed the White Citizens Council in response to increased civil rights activism, activism which it responded to with economic retaliation and violence. The
864:
155:
684:
Many leading state and local politicians were members of the Councils; in some states, this gave the organization immense influence over state legislatures. In Mississippi, the
515:
notes, "Despite the official disclaimers, violence often followed in the wake of Council intimidation campaigns." Occasionally some Councils directly incited violence, such as
2254:
Geary, Daniel and Sutton, Jennifer. "Resisting the Wind of Change: The Citizens' Councils and European Decolonization," in Cornelius A. van Minnen and Manfred Berg, eds.,
328:
must remain separate. "If in one mighty voice we do not protest this travesty on justice, we might as well surrender," one of the authors, Mississippi Circuit Court Judge
347:
was a segregationist and the second citing Thomas Jefferson's quotes claiming that "nature, habit, opinion have drawn indelible lines of distinction between" both races.
951:
340:
In August 1956, their official newspaper reported councils in "at least 30 states" in places such as Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Los Angeles, St. Louis and Newark.
2473:
431:
Among its other activities, throughout the last half of the 1950s, the White Citizens' Councils produced racist children's books, for instance, teaching that
249:
by imposing barriers to voter registration and voting. Despite the fact that civil rights organizations won some legal challenges, such as the prohibition on
2331:
2468:
652:' first work for the NAACP on a national level involved interviewing Mississippians who had been intimidated by the White Citizens' Councils and preparing
2453:
823:
1059:
412:
as a television program, it switched to a radio format and was broadcast from Washington, DC, using congressional studios with the help of people like
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2463:
583:
246:
183:
1302:
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We hold these truths to be self-evident that all whites are created equal with certain rights; among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of dead
389:
but working in unison, the White Citizens Council met openly. It was seen superficially as "pursuing the agenda of the Klan with the demeanor of the
241:
At this time, most Southern states enforced the racial segregation of all public facilities; in places where local laws did not require segregation,
685:
1227:
536:
139:
1271:
2458:
2385:
Dr. John Dittmer, "'Barbour is an Unreconstructed Southerner': Prof. John Dittmer on Mississippi Governor's Praise of White Citizens' Councils"
1467:
Dr. John Dittmer, "'Barbour is an Unreconstructed Southerner': Prof. John Dittmer on Mississippi Governor's Praise of White Citizens' Councils"
725:
459:
1601:
2276:
2234:
2106:
1936:
1820:
1690:
1525:
1451:
1354:
1281:
1198:
1129:
852:
261:
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40:
1412:
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to the passage of federal civil rights legislation. The councils' mailing lists and some of their board members found their way to the
920:
629:
452:
209:
151:
1894:
2194:
2142:
2072:
2028:
1983:
1777:
1726:
1498:
1095:
231:
2314:
Walton, Laura Richardson. "Organizing resistance: The use of public relations by the citizens' council in Mississippi, 1954–64."
369:
192:
61:
890:
1515:
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passed a law mandating racial segregation in nearly every aspect of public life; much of the segregation already existed under
982:
2448:
840:
2378:
2287:
1378:
916:
754:
750:
516:
89:
2134:
1923:
Ghosts of Mississippi: The Murder of Medgar Evers, the Trials of Byron de la Beckwith, and the Haunting of the New South
1807:
Ghosts of Mississippi: The Murder of Medgar Evers, the Trials of Byron de la Beckwith, and the Haunting of the New South
1718:
1490:
1033:
235:
2384:
1466:
822:
received from groups such as White Citizens' Councils. It has been noted that members of such groups had permeated the
2307:
2053:
990:
835:
765:
355:
staff member Kent H. Steffgen was named for California, where the recent riots created interest for the Councils, and
325:
214:
159:
1962:; Harris, T. George; Wren, Christopher S. (December 31, 1962). "How a Secret Deal Prevented a Massacre at Ole Miss".
1858:
Luders, Joseph (January 2006). "The Economics of Movement Success: Business Responses to Civil Rights Mobilization".
