Civil war - Knowledge (XXG)

2514:

it makes little sense to test hypotheses relating national ethnic diversity to civil war outbreak without any explicit reference to how many different ethnic groups actually hold power in the state. This suggests that ethnic, linguistic and religious cleavages can matter, depending on the extent to which the various groups have ability and influence to mobilize on either side of a forming conflict. Themes explored in Cederman's later work criticizing the use of ethnic fractionalization measures as input variables to predict civil war outbreak relate to these indices not accounting for the geographical distribution of ethnic groups within countries, as this can affect their access to regional resources and commodities, which in turn can lead to conflict. A third theme explored by Cederman is that ethnolinguistic fractionalization does not quantify the extent to which there is pre-existing economic inequality between ethnic groups within countries. In a 2011 article, Cederman and fellow researchers describe finding that “in highly unequal societies, both rich and poor groups fight more often than those groups whose wealth lies closer to the country average”, going against the opportunity-based explanation for civil war outbreak.

2460:

ethnic group comprises a majority of the population, increased the risk of civil war. A country characterized by ethnic dominance has nearly twice the chance of a civil war. However, the combined effects of ethnic and religious fractionalization, i.e. the greater chance that any two randomly chosen people will be from separate ethnic or religious groups, the less chance of a civil war, were also significant and positive, as long as the country avoided ethnic dominance. The study interpreted this as stating that minority groups are more likely to rebel if they feel that they are being dominated, but that rebellions are more likely to occur the more homogeneous the population and thus more cohesive the rebels. These two factors may thus be seen as mitigating each other in many cases.

147: 3179:

other scholars disagree. Knaus and Stewart are extremely skeptical as to the effectiveness of interventions, holding that they can only work when they are performed with extreme caution and sensitivity to context, a strategy they label 'principled incrementalism'. Few interventions, for them, have demonstrated such an approach. Other scholars offer more specific criticisms; Dube and Naidu, for instance, show that US military aid, a less conventional form of intervention, seems to be siphoned off to paramilitaries thus exacerbating violence. Weinstein holds more generally that interventions might disrupt processes of 'autonomous recovery' whereby civil war contributes to state-building.

2992: 3129: 104: 2556:

Walter argues that when these issues are properly reversed, they act as political and legal restraints on executive power forcing the established government to better serve the people. Additionally, these political and legal restraints create a standardized avenue to influence government and increase the commitment credibility of established peace treaties. It is the strength of a nation's institutionalization and good governance—not the presence of democracy nor the poverty level—that is the number one indicator of the chance of a repeat civil war, according to Walter.

2928: 3161:(2000) about 2/3rds of the 138 intrastate conflicts between the end of World War II and 2000 saw international intervention, with the United States intervening in 35 of these conflicts. While intervention has been practiced since the international system has existed, its nature changed substantially. It became common for both the state and opposition group to receive foreign support, allowing wars to continue well past the point when domestic resources had been exhausted. Superpowers, such as the European 88: 2525:, which tested numerous variables for their relationship to civil war outbreak with different datasets, including that utilized by Fearon and Laitin. Bleaney concluded that neither ethnoreligious diversity, as measured by fractionalization, nor another variable, ethnic polarization, defined as the extent to which individuals in a population are distributed across different ethnic groups, were "a sufficient measure of diversity as it affects the probability of conflict." 2310: 2988:, respectively. The Western process of forming effective and impersonal bureaucracies, developing efficient tax systems, and integrating national territory continued into the 20th century. Nevertheless, Western states that survived into the latter half of the 20th century were considered "strong" by simple reason that they had managed to develop the institutional structures and military capability required to survive predation by their fellow states. 3070: 2936: 2735: 2717:, divides the modern history of civil wars into the pre-19th century, 19th century to early 20th century, and late 20th century. In 19th-century Europe, the length of civil wars fell significantly, largely due to the nature of the conflicts as battles for the power center of the state, the strength of centralized governments, and the normally quick and decisive intervention by other states to support the government. Following 2440:

civil war of about 1%. The study interpreted these three factors as proxies for earnings forgone by rebellion, and therefore that lower forgone earnings encourage rebellion. Phrased another way: young males (who make up the vast majority of combatants in civil wars) are less likely to join a rebellion if they are getting an education or have a comfortable salary, and can reasonably assume that they will prosper in the future.

2798: 2302:, noting that the Conventions are "so general, so vague, that many of the delegations feared that it might be taken to cover any act committed by force of arms". Accordingly, the commentaries provide for different 'conditions' on which the application of the Geneva Convention would depend; the commentary, however, points out that these should not be interpreted as rigid conditions. The conditions listed by the 3196: 2216: 2840:, led to several civil wars. However, a bi-polar world, divided between the two ideologies, did not develop, largely due to the dominance of monarchists through most of the period. The monarchists would thus normally intervene in other countries to stop democratic movements taking control and forming democratic governments, which were seen by monarchists as being both dangerous and unpredictable. The 2565: 45: 2425:

commodity. The authors of the study interpreted this as being the result of the ease by which primary commodities may be extorted or captured compared to other forms of wealth; for example, it is easy to capture and control the output of a gold mine or oil field compared to a sector of garment manufacturing or hospitality services.

3178:

The effectiveness of intervention is widely debated, in part because the data suffers from selection bias; as Fortna has argued, peacekeepers select themselves into difficult cases. When controlling for this effect, Forta holds that peacekeeping is resoundingly successful in shortening wars. However,

2583:

High levels of population dispersion and, to a lesser extent, the presence of mountainous terrain, increased the chance of conflict. Both of these factors favor rebels, as a population dispersed outward toward the borders is harder to control than one concentrated in a central region, while mountains

2513:

used by Fearon, Laitin and other political scientists is flawed. ELF, Cederman states, measures diversity on a country's population-wide level and makes no attempt to determine the number of ethnic groups in relation to what role they play in the power of the state and its military. Cederman believes

3261:

Using a separate statistical evaluation than used above for interventions, civil wars that included pro- or anti-communist forces lasted 141% longer than the average non-Cold War conflict, while a Cold War civil war that attracted superpower intervention resulted in wars typically lasting over three

2967:

and an official economic policy, they were in actuality far weaker than the Western states they were modeled after. In Western states, the structure of governments closely matched states' actual capabilities, which had been arduously developed over centuries. The development of strong administrative

2538:

In a state torn by civil war, the contesting powers often do not have the ability to commit or the trust to believe in the other side's commitment to put an end to war. When considering a peace agreement, the involved parties are aware of the high incentives to withdraw once one of them has taken an

2485:

James Fearon and David Laitin find that ethnic and religious diversity does not make civil war more likely. They instead find that factors that make it easier for rebels to recruit foot soldiers and sustain insurgencies, such as "poverty—which marks financially & bureaucratically weak states and

2439:

and economic growth rate all had significant effects on reducing the chance of civil war. Specifically, a male secondary school enrollment 10% above the average reduced the chance of a conflict by about 3%, while a growth rate 1% higher than the study average resulted in a decline in the chance of a

2182:

Civil wars since the end of World War II have lasted on average just over four years, a dramatic rise from the one-and-a-half-year average of the 1900–1944 period. While the rate of emergence of new civil wars has been relatively steady since the mid-19th century, the increasing length of those wars

3291:

According to Barbara F. Walter, post-2003 civil wars are different from previous civil wars in that most are situated in Muslim-majority countries; most of the rebel groups espouse radical Islamist ideas and goals; and most of these radical groups pursue transnational rather than national aims. She

2643:

the rebellion was fought over and thus increase the opportunity cost of restarting the conflict. Alternatively, elapsed time may represent the gradual process of healing of old hatreds. The study found that the presence of a diaspora substantially reduced the positive effect of time, as the funding

2468:

David Keen, a professor at the Development Studies Institute at the London School of Economics is one of the major critics of greed vs. grievance theory, defined primarily by Paul Collier, and argues the point that a conflict, although he cannot define it, cannot be pinpointed to simply one motive.

2555:

suggests that most contemporary civil wars are actually repeats of earlier civil wars that often arise when leaders are not accountable to the public, when there is poor public participation in politics, and when there is a lack of transparency of information between the executives and the public.

2459:

Most proxies for "grievance"—the theory that civil wars begin because of issues of identity, rather than economics—were statistically insignificant, including economic equality, political rights, ethnic polarization and religious fractionalization. Only ethnic dominance, the case where the largest

3045:

may be included. Neither did imperial powers make territorial integration a priority, and may have discouraged nascent nationalism as a danger to their rule. Many newly independent states thus found themselves impoverished, with minimal administrative capacity in a fragmented society, while faced

2958:

Following World War II, the major European powers divested themselves of their colonies at an increasing rate: the number of ex-colonial states jumped from about 30 to almost 120 after the war. The rate of state formation leveled off in the 1980s, at which point few colonies remained. More states

2750:

Civil wars in the 19th century and in the early 20th century tended to be short; civil wars between 1900 and 1944 lasted on average one and a half years. The state itself formed the obvious center of authority in the majority of cases, and the civil wars were thus fought for control of the state.