2358:
700:. In 1955, in the midst of the bus boycott seeking integration of seating on city buses, all three members of the
182:
The Councils also worked to oppose voter registration efforts in the South (where most African Americans had been
1073:
254:
1252:
343:
In 1964, the Councils published two advertisements in the newspapers of several cities, the first claiming that
1964:
356:
287:
277:
273:
1645:
1576:
1551:
1442:
642:
372:, founded in 1985 by former White Citizens' Council members, continued the agendas of the earlier Councils.
958:
567:
219:
168:
143:
2344:
2316:
847:
717:
473:
245:
harassment enforced it. From 1890 to 1908, most Southern states passed new constitutions or laws which
1843:
Burford, Sarah (November 19, 2011). "Newest Navy Vessel Named for Civil Rights Martyr Medgar Evers".
657:
636:, and African Americans who they suspected of being activists. The tactics included "calling in" the
548:
468:
329:
238:
football team. Additional chapters were established in many other southern towns in following years.
735:
1605:
1184:
1167:
701:
563:
544:
444:
227:
119:
2226:
1875:
721:
417:
352:
172:
2285:
McMillen, Neil R. "White Citizens' Council and Resistance to School Desegregation in Arkansas."
2395:
2305:
Rolph, Stephanie R. "The Citizens' Council and Africa: White Supremacy in Global Perspective,"
1116:
Ownby, Ted; Wilson, Charles Reagan; Abadie, Ann J.; Lindsey, Odie; Jr, James G. Thomas (2017).
704:
city commission in Alabama announced on television that they had joined the Citizens' Council.
2272:
2230:
2190:
2138:
2102:
2068:
2024:
1979:
1932:
1816:
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1722:
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1447:
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1350:
1310:
1277:
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859:
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625:
317:
1928:
1812:
1682:
2262:
2172:
1867:
1800:
1755:
1552:"United States v. Association of Citizens Councils of La., 196 F. Supp. 908 (W.D. La. 1961)"
1437:
1346:
I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle
1340:
713:
575:
512:
496:
397:, which evolved into a magazine in October 1961 and continued to be published until 1989 as
2402:
2336:- Historical resource website by Edward Sebesta, with digitized copies of the full run of
2176:
1759:
1087:
808:
359:, the actor of the "Battle of Newburgh", was named for Virginia, Maryland and Washington.
344:
269:
135:
2219:
656:
for use as evidence against the Councils if necessary. Evers was assassinated in 1963 by
539:. In some cases, Council members were directly involved in acts of violence. Entertainer
2389:
1959:
1471:
1180:
1077:
819:
746:
591:
571:
467:
The White Citizens' Council in Mississippi prevented school integration until 1964. As
413:
147:
39:
2408:
491:
Citizens' Councils conducted voter purges to remove Black voters from election rolls.
2442:
2161:
2006:
1921:
1879:
1805:
1742:
1675:
1082:
788:
742:
728:
599:
540:
532:
420:
were interviewed there. From 1966, they did emissions from African countries such as
250:
1303:"CITIZENS COUNCILS SPREAD TO NORTH; Segregationist Groups Also Seek Members in West"
578:, a mimeographed flyer publicly espousing extreme racial White Citizens Council and
2131:
The Citizen's Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954–1964
1715:
The Citizen's Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954–1964
1670:
1487:
The Citizen's Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954–1964
690:
661:
649:
579:
552:
386:
321:
1083:
The Race Beat: The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, and the Awakening of a Nation
1011:
676:
2268:
The Citizens' Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954–64
2266:
2184:
2096:
2062:
2018:
1973:
1767:
1344:
1273:
The Citizens' Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954-64
1188:
2221:
Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States
2180:
1763:
886:
758:
390:
17:
2098:
The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s
1060:"ADL Data Shows Anti-Semitic Incidents Continue Surge in 2017 Compared to 2016"
924:
1747:
815:
265:
1390:
1314:
416:, a U.S. senator from Mississippi. Various personalities such as Eastland or
826:
and, while Wallace did not openly seek their support, he did not refuse it.
773:
732:
708:
653:
637:
607:
425:
299:
Within a few months, the White Citizens Council had attracted members whose
188:
408:, where they exposed their doctrine of segregation. First broadcast by the
163:
ruling. The first was formed on July 11, 1954. The name was changed to the
2422:
1190:
Black maverick: T.R.M. Howard's fight for civil rights and economic power
769:
764:
On July 16, 1956, "under pressure from the White Citizens Councils," the
668:
he was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to life in prison.