2246:

defines civil war as "armed combat taking place within the boundaries of a recognized sovereign entity between parties that are subject to a common authority at the outset of the hostilities." The intensity at which a civil disturbance becomes a civil war is contested by academics. Some political

3182:

On average, a civil war with interstate intervention was 300% longer than those without. When disaggregated, a civil war with intervention on only one side is 156% longer, while when intervention occurs on both sides the average civil war is longer by an additional 92%. If one of the intervening

3124:

in diplomatic recognition limbo. While there is not a large body of academic work examining the relationship, Hironaka's statistical study found a correlation that suggests that every major international anti-secessionist declaration increased the number of ongoing civil wars by +10%, or a total

2751:

This meant that whoever had control of the capital and the military could normally crush resistance. A rebellion which failed to quickly seize the capital and control of the military for itself normally found itself doomed to rapid destruction. For example, the fighting associated with the 1871

3111:

regime and norms against territorial aggression is strongly associated with the dramatic drop in the number of interstate wars, though it has also been attributed to the effect of the Cold War or to the changing nature of economic development. Consequently, military aggression that results in

2424:

and non-petroleum groupings showed different results: a country with relatively low levels of dependence on petroleum exports is at slightly less risk, while a high level of dependence on oil as an export results in slightly more risk of a civil war than national dependence on another primary

3089:

Historically, the international community would have targeted weak states for territorial absorption or colonial domination or, alternatively, such states would fragment into pieces small enough to be effectively administered and secured by a local power. However, international norms towards

2472:

Beyond Keen, several other authors have introduced works that either disprove greed vs. grievance theory with empirical data, or dismiss its ultimate conclusion. Authors such as Cristina Bodea and Ibrahim Elbadawi, who co-wrote the entry, "Riots, coups and civil war: Revisiting the greed and

2282:

Based on the 1,000-casualties-per-year criterion, there were 213 civil wars from 1816 to 1997, 104 of which occurred from 1944 to 1997. If one uses the less-stringent 1,000 casualties total criterion, there were over 90 civil wars between 1945 and 2007, with 20 ongoing civil wars as of 2007.

3032:

to favor a particular interest group. In such a situation, factions manipulate the state to benefit themselves or, alternatively, state leaders use the bureaucracy to further their own self-interest. The lack of credible governance was compounded by the fact that most colonies were economic

3023:

prohibited any self-government up until it suddenly granted independence to its colonies in 1960. Like Western states of previous centuries, the new ex-colonies lacked autonomous bureaucracies, which would make decisions based on the benefit to society as a whole, rather than respond to

2608:

and Marta Reynal-Querol argue that the correlation is spurious, and that lower income and heightened conflict are instead products of other phenomena. In contrast, a study by Alex Braithwaite and colleagues showed systematic evidence of "a causal arrow running from poverty to conflict".

2469:

He believes that conflicts are much more complex and thus should not be analyzed through simplified methods. He disagrees with the quantitative research methods of Collier and believes a stronger emphasis should be put on personal data and human perspective of the people in conflict.

2380:

which center on factors that make it easier to engage in violent mobilization. According to the study, the most influential explanation for civil war onset is the opportunity-based explanation by James Fearon and David Laitin in their 2003 American Political Science Review article.

2473:

grievance debate", argue that empirical data can disprove many of the proponents of greed theory and make the idea "irrelevant". They examine a myriad of factors and conclude that too many factors come into play with conflict, which cannot be confined to simply greed or grievance.

2290:

do not specifically define the term "civil war"; nevertheless, they do outline the responsibilities of parties in "armed conflict not of an international character". This includes civil wars; however, no specific definition of civil war is provided in the text of the Conventions.

2946:

In the 1990s, about twenty civil wars were occurring concurrently during an average year, a rate about ten times the historical average since the 19th century. However, the rate of new civil wars had not increased appreciably; the drastic rise in the number of ongoing wars after

2404:

in the early 21st century. The study framework, which came to be called the Collier–Hoeffler Model, examined 78 five-year increments when civil war occurred from 1960 to 1999, as well as 1,167 five-year increments of "no civil war" for comparison, and subjected the data set to

2539:

action that weakens their military, political or economical power. Commitment problems may deter a lasting peace agreement as the powers in question are aware that neither of them is able to commit to their end of the bargain in the future. States are often unable to escape

2397:, or do conflicts begin because it is in the economic best interests of individuals and groups to start them? Scholarly analysis supports the conclusion that economic and structural factors are more important than those of identity in predicting occurrences of civil war. 3270:

in 1989 resulted in a reduction in the duration of Cold War civil wars of 92% or, phrased another way, a roughly ten-fold increase in the rate of resolution of Cold War civil wars. Lengthy Cold War-associated civil conflicts that ground to a halt include the wars of

2691:

are not sufficient to explain the emergence of that insurgent movement. Instead, she argues that "emotional engagements" and "moral commitments" are the main reasons why thousand of civilians, most of them from poor and rural backgrounds, joined or supported the

2868:) would frequently coordinate interventions in other nations' civil wars, nearly always on the side of the incumbent government. Given the military strength of the Great Powers, these interventions nearly always proved decisive and quickly ended the civil wars. 2962:

While the new ex-colonial states appeared to follow the blueprint of the idealized state—centralized government, territory enclosed by defined borders, and citizenry with defined rights—as well as accessories such as a national flag, an anthem, a seat at the

3451: 2721:

the duration of civil wars grew past the norm of the pre-19th century, largely due to weakness of the many postcolonial states and the intervention by major powers on both sides of conflict. The most obvious commonality to civil wars are that they occur in

2183:

has resulted in increasing numbers of wars ongoing at any one time. For example, there were no more than five civil wars underway simultaneously in the first half of the 20th century while there were over 20 concurrent civil wars close to the end of the

2625:

or population size are known to increase civil war risk, also, one may conclude that "the discontent of the colonized, caused by the creation of borders across tribal lines and bad treatment by the colonizers" is one important cause of civil conflicts.

2330:(1) That the Party in revolt against the de jure Government possesses an organized military force, an authority responsible for its acts, acting within a determinate territory and having the means of respecting and ensuring respect for the Convention. 2432:, which can fund rebellions and insurgencies from abroad. The study found that statistically switching the size of a country's diaspora from the smallest found in the study to the largest resulted in a sixfold increase in the chance of a civil war. 3033:

loss-makers at independence, lacking both a productive economic base and a taxation system to effectively extract resources from economic activity. Among the rare states profitable at decolonization was India, to which scholars credibly argue that

2634:

The more time that has elapsed since the last civil war, the less likely it is that a conflict will recur. The study had two possible explanations for this: one opportunity-based and the other grievance-based. The elapsed time may represent the

2238:, defines a civil war as "a violent conflict within a country fought by organized groups that aim to take power at the center or in a region, or to change government policies". Ann Hironaka further specifies that one side of a civil war is the 3169:

of 1821 for events in its Central American "backyard". However, the large population of weak states after 1945 allowed intervention by former colonial powers, regional powers and neighboring states who themselves often had scarce resources.

2959:

also meant more states in which to have long civil wars. Hironaka statistically measures the impact of the increased number of ex-colonial states as increasing the post-World War II incidence of civil wars by +165% over the pre-1945 number.

3125:+114% from 1945 to 1997. The diplomatic and legal protection given by the international community, as well as economic support to weak governments and discouragement of secession, thus had the unintended effect of encouraging civil wars. 3215:(1947–1991) provided a global network of material and ideological support that often helped perpetuate civil wars, which were mainly fought in weak ex-colonial states rather than the relatively strong states that were aligned with the 3120:, international military intervention to reverse the territorial aggression. Similarly, the international community has largely refused to recognize secessionist regions, while keeping some secessionist self-declared states such as 3106:

to weak states, which helps maintain the facade of a functioning modern state by giving the appearance that the state is capable of fulfilling its implied responsibilities of control and order. The formation of a strong

2476:

Anthony Vinci makes a strong argument that "fungible concept of power and the primary motivation of survival provide superior explanations of armed group motivation and, more broadly, the conduct of internal conflicts".

3187:, in which there is two-sided foreign intervention, including by a superpower (actually, two superpowers in the case of Angola), would be 538% longer on average than a civil war without any international intervention. 4076: 2657:

greatly increased the frequency of civil wars but not interstate wars. Gleditsch et al. did not find a relationship between ethnic groups with polygyny and increased frequency of civil wars but nations having legal

3411: 2347:(d) That the dispute has been admitted to the agenda of the Security Council or the General Assembly of the United Nations as being a threat to international peace, a breach of the peace, or an act of aggression. 3112:

territorial annexation became increasingly likely to prompt international condemnation, diplomatic censure, a reduction in international aid or the introduction of economic sanction, or, as in the case of 1990

3529: 2696:, despite individually facing both high risks and virtually no foreseeable gains. Wood also attributes participation in the civil war to the value that insurgents assigned to changing social relations in 2510: 3230:

would superimpose Cold War ideology onto local conflicts, while in others local actors using Cold War ideology would attract the attention of a superpower to obtain support. A notable example is the

2489:

Such research finds that civil wars happen because the state is weak; both authoritarian and democratic states can be stable if they have the financial and military capacity to put down rebellions.

3102:

sovereignty or control of their own territory, including the privileges of international diplomatic recognition and an equal vote in the United Nations. Further, the international community offers

2251:, a dataset widely used by scholars of conflict, classifies civil wars as having over 1000 war-related casualties per year of conflict. This rate is a small fraction of the millions killed in the 3007:

was an entirely different process of state formation. Most imperial powers had not foreseen a need to prepare their colonies for independence; for example, Britain had given limited self-rule to

2621:

and the probability of civil war outbreak, relative deprivation may actually be a more pertinent possible cause. Historically, higher inequality levels led to higher civil war probability. Since

2592:

The various factors contributing to the risk of civil war rise increase with population size. The risk of a civil war rises approximately proportionately with the size of a country's population.