574:"ranted against the NAACP" at a large openly held Council meeting in the
520:
508:
421:
242:
2292:
2354:(1961-1973) is available at the University of North Carolina Libraries.
2009:(June 13, 1963). "N.A.A.C.P. Leader Slain in Jackson; Protests Mount".
1577:"United States v. State of Louisiana, 225 F. Supp. 353 (E.D. La. 1963)"
807:
In 1964, the Councils' membership was said to be nearly all supporting
784:
1228:"The White Citizens Councils:Respectable Means for Unrespectable Ends"
280:, a later official in the RCNL and the future head of the Mississippi
2129:
McMillen, Neil R. (1971). "Chapter IV Louisiana: And Catholics Too".
1146:
617:
432:
300:
1871:
1602:"White Citizens' Councils aimed to maintain 'Southern way of life'"
800:
739:
675:
611:
603:
556:
528:
507:
Although the White Citizens Councils publicly eschewed the use of
404:
From 1957 to 1966, the Citizens' Council had a broadcast program,
286:
796:
524:
409:
2164:(October 20–22, 1957). "You Can't Legislate Human Relations".
2051:
Reddick, L.D. (Winter 1956). "The Bus Boycott in Montgomery".
595:
891:"Finding Aid – FBI and Other Files (Ernie Lazar Collection)"
776:
on July 16, 1956, and went into effect on October 15, 1956.
590:
When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary to
2396:"Schwerner, Chaney, and Goodman: The Struggle for Justice"
2061:
Carson, Clayborne; Garrow, David J.; Kovach, Bill (2003).
2017:
Carson, Clayborne; Garrow, David J.; Kovach, Bill (2003).
1972:
Carson, Clayborne; Garrow, David J.; Kovach, Bill (2003).
1895:"Byron De La Beckwith Dies; Killer of Medgar Evers Was 80"
1677:
Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi
696:
Barnett was a member of the council, as was Jackson mayor
393:". From October 1954, the council published a newsletter,
582:
views was distributed. Its rhetoric was a parody of the
99:
Maintaining segregation and white supremacy in the South.
142:
organizations in the United States, concentrated in the
1413:"MSU Digitizes Endangered Citizens Council Radio Tapes"
865:
Defenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Liberties
632:, as well as African Americans who were members of the
628:
who they believed were supportive of desegregation and
2186:
Reporting Civil Rights: American journalism, 1941–1963
2064:
Reporting Civil Rights: American journalism, 1941–1963
2020:
Reporting Civil Rights: American journalism, 1941–1963
1975:
Reporting Civil Rights: American journalism, 1941–1963
1769:
Reporting Civil Rights: American journalism, 1941–1963
1253:"White Citizens' Councils | American Experience | PBS"
624:
The Citizens' Councils used economic tactics against
2300:
Resisting Equality: The Citizens' Council, 1954–1989
900:. The University of California – via Database.
324:
which served as the basis for their belief that the
1221:
1219:
1217:
113:
103:
95:
85:
67:
57:
49:
2359:"Finding aid for the Citizens' Council Collection"
2218:
1920:
1804:
1674:
1349:. University of California Press. pp. 34–35.
660:, a member of the White Citizens' Council and the
312:Council members published a book which was titled
772:custom. The bill was signed into law by governor
594:, proper methods should be used. Among these are
175:of public schools: the logical conclusion of the
2423:"William Kauffman Scarborough Papers, 1951-2015"
1193:. University of Illinois Press. pp. 95–97.
1147:"The Real Story of the White Citizens' Council"
1517:Race and the Origins of American Neoliberalism
171:, the groups were founded primarily to oppose
167:in 1956. With about 60,000 members across the
1276:. University of Illinois Press. p. 138.
435:(in the Christian conception) is segregated.
268:civil rights organization founded in 1951 by
8:
2156:
2154:
1335:
1333:
1331:
32:
2409:FBI files on the Citizens' Council Movement
2166:The Providence Journal and Evening Bulletin
1062:. Anti-Defamation League. November 2, 2017.
1745:(October 22, 1955). "Respectable Racism".