2604:

and civil war, but the causality (which causes the other) is unclear. Some studies have found that in regions with lower income per capita, the likelihood of civil war is greater. Economists

2409:

to see the effect of various factors. The factors that were shown to have a statistically significant effect on the chance that a civil war would occur in any given five-year period were:

2334:(2) That the legal Government is obliged to have recourse to the regular military forces against insurgents organized as military and in possession of a part of the national territory. 3621: 3165:, had always felt no compunction in intervening in civil wars that affected their interests, while distant regional powers such as the United States could declare the interventionist 2968:

structures, in particular those related to extraction of taxes, is closely associated with the intense warfare between predatory European states in the 17th and 18th centuries, or in

3668: 4066: 3815:, Anke Hoeffler and Nicholas Sambanis, "The Collier-Hoeffler Model of Civil War Onset and the Case Study Project Research Design," in Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 13 3738:

on Third 1949 Geneva Convention, Article III, Section "A. Cases of armed conflict" for the ICRC's reading of the definition and a listing of proposed alternative wording

55: 4864: 3486: 2543:(recurring civil war conflicts) due to the lack of strong political and legal institutions that motivate bargaining, settle disputes, and enforce peace settlements. 2502: 2420:, has a 22% risk of falling into civil war in a given five-year period, while a country with no primary commodity exports has a 1% risk. When disaggregated, only 3858: 3692: 3517: 3304:

growth by about 2%. It also has a regional effect, reducing the GDP growth of neighboring countries. Civil wars also have the potential to lock the country in a

2995:

An American Cadillac Gage Light Armored Reconnaissance Vehicle and Italian Fiat-OTO Melara Type 6614 Armored Personnel Carrier guard an intersection during the

2693: 2272: 2794:

did not have sovereign status, but had significant political and economic independence coupled with weak federal control, reducing the incentive to secede.

4440: 2951:

was a result of the tripling of the average duration of civil wars to over four years. This increase was a result of the increased number of states, the

146: 4559: 3725: 2295: 1070: 4460:

Baten, Joerg; Mumme, Christina (2011). "Does Inequality Lead to Civil Wars? A global long-term study using anthropometric indicators (1816-1999)".

3153:

There has been an enormous amount of international intervention in civil wars since 1945 that some have argued served to extend wars. According to

2875:(1861–1865) was unusual for at least two reasons: it was fought around regional identities as well as political ideologies, and it ended through a 1497: 2443:

Low per capita income has also been proposed as a cause for grievance, prompting armed rebellion. However, for this to be true, one would expect

2247:

scientists define a civil war as having more than 1,000 casualties, while others further specify that at least 100 must come from each side. The

5132: 5103: 2354:(b) That the insurgent civil authority exercises de facto authority over the population within a determinate portion of the national territory. 2584:

offer terrain where rebels can seek sanctuary. Rough terrain was highlighted as one of the more important factors in a 2006 systematic review.

3996:

Anthony Vinci. "Greed-Grievance Reconsidered: The Role of Power and Survival in the Motivation of Armed Groups." Civil Wars "8(1)" (2007): 35.

5142: 5121: 3654: 3595: 2985: 2991: 1853: 3791: 3636: 2653:

has argued that an important cause of intergroup conflict may be the relative availability of women of reproductive age. He found that

5331: 3731: 3615: 3338: 3220: 3090:

sovereignty changed in the wake of World War II in ways that support and maintain the existence of weak states. Weak states are given

2048: 1826: 441: 5315: 4887: 4840: 4621: 4594: 3566: 1502: 2416:

in national exports significantly increases the risk of a conflict. A country at "peak danger", with commodities comprising 32% of

2357:(c) That the armed forces act under the direction of an organized authority and are prepared to observe the ordinary laws of war. 3133: 1580: 5355: 1563: 3128: 1925: 1350: 195: 5483: 5377: 1689: 4102: 3483: 2106: 1553: 103: 3987:

Christina Bodea. "Riots, coups and civil war : revisiting the greed and grievance debate." Policy Research 1 (2007).

3300:

Civil wars often have severe economic consequences: two studies estimate that each year of civil war reduces a country's

2447:

to also be a significant factor in rebellions, which it is not. The study therefore concluded that the economic model of

3332: 2486:

also favors rebel recruitment—political instability, rough terrain, and large populations" make civil wars more likely.

2344:(c) That it has accorded the insurgents recognition as belligerents for the purposes only of the present Convention; or 2043: 507: 4957: 3855: 2972:'s famous formulation: "War made the state and the state made war". For example, the formation of the modern states of 3689: 3344: 2670:

were associated with fewer civil wars and that legal polygamy had no effect after women's rights were controlled for.

2053: 1240: 1042: 913: 451: 3292:

attributes this shift to changes in information technology, especially the advent of the Web 2.0 in the early 2000s.

3050:. The "strong"-"weak" categorization is not the same as "Western"-"non-Western", as some Latin American states like 4911:

Dube, Vargas (2015). "Bases, Bullets and Ballots; The Effect of US-Military Aid on Political Conflict in Colombia".

4253:

Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James Robinson. 2005. "Institutions as a fundamental cause of long-run growth".

2505:, have criticized the data used by Fearon and Laitin to determine ethnic and religious diversity. In his 2007 paper 4270: 3078: 1517: 20: 3932: 3416: 3235: 3046:

with the expectation of immediately meeting the demands of a modern state. Such states are considered "weak" or "

2647: 2268: 2252: 1627: 1135: 484: 358: 212: 2207:

are examples of nations that were considered to have had promising futures before being engulfed in civil wars.

4409: 3712: 2518: 2078: 1945: 1492: 1185: 1003: 851: 2368:

According to a 2017 review study of civil war research, there are three prominent explanations for civil war:

5287: 3234:(1946–1949), which erupted shortly after the end of World War II. This conflict saw the communist-dominated 2927: 2912: 2568: 2031: 2013: 1769: 1328: 1250: 1195: 793: 456: 4526: 4920: 4541: 4018: 2896: 2802: 2683:

offers yet another rationale for why civilians rebel and/or support civil war. Through her studies of the

2417: 2390: 1898: 1873: 1595: 1507: 1380: 1255: 856: 833: 279: 178: 3019:

as little more than a trading post, while all major decisions for French colonies were made in Paris and

5513: 2940: 2904: 2782:– their nominal state government – to gain recognition of their sovereignty. Conversely, states such as 1487: 1420: 1373: 1027: 990: 953: 871: 823: 707: 517: 325: 234: 2713: 87: 4342:"Complicit States and the Governing Strategy of Privilege Violence: When Weakness is Not the Problem" 3280: 3276: 3272: 3141: 3025: 2813: 2684: 2220: 1878: 1780: 1637: 1632: 1450: 1415: 1150: 970: 828: 764: 618: 588: 185: 92: 4958:"Autonomous Recovery and International Intervention in Comparative Perspective, CGDEV Working Paper" 4925: 4546: 4023: 2351:(4) (a) That the insurgents have an organization purporting to have the characteristics of a State. 5508: 5043:"The Consequences of Contention: Understanding the Aftereffects of Political Conflict and Violence" 4071: 3263: 2759:, and ended quickly once the military sided with the government at Versailles and conquered Paris. 2688: 2676: 2640: 2444: 2406: 2322: 2256: 2235: 1729: 1714: 1590: 1477: 1455: 1430: 1390: 1300: 1110: 1015: 965: 732: 722: 687: 479: 469: 239: 163: 2778:

states because of their military power. The Barbary pirates thus had no need to rebel against the

2708: 2309: 5465: 5427: 5271: 5242: 5213: 5205: 5169: 4938: 4858: 4507: 4432: 4390: 4322: 4044: 4036: 3908: 3783: 3660: 3443: 3327: 3204: 3113: 3082: 3016: 2872: 2845: 2766:

in the 18th and 19th centuries, which further reduced the number of civil wars. For example, the

2498: 2394: 2299: 2287: 2224: 2063: 1918: 1838: 1759: 1704: 1679: 1600: 1546: 1512: 1443: 1360: 1270: 1175: 1120: 1010: 975: 928: 803: 774: 727: 665: 640: 474: 288: 207: 24: 5372: 4373:

Djankov, Simeon; Reynal-Querol, Marta (2010). "Poverty and Civil War: Revisiting the Evidence".

4229: 3978:

David Keen. "Complex Emergencies: David Keen Responds" African Arguments: Royal African Society.

2871:

There were several exceptions from the general rule of quick civil wars during this period. The

5444:"A Review of Recent Advances and Future Directions in the Quantitative Literature on Civil War" 2360:(d) That the insurgent civil authority agrees to be bound by the provisions of the Convention. 2187:. Since 1945, civil wars have resulted in the deaths of over 25 million people, as well as the 5327: 5311: 5188:

Licklider, Roy (1995). "The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945–1993".

5138: 5117: 4893: 4883: 4846: 4836: 4617: 4590: 4314: 4210: 4161: 4122: 3949: 3900: 3775: 3650: 3611: 3607: 3562: 3247: 3184: 3117: 3108: 2980:

in the 19th century is closely associated with the wars of expansion and consolidation led by

2935: 2880: 2876: 2825: 2743: 2673: 2667: 2576: 2552: 2436: 2248: 2176: 2099: 2008: 1955: 1858: 1848: 1843: 1813: 1796: 1791: 1764: 1709: 1410: 1400: 1395: 1385: 1305: 1295: 1290: 1265: 1235: 1125: 1095: 1090: 1080: 1075: 1065: 980: 933: 903: 742: 535: 512: 446: 112: 96: 3559:

Neverending Wars: The International Community, Weak States, and the Perpetuation of Civil War

5455: 5393: 5263: 5234: 5197: 5161: 5109: 5054: 5021: 4930: 4551: 4499: 4487: 4469: 4424: 4382: 4353: 4306: 4200: 4192: 4153: 4114: 4028: 3941: 3892: 3767: 3752: 3642: 3603: 3433: 3425: 3154: 2996: 2900: 2892: 2817: 2810: 2739: 2650: 2572: 2448: 2318: 2264: 2188: 2157: 2150: 2073: 2038: 1970: 1863: 1801: 1694: 1622: 1615: 1472: 1405: 1355: 1345: 1220: 1140: 1100: 1085: 1052: 1037: 908: 893: 846: 754: 712: 655: 650: 608: 431: 408: 315: 244: 173: 156: 5488: 3927: 3069: 5359: 5308:

The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests, and the Indivisibility of Territory

5286:(2011). internal insurrections in Russia, Spain, Greece, Yugoslavia, and other countries; 5059: 5042: 5026: 5009: 4358: 4341: 4274: 3862: 3735: 3728: 3696: 3495: 3490: 3317: 3251: 3231: 3166: 3140:

in 2003 passes the hulk of an LTTE supply ship that had been sunk by government aircraft,

3103: 2853: 2734: 2680: 2243: 2175:, that is sustained, organized and large-scale. Civil wars may result in large numbers of 2128: 1883: 1868: 1786: 1742: 1684: 1340: 1335: 1225: 1215: 1130: 1105: 1047: 888: 818: 808: 747: 660: 645: 568: 540: 340: 320: 168: 5137:. Vol. 2: Europe, Central Asia, and Other Regions. Washington, DC: The World Bank. 3395:

Higgins, Noelle (2019). "The Geneva Conventions and Non-International Armed Conflicts".

5113: 3429: 3066:

are considered to have "strong" administrative structures and economic infrastructure.

3004: 2964: 2879:, rather than with a decisive battle over control of the capital, as was the norm. The 2849: 2797: 2779: 2767: 2605: 2239: 2068: 2058: 1806: 1230: 1190: 1168: 1155: 1145: 1115: 1032: 985: 788: 779: 670: 623: 603: 593: 563: 530: 418: 375: 330: 202: 135: 67: 31: 5352: 5041:

Davenport, Christian; Mokleiv Nygård, Håvard; Fjelde, Hanne; Armstrong, David (2019).

2393:. Roughly stated: are conflicts caused by differences of ethnicity, religion or other 2389:

Scholars investigating the cause of civil war are attracted by two opposing theories,

2145: 5502: 5469: 5275: 5246: 5217: 5173: 4942: 4326: 3928:"The inequality–conflict nexus re-examined: Income, education and popular rebellions" 3787: 3305: 3255: 3183:

states was a superpower, a civil war is a further 72% longer; a conflict such as the

3047: 2969: 2952: 2791: 2787: 2771: 2752: 2723: 2540: 2135:). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve 1905: 1893: 1749: 1669: 1585: 1568: 1425: 1280: 1260: 943: 938: 918: 898: 813: 784: 759: 635: 613: 598: 573: 413: 335: 298: 293: 190: 4394: 3664: 3447: 3195: 2376:

which center on conflict as a response to socioeconomic or political injustice, and

2338:(3) (a) That the de jure Government has recognized the insurgents as belligerents; 2215: 5413: 5099: 4511: 4473: 4436: 4048: 4009:

Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D. (2003). "Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War".

3812: 3479: 3243: 3162: 2948: 2908: 2888: 2718: 2636: 2276: 2260: 2231: 2172: 2165: 2136: 2092: 2018: 1998: 1993: 1888: 1833: 1467: 1462: 1285: 1200: 948: 682: 583: 380: 284: 2564: 4964: 4611: 4584: 4297:

Walter, Barbara F. (2015-10-01). "Why Bad Governance Leads to Repeat Civil War".

4179:

CEDERMAN, LARS-ERIK; WEIDMANN, NILS B.; GLEDITSCH, KRISTIAN SKREDE (2011-07-11).

5409: 5267: 5238: 5152:

Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2001). ""New" and "Old" Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?".

4410:"Does poverty cause conflict? Isolating the causal origins of the conflict trap" 3372: 3267: 3216: 3200: 2841: 2763: 2697: 2622: 2314: 2003: 1754: 1719: 1558: 1245: 1210: 923: 866: 769: 553: 274: 269: 4205: 4180: 5225:

Mack, Andrew (2002). "Civil War: Academic Research and the Policy Community".

4555: 4503: 4196: 4141: 4118: 4032: 3912: 3880: 3322: 3239: 3227: 3121: 2833: 2806: 2401: 1960: 1930: 1652: 1021: 108: 4897: 4850: 4428: 4318: 4310: 4214: 4181:"Horizontal Inequalities and Ethnonationalist Civil War: A Global Comparison" 4165: 4157: 4126: 3953: 3945: 3904: 3779: 3771: 3646: 5182:

The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation

3518:"Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate Conflict" 3499:, March/April 2007. For further discussion on civil war classification, see 3137: 3051: 3012: 2955:

formed after 1945, the decline in interstate war, and the Cold War rivalry.

2916: 2837: 2421: 2413: 2156:

Most modern civil wars involve intervention by outside powers. According to

1950: 1774: 1724: 1674: 1664: 1659: 1524: 1315: 1310: 1275: 717: 403: 370: 259: 5460: 5443: 4103:"Beyond Fractionalization: Mapping Ethnicity onto Nationalist Insurgencies" 2164:(2000) about two thirds of the 138 intrastate conflicts between the end of 5294:

Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate Conflict

4527:"Polygyny or Misogyny? Reexamining the "First Law of Intergroup Conflict"" 5492: 5165: 4386: 4268:

Fostering Peace after Civil War: Commitment Problems and Agreement Design

3690:"A Matter of Definition: What Makes a Civil War, and Who Declares It So?" 3250:, which was backed by the United Kingdom and the United States under the 3212: 3098: 3038: 3029: 2783: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2507:

Beyond Fractionalization: Mapping Ethnicity onto Nationalist Insurgencies

2429: 2298:

has sought to provide some clarification through its commentaries on the

2259:, for example, but excludes several highly publicized conflicts, such as 2191:

of millions more. Civil wars have further resulted in economic collapse;

2184: 1965: 1940: 1573: 1205: 1180: 798: 353: 227: 4616:(Reprint. ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 17–20. 4267: 5397: 5209: 4589:(Reprint. ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 1–16. 4230:"Incidence, onset and duration of civil wars: A review of the evidence" 4040: 3092: 3074: 3020: 2981: 2973: 2857: 2644:

from diasporas offsets the depreciation of rebellion-specific capital.

2618: 2601: 2192: 2132: 1975: 1935: 1699: 1533: 1529: 876: 861: 737: 398: 393: 363: 302: 264: 5420: 4525:

Gleditsch, K. S.; Wucherpfennig, J.; Hug, S.; Reigstad, K. G. (2011).

3096:

sovereignty equal to that of other states, even when they do not have

2887:

sides in the struggle received support from intervening great powers:

2400:

A comprehensive study of civil war was carried out by a team from the

4833:

Does peacekeeping work? shaping belligerents' choices after civil war

3438: 3063: 3055: 3042: 3034: 2865: 2861: 2821: 2523:

Incidence, Onset and Duration of Civil Wars: A Review of the Evidence

2204: 2200: 2140: 1482: 883: 700: 436: 5201: 30:"Civil conflict" redirects here. For the college football game, see 4934: 4140:

Cederman, Lars-Erik; Buhaug, Halvard; Rød, Jan Ketil (2009-05-27).

3896: 3308:, where each conflict increases the likelihood of future conflict. 2341:(b) That it has claimed for itself the rights of a belligerent; or 3594:

Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2009). Boix, Carles; Stokes, Susan C (eds.).

3194: 3127: 3068: 3059: 3008: 2990: 2977: 2934: 2926: 2796: 2762:

The power of non-state actors resulted in a lower value placed on

2756: 2733: 2563: 2308: 2214: 2196: 958: 494: 489: 102: 86: 2666:

is a better explanation than polygyny. They found that increased

5254:

Mason, T. David; Fett, Patrick J. (1996). "How Civil Wars End".

4490:(2009). "Evolutionary Psychological Foundations of Civil Wars". 3085:(1975–1990) was characterized by multiple foreign interventions. 2617:

While there is a supposed negative correlation between absolute

2303: 2171:

A civil war is often a high-intensity conflict, often involving

254: 249: 5484:

Royal Air Force Doctrine – The Nature of War and Armed Conflict

4067:"Americans hate each other. But we aren't headed for civil war" 2372:

which center on individuals' desire to maximize their profits,

3301: 2139:

for a region, or to change government policies. The term is a

2124: 127: 38: 2517:

Michael Bleaney, Professor of International Economics at the

5342:

Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars

5093:

Breaking the Conflict Trap: civil war and development policy

5384:

Blattman, Christopher; Miguel, Edward (2010). "Civil War".