1170:"This Nonviolent Stuff'll Get You Killed."
1034:"Rep. Barr Rejects Segregation Supporters"
284:had met Patterson during their childhood.
38:
31:
1681:. University of Illinois Press. pp.
1646:"Historical Thinking Matters: Rosa Parks"
1546:
1544:
911:
909:
907:
2189:. Library of America. pp. 390–395.
2067:. Library of America. pp. 252–265.
2023:. Library of America. pp. 831–835.
1978:. Library of America. pp. 671–701.
1772:. Library of America. pp. 222–227.
2414:
878:
641:economic retaliation. For instance, in
537:New Orleans school desegregation crisis
977:
975:
898:Berkeley Center for Right Wing Studies
316:. The book detailed their belief that
2225:. New York: Guilford Press. pp.
1625:
1623:
1443:Blood Done Sign My Name: A True Story
1297:
1295:
1293:
1226:Halberstam, David (October 1, 1956).
946:
944:
942:
853:Timeline of the civil rights movement
551:, a KKK and Council member, murdered
276:, was based 40 miles from Indianola.
27:American segregationist organizations
7:
2474:Education segregation in Mississippi
2387:, December 22, 2010 video report by
2381:, University of Southern Mississippi
2379:"Civil Rights Documentation Project"
1469:, December 22, 2010 video report by
1145:Cobb, James C. (December 23, 2010).
1111:
1109:
1107:
262:Regional Council of Negro Leadership
234:manager and a former captain of the
2258:University of Kentucky Press, 2013.
1120:. University Press of Mississippi.
783:An Act to prohibit all interracial
481:system of twelve segregated schools
2469:1954 establishments in Mississippi
983:"Council of Conservative Citizens"
952:"Council of Conservative Citizens"
921:University of Southern Mississippi
226:ruling. The recognized leader was
25:
2454:Organizations established in 1954
1893:Stout, David (January 23, 2001).
1860:The American Journal of Sociology
1604:. The Jackson Sun. Archived from
1377:Onion, Rebecca (April 23, 2019).
2479:History of racism in Mississippi
2464:Council of Conservative Citizens
2271:. University of Illinois Press.
1919:Vollers, Maryanne (April 1995).
503:Violence and economic harassment
451:
370:Council of Conservative Citizens
193:Council of Conservative Citizens
62:Council of Conservative Citizens
1847:. Washington, D.C. p. A.1.
1040:. December 12, 1998. p. A4
462:schools operated by the Council
841:Racism against Black Americans
134:were an associated network of
1:
2459:Neo-Confederate organizations
2363:The University of Mississippi
2302:(2018), focus on Mississippi.
2288:Arkansas Historical Quarterly
1650:historicalthinkingmatters.org
1446:. Random House. p. 182.
476:" continue to operate today.
165:Citizens' Councils of America
2135:University of Illinois Press
1719:University of Illinois Press
1491:University of Illinois Press
1475:, accessed November 21, 2011
1118:The Mississippi Encyclopedia
686:State Sovereignty Commission
236:Mississippi State University
2311:, 82#3 (Aug. 2016), 617–50.
2308:Journal of Southern History
2101:. LSU Press. p. 86ff.
991:Southern Poverty Law Center
836:Racism in the United States
766:Louisiana State Legislature
584:Declaration of Independence
381:Publishing and broadcasting
336:Extension outside the South
215:Brown v. Board of Education
177:Brown v. Board of Education
160:Brown v. Board of Education
2495:
2405:, American Bar Association
2256:The U.S. South and Europe,
2095:Bartley, Numan V. (1999).
1811:. Little, Brown. pp.
1713:McMillen, Neil R. (1971).
1520:. Routledge. p. 182.
1485:McMillen, Neil R. (1971).
1270:McMillen, Neil R. (1994).
442:
1927:. Little, Brown. p.
1014:. Encyclopedia of Alabama
707:Numan Bartley wrote, "In
483:in Jackson, Mississippi.
458:A 1968 advertisement for
363:Demise and reconstitution
255:Voting Rights Act of 1965
247:disfranchised most blacks
146:and created as part of a
37:
2401:August 19, 2009, at the
1845:Afro - American Red Star
1514:Hohle, Randolph (2015).
1417:www.jacksonfreepress.com
824:Wallace campaign by 1968
479:The Council sponsored a
357:Joseph McDowell Mitchell
274:Mound Bayou, Mississippi
779:The act read, in part:
666:Jackson Clarion Ledger;
643:Yazoo City, Mississippi
204:Founding and activities
44:Citizens' Councils logo
2343:Available in PDF from
2217:Diamond, Sara (1995).
1149:. History News Network
959:Anti-Defamation League
805:
681:
622:
592:abolish the Negro race
568:Montgomery bus boycott
547:while he was on tour.
296:
272:of the all-black town
220:Indianola, Mississippi
169:Southern United States
73:; 70 years ago
2352:The Citizens' Council
2333:The Citizens' Council
2320:35.1 (2009): 23–33. [
2291:30.2 (1971): 95-122
1632:Let the Trumpet Sound
927:on September 11, 2011
848:Civil Rights Movement
818:observed the support
781:
679:
588:
474:segregation academies
443:Further information:
395:The Citizens' Council
385:Unlike the secretive
290:
222:two months after the
2338:The Citizens Council
2298:Rolph, Stephanie R.
1185:Beito, Linda Royster
1012:"Massive Resistance"
787:, social functions,
729:Joe D. Waggonner Jr.
680:Joe D. Waggonner Jr.
658:Byron De La Beckwith
549:Byron De La Beckwith
469:school desegregation
295:newspaper, June 1961
1608:on October 13, 2017
1232:Commentary Magazine
1168:Charles E. Cobb Jr.
726:U.S. Representative
672:Political influence
570:, at which Senator
564:Montgomery, Alabama
545:Birmingham, Alabama
445:Segregation academy
228:Robert B. Patterson
195:, founded in 1985.
120:Robert B. Patterson
34:
2449:Citizens' Councils
2350:A complete set of
2317:Journalism History
2137:. pp. 59–72.
1960:Leonard, George B.
1899:The New York Times
1343:(March 16, 2007).
1309:. August 5, 1964.
1307:The New York Times
722:William M. Rainach
682:
555:, the head of the
418:John Bell Williams
406:The Citizens Forum
353:John Birch Society
297:
173:racial integration
132:Citizens' Councils
71:July 11, 1954
33:Citizens' Councils
2278:978-0-252-06441-8
2263:McMillen, Neil R.
2236:978-0-89862-864-7
2173:Carson, Clayborne
2108:978-0-8071-2419-2
1938:978-0-316-91485-7
1822:978-0-316-91485-7
1801:Vollers, Maryanne
1756:Carson, Clayborne
1692:978-0-252-06507-1
1634:. pp. 91–92.
1527:978-1-138-83255-8
1453:978-1-4000-8311-4
1438:Tyson, Timothy B.
1411:Pittman, Ashton.
1379:"Hate in the Air"
1356:978-0-520-25176-2
1341:Payne, Charles M.
1283:978-0-252-06441-8
1200:978-0-252-03420-6
1187:(April 8, 2009).
1131:978-1-4968-1159-2
793:athletic training
745:, considered the
698:Allen C. Thompson
626:African Americans
562:For instance, in
543:was assaulted in
487:Voter suppression
320:were inferior to
318:African Americans
293:Citizens' Council
208:In May 1954, the
136:white supremacist
125:
124:
16:(Redirected from
2486:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2419:
2373:
2371:
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497:Bienville Parish
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18:Citizens Council
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1721:. p. 211.
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917:"July 11, 1954"
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809:Barry Goldwater
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424:, interviewing
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308:Racist ideology
270:T. R. M. Howard
251:white primaries
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2390:Democracy Now!