3856:

A CLASH OF GENERATIONS? YOUTH BULGES AND POLITICAL VIOLENCE

5428:

Stathis Kalyvas on 20 years of studying political violence

4408:

Braithwaite, Alex; Dasandi, Niheer; Hudson, David (2016).

111:

after a raid by German aircraft on 31 May 1938 during the

5301:

Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements

3561:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 3. 3412:"Towards an Understanding of Contemporary Intrastate War" 2700:, an experience she defines as the "pleasure of agency". 5077:

Ali, Taisier Mohamed Ahmed and Robert O. Matthews, eds.

4613:

Insurgent collective action and civil war in El Salvador

4586:

Insurgent collective action and civil war in El Salvador

5347:

Elisabeth Jean Wood; "Civil Wars: What We Don't Know,"

63: 4101:

Cederman, Lars-Erik; Girardin, Luc (February 2007).

3511: 3509: 5086:

Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars

3262:times as long as other civil wars. Conversely, the 5310:(Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003). 2738:An artillery school set up by the anti-socialist " 5131:Collier, Paul; Sambanis, Nicholas, eds. (2005). 4096: 4094: 3881:"Income Inequality and the Taste for Revolution" 3751:Cederman, Lars-Erik; Vogt, Manuel (2017-07-26). 2501:of the Center for Security Studies (CSS) at the 2464:Criticism of the "greed versus grievance" theory 5416:, 416–434. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2931:Civil conflicts vs other conflicts 1946 to 2016 2687:, Wood finds that traditional explanations of 2511:ethno-linguistic fractionalization index (ELF) 2179:and the consumption of significant resources. 5134:Understanding Civil War:Evidence and Analysis 5105:Understanding Civil War:Evidence and Analysis 5003: 5001: 2100: 52:The examples and perspective in this article 8: 4863:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3397:Revisiting the Geneva Conventions: 1949-2019 3600:The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics 3552: 3550: 3548: 3546: 2662:may have more civil wars. They argued that 5324:How Civil Wars Start: And How to Stop Them 5079:Civil Wars in Africa: roots and resolution 4060: 4058: 3500: 2107: 2093: 117: 5459: 5426:Kalyvas, Stathis; Straus, Scott (2020). " 5371:Lars-Erik Cederman; Manuel Vogt (2017). " 5058: 5025: 4924: 4831:Page), Fortna, V. Page (Virginia (2008). 4545: 4357: 4340:Kleinfeld, Rachel; Barham, Elena (2018). 4204: 4022: 3641:. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. 3437: 2694:Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front 2435:Higher male secondary school enrollment, 2168:and 2000 saw international intervention. 2127:between organized groups within the same 4992: 4980: 4818: 4806: 4794: 4782: 4756: 4744: 4732: 4720: 4708: 4696: 4684: 4672: 4660: 4648: 4636: 3808: 3726:International Committee of the Red Cross 3581: 3475: 3473: 3471: 3469: 2296:International Committee of the Red Cross 1071:List of military strategies and concepts 5406:Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics 5404:Kalyvas Stathis N. 2007. "Civil Wars." 4142:"Ethno-Nationalist Dyads and Civil War" 3965: 3963: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3713:Diplomatic Conference of Geneva of 1949 3608:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566020.003.0018 3387: 3356: 2883:(1936–1939) proved exceptional because 2493:Critical Responses to Fearon and Laitin 2428:A second source of finance is national 2149:which was used to refer to the various 125: 5180:David Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds. 4856: 2939:Members of ARDE Frente Sur during the 19:For specific wars and other uses, see 5421:Conflict: Trajectories and Challenges 5366:Review articles of civil war research 5060:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064057 5027:10.1146/annurev-polisci-060415-093921 4769: 4767: 4765: 4455: 4453: 4417:Conflict Management and Peace Science 4359:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041916-015628 4292: 4290: 4266:Mattes, M., & Savun, B. (2009). " 4011:The American Political Science Review 4004: 4002: 3746: 3744: 2503:Swiss Federal Institute of Technology 7: 4462:European Review of Political Economy 3969:Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 18 3845:Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 16 3829:Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 17 2730:In the 19th and early 20th centuries 5344:(Princeton University Press, 2002), 5184:(Princeton University Press, 1996). 5102:; Sambanis, Nicholas, eds. (2005). 3501:the section "Formal classification" 3454:from the original on 5 January 2017 5432:Violence: An International Journal 5047:Annual Review of Political Science 5014:Annual Review of Political Science 4375:Review of Economics and Statistics 4346:Annual Review of Political Science 4079:from the original on 19 April 2021 3885:The Journal of Law & Economics 3753:"Dynamics and Logics of Civil War" 3638:The Logic of Violence in Civil War 3430:10.1111/j.1477-7053.2007.00215_1.x 3410:Jackson, Richard (28 March 2014). 3339:The Logic of Violence in Civil War 3221:North Atlantic Treaty Organization 2306:in its commentary are as follows: 14: 5190:American Political Science Review 5084:Mats Berdal and David M. Malone, 5008:Walter, Barbara F. (2017-01-01). 4185:American Political Science Review 4107:American Political Science Review 3516:Ikenberry, G. John (2009-01-28). 2832:The two major global ideologies, 5373:Dynamics and Logics of Civil War 4956:Weinstein, Jeremy (April 2005). 4446:from the original on 2020-03-10. 3926:Bartusevičius, Henrikas (2014). 3797:from the original on 2018-07-23. 3624:from the original on 2012-12-31. 3365:non-international armed conflict 2521:, published a 2009 paper titled 2151:civil wars of the Roman Republic 145: 43: 5299:Stephen John and others., eds. 4565:from the original on 2017-09-21 4279:International Studies Quarterly 4065:Richard Hanania (29 Oct 2020). 3671:from the original on 2021-11-09 3532:from the original on 2021-03-08 3149:Interventions by outside powers 3058:and Middle Eastern states like 2600:There is a correlation between 2451:better explained the findings. 5386:Journal of Economic Literature 5378:Journal of Conflict Resolution 5284:Civil War in Europe, 1905–1949 5256:Journal of Conflict Resolution 4835:. Princeton University Press. 4474:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2013.06.007 4299:Journal of Conflict Resolution 4146:Journal of Conflict Resolution 3760:Journal of Conflict Resolution 2378:opportunity-based explanations 1: 5419:Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2024). " 5095:World Bank (2003) – 320 pages 4882:. National Geographic Books. 4610:Wood, Elisabeth Jean (2003). 4583:Wood, Elisabeth Jean (2003). 3174:Effectiveness of intervention 3159:Civil Wars and Foreign Powers 2412:A high proportion of primary 2234:, a scholar of civil wars at 2162:Civil Wars and Foreign Powers 66:and discuss the issue on the 3635:Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2006). 3367:(NIAC) and also known as an 3333:List of wars of independence 2899:supported opposition leader 2755:occurred almost entirely in 2374:grievance-based explanations 5448:Defence and Peace Economics 5442:Sambanis, Nicholas (2002). 5268:10.1177/0022002796040004002 5239:10.1177/0022343302039005001 4255:Handbook of Economic Growth 3879:MacCulloch, Robert (2005). 3869:Retrieved 28 December 2012. 3345:Wars of national liberation 3199:Fall and demolition of the 3073:A checkpoint manned by the 2509:, Cederman argues that the 1564:Military–industrial complex 1043:Operational manoeuvre group 107:The destruction wrought on 5530: 5322:Barbara F. Walter (2022). 3399:. Brill. pp. 168–189. 3266:marked by the fall of the 3132:A fast attack boat of the 29: 21:Civil War (disambiguation) 18: 5489:"What makes a civil war?" 5227:Journal of Peace Research 4556:10.1017/S0022381610001003 4504:10.1017/S0022381608090026 4228:Bleaney, Michael (2009). 4197:10.1017/s0003055411000207 4119:10.1017/S0003055407070086 4033:10.1017/S0003055403000534 3933:Journal of Peace Research 3417:Government and Opposition 3236:Democratic Army of Greece 2648:Evolutionary psychologist 2269:African National Congress 2253:Second Sudanese Civil War 1628:Loss-of-strength gradient 485:Combat information center 5010:"The New New Civil Wars" 4429:10.1177/0738894214559673 4311:10.1177/0022002714528006 4158:10.1177/0022002709336455 3946:10.1177/0022343313503179 3772:10.1177/0022002717721385 3647:10.1017/cbo9780511818462 2792:United States of America 2519:University of Nottingham 2370:greed-based explanations 2313:Tanks in the streets of 2267:and the struggle of the 1946:Military science fiction 1431:Technology and equipment 852:List of military tactics 5108:. Vol. 1: Africa. 4913:The Journal of Politics 4878:Gerald., Knaus (2012). 4534:The Journal of Politics 4492:The Journal of Politics 3766:(9): 0022002717721385. 