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2011:New York Times
2007:Sitton, Claude
1998:
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789:entertainments
757:parishes near
747:political boss
736:Ned Touchstone
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19:
2426:. Retrieved
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2315:
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2299:
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2267:
2255:
2220:
2212:
2200:. Retrieved
2185:
2181:Kovach, Bill
2165:
2130:
2124:
2114:September 7,
2112:. Retrieved
2097:
2090:
2078:. Retrieved
2063:
2052:
2046:
2034:. Retrieved
2019:
2010:
2001:
1989:. Retrieved
1974:
1963:
1954:
1944:September 9,
1942:. Retrieved
1922:
1914:
1902:. Retrieved
1898:
1888:
1863:
1859:
1853:
1844:
1838:
1828:September 9,
1826:. Retrieved
1806:
1795:
1783:. Retrieved
1768:
1764:Kovach, Bill
1746:
1737:
1714:
1708:
1698:September 7,
1696:. Retrieved
1676:
1665:
1653:. Retrieved
1649:
1640:
1631:
1612:September 8,
1610:. Retrieved
1606:the original
1596:
1584:. Retrieved
1580:
1571:
1559:. Retrieved
1555:
1533:November 17,
1531:. Retrieved
1516:
1509:
1486:
1480:
1470:
1462:
1441:
1432:
1420:. Retrieved
1416:
1406:
1394:. Retrieved
1382:
1372:
1362:September 7,
1360:. Retrieved
1345:
1318:. Retrieved
1306:
1272:
1265:
1256:
1247:
1235:. Retrieved
1231:
1206:September 8,
1204:. Retrieved
1189:
1175:
1163:
1153:September 9,
1151:. Retrieved
1140:
1117:
1086:. New York:
1081:
1068:
1054:
1042:. Retrieved
1037:
1028:
1016:. Retrieved
1006:
994:. Retrieved
986:
964:November 29,
962:. Retrieved
931:September 8,
929:. Retrieved
925:the original
897:
887:Lazar, Ernie
881:
813:
806:
782:
778:
763:
706:
695:
691:Ross Barnett
683:
665:
662:Ku Klux Klan
650:Medgar Evers
648:
623:
589:
580:Ku Klux Klan
561:
553:Medgar Evers
506:
493:
490:
478:
466:
460:Jackson area
430:
405:
403:
398:
394:
387:Ku Klux Klan
384:
366:
349:
342:
339:
330:Tom P. Brady
322:white people
314:Black Monday
313:
311:
298:
292:
259:
240:
223:
213:
207:
181:
176:
164:
158:
150:against the
131:
128:
126:
105:Membership
50:Abbreviation
29:
2428:December 9,
1257:www.pbs.org
1044:November 9,
1018:January 22,
996:January 22,
759:New Orleans
755:St. Bernard
751:Plaquemines
608:sling shots
535:during the
399:The Citizen
391:Rotary Club
278:Aaron Henry
2443:Categories
2368:January 3,
2133:. Urbana:
1748:The Nation
1717:. Urbana:
1655:January 3,
1586:January 3,
1581:Justia Law
1561:January 3,
1556:Justia Law
1489:. Urbana:
1237:January 3,
873:References
720:candidate
702:Montgomery
654:affidavits
376:Activities
266:grassroots
264:(RCNL), a
232:plantation
78:1954-07-11
1904:April 28,
1880:144120696
1391:1091-2339
1315:0362-4331
774:Earl Long
733:publisher
709:Louisiana
638:mortgages
531:, as did
521:shootings
517:lynchings
426:Ian Smith
332:, wrote.
212:ruled in
189:St. Louis
68:Formation
58:Successor
2399:Archived
2265:(1994).
2183:(2003).
1766:(2003).
1080:(2006).
830:See also
770:Jim Crow
509:violence
422:Rhodesia
243:Jim Crow
179:ruling.
156:landmark
2227:142–146
2054:Dissent
785:dancing
618:niggers
345:Lincoln
199:History
191:–based
115:Founder
96:Purpose
76: (
2293:online
2275:
2233:
2193:
2141:
2105:
2071:
2027:
1982:
1935:
1878:
1819:
1776:
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1524:
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1450:
1389:
1353:
1313:
1280:
1197:
1128:
1094:
814:Major
801:sports
738:, and
731:, the
612:knives
604:arrows
433:heaven
301:racist
1876:S2CID
1815:–58.
1685:–48.
1383:Slate
955:(PDF)
894:(PDF)
797:games
740:Judge
634:NAACP
557:NAACP
529:arson
525:rapes
326:races
282:NAACP
144:South
129:White
2430:2017
2370:2018
2273:ISBN
2231:ISBN
2204:2011
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