3715:, (Volume II-B, p. 121) 2820:'s Nationalists, bombs 2497:Some scholars, such as 2321:the capital during the 2153:in the 1st century BC. 2014:Wartime sexual violence 1770:Full-spectrum dominance 1581:Supply-chain management 5461:10.1080/10242690210976 5088:(Lynne Rienner, 2000). 4880:Can intervention work? 4723:, pp. 7 & 23. 3557:Hironaka, Ann (2005). 3208: 3191:Effect of the Cold War 3145: 3086: 3000: 2943: 2932: 2829: 2807:smaller fighter planes 2747: 2580: 2418:gross domestic product 2391:greed versus grievance 2326: 2228: 1926:Awards and decorations 1899:Peace through strength 1874:Low-intensity conflict 1508:Conscientious objector 1381:Area of responsibility 115: 100: 5351:Vol. 9, 2003 pp 247+ 4237:CREDIT Research Paper 3811:, pp. 9–10, and 3198: 3131: 3072: 2994: 2941:Nicaraguan Revolution 2938: 2930: 2844:(defined in the 1815 2800: 2737: 2567: 2312: 2218: 2211:Formal classification 518:Torpedo data computer 508:Ship gun fire-control 106: 90: 5166:10.1353/wp.2001.0022 4773:Hironaka, 2005, p. 6 4387:10.1162/REST_a_00046 3711:Final Record of the 3602:. pp. 416–434. 3584:, pp. 1–2, 4–5. 3528:(July/August 2000). 3142:Sri Lankan Civil War 2704:Duration and effects 2685:Salvadoran Civil War 2571:soldiers during the 2551:Political scientist 2221:Battle of Gettysburg 2173:regular armed forces 2044:Military occupations 1879:Military engineering 1781:Unrestricted Warfare 1638:Force multiplication 536:Military manoeuvrers 64:improve this article 54:may not represent a 16:War within a country 5340:Barbara F. Walter, 5306:Monica Duffy Toft, 5282:Stanley G. Payne, 4206:20.500.11850/160115 4072:The Washington Post 3702:. November 26, 2006 3264:end of the Cold War 3003:In sharp contrast, 2953:fragility of states 2814:Legionary Air Force 2774:were recognized as 2689:greed and grievance 2534:Bargaining problems 2445:economic inequality 2407:regression analysis 2323:Ethiopian Civil War 2257:Cambodian Civil War 2236:Stanford University 2189:forced displacement 1730:Penal military unit 1715:Rules of engagement 1391:Command and control 1016:Operations research 480:Director (military) 470:Fire-control system 240:Command and control 121:Part of a series on 5423:". World Politics. 5398:10.1257/jel.48.1.3 5358:2012-06-28 at the 5349:Global Governance, 5292:Patrick M. Regan. 4711:, pp. 1, 4–5. 4273:2018-09-08 at the 3861:2017-07-03 at the 3807:See, for example, 3734:2016-03-22 at the 3695:2021-05-23 at the 3489:2007-03-17 at the 3484:"Iraq's Civil War" 3328:List of civil wars 3209: 3205:Checkpoint Charlie 3146: 3114:invasion of Kuwait 3087: 3083:Lebanese Civil War 3017:British Somaliland 3001: 2944: 2933: 2873:American Civil War 2846:Congress of Vienna 2830: 2748: 2581: 2560:Military advantage 2499:Lars-Erik Cederman 2395:social affiliation 2327: 2300:Geneva Conventions 2294:Nevertheless, the 2288:Geneva Conventions 2229: 2225:American Civil War 1839:Counter-insurgency 1760:Command of the sea 1705:Jewish laws on war 1680:Geneva Conventions 1216:Divide and conquer 1011:Military operation 976:Tactical objective 475:Fire-control radar 452:Electronic-warfare 116: 101: 25:List of civil wars 5303:(2002), 729 pages 5144:978-0-8213-6049-1 5123:978-0-8213-6047-7 5081:(1999), 322 pages 4995:, pp. 48–50. 4983:, pp. 50–51. 4821:, pp. 37–40. 4785:, pp. 59–61. 4663:, pp. 28–29. 3656:978-0-521-85409-2 3363:Legally known as 3248:Kingdom of Greece 3185:Angolan Civil War 3109:international law 3015:, while treating 2986:Sardinia-Piedmont 2881:Spanish Civil War 2826:Spanish Civil War 2744:Finnish Civil War 2674:Political scholar 2577:Chinese Civil War 2553:Barbara F. Walter 2437:per capita income 2249:Correlates of War 2219:Aftermath of the 2117: 2116: 2009:Horses in warfare 1956:Anti-war movement 1859:Gunboat diplomacy 1849:Disaster response 1797:Philosophy of war 1792:Principles of war 1765:Deterrence theory 1710:Right of conquest 1633:Lanchester's laws 1401:Principles of war 1091:Counter-offensive 1076:Military campaign 981:Target saturation 904:Counterinsurgency 513:Gun data computer 447:Close air support 409:Aircraft carriers 113:Spanish Civil War 97:Finnish Civil War 85: 84: 5521: 5473: 5463: 5401: 5337: 5296:(2000) 172 pages 5279: 5250: 5221: 5177: 5148: 5127: 5110:Washington, D.C. 5065: 5064: 5062: 5038: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5005: 4996: 4990: 4984: 4978: 4972: 4971: 4969: 4963:. Archived from 4962: 4953: 4947: 4946: 4928: 4908: 4902: 4901: 4875: 4869: 4868: 4862: 4854: 4828: 4822: 4816: 4810: 4804: 4798: 4792: 4786: 4780: 4774: 4771: 4760: 4754: 4748: 4742: 4736: 4730: 4724: 4718: 4712: 4706: 4700: 4694: 4688: 4682: 4676: 4670: 4664: 4658: 4652: 4646: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4607: 4601: 4600: 4580: 4574: 4573: 4571: 4570: 4564: 4549: 4531: 4522: 4516: 4515: 4488:Satoshi Kanazawa 4484: 4478: 4477: 4457: 4448: 4447: 4445: 4414: 4405: 4399: 4398: 4381:(4): 1035–1041. 4370: 4364: 4363: 4361: 4337: 4331: 4330: 4305:(7): 1242–1272. 4294: 4285: 4264: 4258: 4251: 4245: 4244: 4234: 4225: 4219: 4218: 4208: 4176: 4170: 4169: 4137: 4131: 4130: 4098: 4089: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4062: 4053: 4052: 4026: 4006: 3997: 3994: 3988: 3985: 3979: 3976: 3970: 3967: 3958: 3957: 3923: 3917: 3916: 3876: 3870: 3852: 3846: 3843: 3830: 3827: 3816: 3805: 3799: 3798: 3796: 3757: 3748: 3739: 3722: 3716: 3709: 3703: 3686: 3680: 3679: 3677: 3676: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3591: 3585: 3579: 3573: 3572: 3554: 3541: 3540: 3538: 3537: 3513: 3504: 3477: 3464: 3463: 3461: 3459: 3441: 3407: 3401: 3400: 3392: 3375: 3361: 3279:(1979–1991) and 3155:Patrick M. Regan 2997:Somali Civil War 2901:Francisco Franco 2877:war of attrition 2854:Habsburg Austria 2818:Francisco Franco 2714:Neverending Wars 2651:Satoshi Kanazawa 2573:Battle of Siping 2449:opportunity cost 2265:Northern Ireland 2158:Patrick M. Regan 2109: 2102: 2095: 1864:Humanitarian aid 1802:Security dilemma 1623:Power projection 1406:Economy of force 1386:Chain of command 1101:Defence in depth 1086:Commerce raiding 909:Defeat in detail 245:Defense ministry 149: 140: 139: 130: 118: 80: 77: 71: 47: 46: 39: 5529: 5528: 5524: 5523: 5522: 5520: 5519: 5518: 5499: 5498: 5495:, 20 April 2006 5480: 5441: 5414:Stokes Susan C. 5383: 5368: 5360:Wayback Machine 5334: 5321: 5253: 5224: 5202:10.2307/2082982 5187: 5151: 5145: 5130: 5124: 5098: 5074: 5072:Further reading 5069: 5068: 5040: 5039: 5035: 5007: 5006: 4999: 4991: 4987: 4979: 4975: 4967: 4960: 4955: 4954: 4950: 4926:10.1.1.622.2394 4910: 4909: 4905: 4890: 4877: 4876: 4872: 4855: 4843: 4830: 4829: 4825: 4817: 4813: 4805: 4801: 4793: 4789: 4781: 4777: 4772: 4763: 4755: 4751: 4743: 4739: 4731: 4727: 4719: 4715: 4707: 4703: 4695: 4691: 4683: 4679: 4671: 4667: 4659: 4655: 4647: 4643: 4635: 4631: 4624: 4609: 4608: 4604: 4597: 4582: 4581: 4577: 4568: 4566: 4562: 4547:10.1.1.518.5482 4529: 4524: 4523: 4519: 4486: 4485: 4481: 4459: 4458: 4451: 4443: 4412: 4407: 4406: 4402: 4372: 4371: 4367: 4339: 4338: 4334: 4296: 4295: 4288: 4275:Wayback Machine 4265: 4261: 4252: 4248: 4232: 4227: 4226: 4222: 4178: 4177: 4173: 4139: 4138: 4134: 4100: 4099: 4092: 4082: 4080: 4064: 4063: 4056: 4024:10.1.1.453.3913 4008: 4007: 4000: 3995: 3991: 3986: 3982: 3977: 3973: 3968: 3961: 3925: 3924: 3920: 3878: 3877: 3873: 3863:Wayback Machine 3854:Henrik Urdal – 3853: 3849: 3844: 3833: 3828: 3819: 3806: 3802: 3794: 3755: 3750: 3749: 3742: 3736:Wayback Machine 3723: 3719: 3710: 3706: 3697:Wayback Machine 3687: 3683: 3674: 3672: 3657: 3634: 3633: 3629: 3618: 3593: 3592: 3588: 3580: 3576: 3569: 3556: 3555: 3544: 3535: 3533: 3522:Foreign Affairs 3515: 3514: 3507: 3496:Foreign Affairs 3491:Wayback Machine 3478: 3467: 3457: 3455: 3409: 3408: 3404: 3394: 3393: 3389: 3384: 3379: 3378: 3362: 3358: 3353: 3318:Frozen conflict 3314: 3298: 3289: 3252:Truman Doctrine 3246:, opposing the 3238:, supported by 3232:Greek Civil War 3226:In some cases, 3193: 3176: 3167:Monroe Doctrine 3151: 3104:development aid 2925: 2805:, supported by 2732: 2706: 2681:Yale University 2632: 2615: 2598: 2590: 2588:Population size 2562: 2549: 2536: 2531: 2495: 2483: 2466: 2457: 2387: 2366: 2350: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2244:Stathis Kalyvas 2213: 2113: 2084: 2083: 2034: 2024: 2023: 1989: 1981: 1980: 1921: 1911: 1910: 1884:Multilateralism 1869:Law enforcement 1829: 1819: 1818: 1787:Just war theory 1745: 1735: 1734: 1685:Geneva Protocol 1655: 1645: 1644: 1618: 1608: 1607: 1549: 1539: 1538: 1446: 1436: 1435: 1376: 1366: 1365: 1331: 1321: 1320: 1251:Network-centric 1171: 1161: 1160: 1068: 1058: 1057: 1006: 996: 995: 944:Rapid dominance 849: 839: 838: 794:Electromagnetic 703: 693: 692: 679: 632: 580: 556: 546: 545: 541:Combat training 522: 499: 465:Combat systems: 461: 423: 419:Auxiliary ships 385: 345: 341:Military police 307: 230: 220: 219: 159: 133: 132: 131: 126: 91:Members of the 81: 75: 72: 61: 48: 44: 35: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5527: 5525: 5517: 5516: 5511: 5501: 5500: 5497: 5496: 5486: 5479: 5478:External links 5476: 5475: 5474: 5454:(3): 215–243. 5439: 5424: 5417: 5402: 5381: 5367: 5364: 5363: 5362: 5353:online version 5345: 5338: 5333:978-0593137789 5332: 5319: 5304: 5297: 5290: 5280: 5262:(4): 546–568. 5251: 5233:(5): 515–525. 5222: 5196:(3): 681–690. 5185: 5178: 5154:World Politics 5149: 5143: 5128: 5122: 5114:The World Bank 5096: 5091:Paul Collier, 5089: 5082: 5073: 5070: 5067: 5066: 5033: 5020:(1): 469–486. 4997: 4985: 4973: 4970:on 2012-05-28. 4948: 4935:10.1086/679021 4919:(1): 249–267. 4903: 4888: 4870: 4841: 4823: 4811: 4799: 4787: 4775: 4761: 4749: 4737: 4735:, pp. 36. 4725: 4713: 4701: 4689: 4677: 4665: 4653: 4641: 4629: 4622: 4602: 4595: 4575: 4517: 4479: 4449: 4400: 4365: 4332: 4286: 4259: 4246: 4220: 4191:(3): 478–495. 4171: 4152:(4): 496–525. 4132: 4113:(1): 173–185. 4090: 4054: 3998: 3989: 3980: 3971: 3959: 3918: 3913:10.1086/426881 3897:10.1086/426881 3871: 3847: 3831: 3817: 3800: 3740: 3717: 3704: 3700:New York Times 3681: 3655: 3627: 3617:978-0199566020 3616: 3586: 3574: 3567: 3542: 3505: 3465: 3424:(1): 121–128. 3402: 3386: 3385: 3383: 3380: 3377: 3376: 3369:intrastate war 3355: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3348: 3347: 3342: 3335: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3313: 3310: 3297: 3294: 3288: 3285: 3192: 3189: 3175: 3172: 3150: 3147: 3005:decolonization 2965:United Nations 2924: 2921: 2913:the government 2850:United Kingdom 2780:Ottoman Empire 2731: 2728: 2724:fragile states 2705: 2702: 2677:Elisabeth Wood 2668:women's rights 2631: 2628: 2619:welfare levels 2614: 2611: 2606:Simeon Djankov 2597: 2594: 2589: 2586: 2561: 2558: 2548: 2545: 2541:conflict traps 2535: 2532: 2530: 2527: 2494: 2491: 2482: 2479: 2465: 2462: 2456: 2453: 2386: 2383: 2365: 2362: 2212: 2209: 2115: 2114: 2112: 2111: 2104: 2097: 2089: 2086: 2085: 2082: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2051: 2049:Military terms 2046: 2041: 2035: 2030: 2029: 2026: 2025: 2022: 2021: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1990: 1987: 1986: 1983: 1982: 1979: 1978: 1973: 1968: 1963: 1958: 1953: 1948: 1943: 1938: 1933: 1928: 1922: 1917: 1916: 1913: 1912: 1909: 1908: 1903: 1902: 1901: 1896: 1886: 1881: 1876: 1871: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1830: 1825: 1824: 1821: 1820: 1817: 1816: 1811: 1810: 1809: 1807:Tripwire force 1799: 1794: 1789: 1784: 1777: 1772: 1767: 1762: 1757: 1752: 1746: 1741: 1740: 1737: 1736: 1733: 1732: 1727: 1722: 1717: 1712: 1707: 1702: 1697: 1692: 1687: 1682: 1677: 1672: 1667: 1662: 1656: 1651: 1650: 1647: 1646: 1643: 1642: 1641: 1640: 1630: 1625: 1619: 1614: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1606: 1605: 1604: 1603: 1598: 1593: 1583: 1578: 1577: 1576: 1571: 1561: 1556: 1550: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1537: 1536: 1527: 1522: 1521: 1520: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1459: 1458: 1447: 1442: 1441: 1438: 1437: 1434: 1433: 1428: 1423: 1418: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1383: 1377: 1372: 1371: 1368: 1367: 1364: 1363: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1332: 1329:Administrative 1327: 1326: 1323: 1322: 1319: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1256:New generation 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1231:Fleet in being 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1172: 1169:Grand strategy 1167: 1166: 1163: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1156:Scorched earth 1153: 1148: 1143: 1138: 1133: 1128: 1123: 1118: 1113: 1108: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1069: 1064: 1063: 1060: 1059: 1056: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1033:Deep operation 1030: 1025: 1018: 1013: 1007: 1002: 1001: 998: 997: 994: 993: 988: 983: 978: 973: 968: 963: 962: 961: 951: 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 880: 879: 874: 869: 859: 850: 845: 844: 841: 840: 837: 836: 834:Unconventional 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 782: 780:Disinformation 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 751: 750: 745: 735: 730: 725: 720: 715: 710: 704: 699: 698: 695: 694: 691: 690: 685: 678: 677: 676: 675: 674: 673: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 631: 630: 629: 628: 627: 626: 616: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 579: 578: 577: 576: 571: 566: 557: 552: 551: 548: 547: 544: 543: 538: 533: 531:Basic training 528: 521: 520: 515: 510: 505: 498: 497: 492: 487: 482: 477: 472: 467: 460: 459: 457:Reconnaissance 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 422: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 384: 383: 378: 376:Special forces 373: 368: 367: 366: 356: 351: 344: 343: 338: 333: 331:Reconnaissance 328: 323: 318: 313: 306: 305: 296: 291: 282: 277: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 247: 242: 237: 231: 226: 225: 222: 221: 218: 217: 216: 215: 210: 200: 199: 198: 193: 183: 182: 181: 174:Post-classical 171: 166: 160: 155: 154: 151: 150: 142: 141: 123: 122: 83: 82: 58:of the subject 51: 49: 42: 32:Civil Conflict 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5526: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5506: 5504: 5494: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5481: 5477: 5471: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5440: 5438:(2): 389–407. 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5422: 5418: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5382: 5380: 5379: 5374: 5370: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5329: 5325: 5320: 5317: 5316:0-691-12383-7 5313: 5309: 5305: 5302: 5298: 5295: 5291: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5186: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5150: 5146: 5140: 5136: 5135: 5129: 5125: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5106: 5101: 5100:Collier, Paul 5097: 5094: 5090: 5087: 5083: 5080: 5076: 5075: 5071: 5061: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5037: 5034: 5028: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5004: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4993:Hironaka 2005 4989: 4986: 4982: 4981:Hironaka 2005 4977: 4974: 4966: 4959: 4952: 4949: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4907: 4904: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4889:9780393342246 4885: 4881: 4874: 4871: 4866: 4860: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4842:9780691136714 4838: 4834: 4827: 4824: 4820: 4819:Hironaka 2005 4815: 4812: 4809:, p. 16. 4808: 4807:Hironaka 2005 4803: 4800: 4797:, p. 56. 4796: 4795:Hironaka 2005 4791: 4788: 4784: 4783:Hironaka 2005 4779: 4776: 4770: 4768: 4766: 4762: 4759:, p. 54. 4758: 4757:Hironaka 2005 4753: 4750: 4747:, p. 40. 4746: 4745:Hironaka 2005 4741: 4738: 4734: 4733:Hironaka 2005 4729: 4726: 4722: 4721:Hironaka 2005 4717: 4714: 4710: 4709:Hironaka 2005 4705: 4702: 4699:, p. 31. 4698: 4697:Hironaka 2005 4693: 4690: 4687:, p. 30. 4686: 4685:Hironaka 2005 4681: 4678: 4675:, p. 29. 4674: 4673:Hironaka 2005 4669: 4666: 4662: 4661:Hironaka 2005 4657: 4654: 4650: 4649:Hironaka 2005 4645: 4642: 4639:, p. 28. 4638: 4637:Hironaka 2005 4633: 4630: 4625: 4623:9780521010504 4619: 4615: 4614: 4606: 4603: 4598: 4596:9780521010504 4592: 4588: 4587: 4579: 4576: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4528: 4521: 4518: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4483: 4480: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4456: 4454: 4450: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4411: 4404: 4401: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4369: 4366: 4360: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4336: 4333: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4293: 4291: 4287: 4284:(3), 737–759. 4283: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4269: 4263: 4260: 4256: 4250: 4247: 4242: 4238: 4231: 4224: 4221: 4216: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4175: 4172: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4136: 4133: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4097: 4095: 4091: 4078: 4074: 4073: 4068: 4061: 4059: 4055: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4005: 4003: 3999: 3993: 3990: 3984: 3981: 3975: 3972: 3966: 3964: 3960: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3934: 3929: 3922: 3919: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3891:(1): 93–123. 3890: 3886: 3882: 3875: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3857: 3851: 3848: 3842: 3840: 3838: 3836: 3832: 3826: 3824: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3813:Collier, Paul 3810: 3809:Hironaka 2005 3804: 3801: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3754: 3747: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3730: 3727: 3724:See also the 3721: 3718: 3714: 3708: 3705: 3701: 3698: 3694: 3691: 3688:Edward Wong, 3685: 3682: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3639: 3631: 3628: 3623: 3619: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3590: 3587: 3583: 3582:Hironaka 2005 3578: 3575: 3570: 3568:0-674-01532-0 3564: 3560: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3543: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3512: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3497: 3492: 3488: 3485: 3481: 3476: 3474: 3472: 3470: 3466: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3440: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3418: 3413: 3406: 3403: 3398: 3391: 3388: 3381: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3360: 3357: 3350: 3346: 3343: 3341: 3340: 3336: 3334: 3331: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3316: 3315: 3311: 3309: 3307: 3306:conflict trap 3303: 3295: 3293: 3286: 3284: 3283:(1970–1990). 3282: 3278: 3275:(1960–1996), 3274: 3269: 3265: 3259: 3257: 3256:Marshall Plan 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3224: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3180: 3173: 3171: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3148: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3130: 3126: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3101: 3100: 3095: 3094: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3071: 3067: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3031: 3027: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 2998: 2993: 2989: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2970:Charles Tilly 2966: 2960: 2956: 2954: 2950: 2942: 2937: 2929: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2869: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2788:Massachusetts 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2772:Barbary Coast 2769: 2765: 2760: 2758: 2754: 2753:Paris Commune 2745: 2742:" during the 2741: 2736: 2729: 2727: 2725: 2720: 2716: 2715: 2710: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2695: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2675: 2671: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2656: 2652: 2649: 2645: 2642: 2638: 2629: 2627: 2624: 2623:colonial rule 2620: 2612: 2610: 2607: 2603: 2595: 2593: 2587: 2585: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2559: 2557: 2554: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2533: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2492: 2490: 2487: 2481:Opportunities 2480: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2463: 2461: 2454: 2452: 2450: 2446: 2441: 2438: 2433: 2431: 2426: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2410: 2408: 2403: 2398: 2396: 2392: 2384: 2382: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2355: 2352: 2348: 2345: 2342: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2324: 2320: 2317:after rebels 2316: 2311: 2307: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2292: 2289: 2284: 2280: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2226: 2222: 2217: 2210: 2208: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2180: 2178: 2174: 2169: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2154: 2152: 2148: 2147: 2146:bellum civile 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2110: 2105: 2103: 2098: 2096: 2091: 2090: 2088: 2087: 2080: 2077: 2075: 2072: 2070: 2067: 2065: 2062: 2060: 2057: 2055: 2052: 2050: 2047: 2045: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2036: 2033: 2028: 2027: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2012: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1991: 1985: 1984: 1977: 1974: 1972: 1969: 1967: 1964: 1962: 1959: 1957: 1954: 1952: 1949: 1947: 1944: 1942: 1939: 1937: 1936:Warrior caste 1934: 1932: 1929: 1927: 1924: 1923: 1920: 1915: 1914: 1907: 1906:Show of force 1904: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1894:Peacebuilding 1892: 1891: 1890: 1887: 1885: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1857: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1831: 1828: 1823: 1822: 1815: 1812: 1808: 1805: 1804: 1803: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1785: 1783: 1782: 1778: 1776: 1773: 1771: 1768: 1766: 1763: 1761: 1758: 1756: 1753: 1751: 1750:Air supremacy 1748: 1747: 1744: 1739: 1738: 1731: 1728: 1726: 1723: 1721: 1718: 1716: 1713: 1711: 1708: 1706: 1703: 1701: 1698: 1696: 1693: 1691: 1690:Islamic rules 1688: 1686: 1683: 1681: 1678: 1676: 1673: 1671: 1670:Court-martial 1668: 1666: 1663: 1661: 1658: 1657: 1654: 1649: 1648: 1639: 1636: 1635: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1621: 1620: 1617: 1612: 1611: 1602: 1599: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1588: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1579: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1569:Arms industry 1567: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1548: 1543: 1542: 1535: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1519: 1516: 1515: 1514: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1499: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1489: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1474: 1471: 1469: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1457: 1454: 1453: 1452: 1449: 1448: 1445: 1440: 1439: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1378: 1375: 1370: 1369: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1333: 1330: 1325: 1324: 1317: 1314: 1312: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1186:Broken-backed 1184: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1173: 1170: 1165: 1164: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1073: 1072: 1067: 1062: 1061: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1039: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1028:Expeditionary 1026: 1024: 1023: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1000: 999: 992: 989: 987: 984: 982: 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 964: 960: 957: 956: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 942: 940: 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 899:Counterattack 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 878: 875: 873: 870: 868: 865: 864: 863: 860: 858: 855: 854: 853: 848: 843: 842: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 824:Psychological 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 786: 783: 781: 778: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 760:Combined arms 758: 756: 753: 749: 746: 744: 741: 740: 739: 736: 734: 731: 729: 726: 724: 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 709: 706: 705: 702: 697: 696: 689: 686: 684: 681: 680: 672: 669: 668: 667: 664: 662: 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 647: 644: 642: 639: 638: 637: 634: 633: 625: 622: 621: 620: 617: 615: 612: 610: 607: 605: 602: 600: 599:Fortification 597: 595: 592: 590: 587: 586: 585: 582: 581: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 562: 561: 559: 558: 555: 550: 549: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 523: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 500: 496: 493: 491: 488: 486: 483: 481: 478: 476: 473: 471: 468: 466: 463: 462: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 424: 420: 417: 415: 414:Landing craft 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 386: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 369: 365: 362: 361: 360: 357: 355: 352: 350: 347: 346: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 308: 304: 300: 299:Standing army 297: 295: 292: 290: 286: 283: 281: 278: 276: 273: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 253: 251: 248: 246: 243: 241: 238: 236: 233: 232: 229: 224: 223: 214: 211: 209: 206: 205: 204: 201: 197: 194: 192: 191:pike and shot 189: 188: 187: 184: 180: 177: 176: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 161: 158: 153: 152: 148: 144: 143: 137: 129: 124: 120: 119: 114: 110: 105: 98: 94: 89: 79: 69: 65: 59: 57: 50: 41: 40: 37: 33: 26: 22: 5514:Wars by type 5451: 5447: 5435: 5431: 5408:, edited by 5405: 5389: 5385: 5376: 5348: 5341: 5323: 5307: 5300: 5293: 5283: 5259: 5255: 5230: 5226: 5193: 5189: 5181: 5157: 5153: 5133: 5104: 5092: 5085: 5078: 5050: 5046: 5036: 5017: 5013: 4988: 4976: 4965:the original 4951: 4916: 4912: 4906: 4879: 4873: 4832: 4826: 4814: 4802: 4790: 4778: 4752: 4740: 4728: 4716: 4704: 4692: 4680: 4668: 4656: 4651:, p. 1. 4644: 4632: 4612: 4605: 4585: 4578: 4567:. Retrieved 4537: 4533: 4520: 4495: 4491: 4482: 4465: 4461: 4420: 4416: 4403: 4378: 4374: 4368: 4349: 4345: 4335: 4302: 4298: 4281: 4278: 4262: 4254: 4249: 4240: 4236: 4223: 4188: 4184: 4174: 4149: 4145: 4135: 4110: 4106: 4081:. Retrieved 4070: 4017:(1): 75–90. 4014: 4010: 3992: 3983: 3974: 3940:(1): 35–50. 3937: 3931: 3921: 3888: 3884: 3874: 3866: 3850: 3803: 3763: 3759: 3720: 3707: 3699: 3684: 3673:. Retrieved 3637: 3630: 3599: 3596:"Civil Wars" 3589: 3577: 3558: 3534:. Retrieved 3525: 3521: 3494: 3480:James Fearon 3456:. Retrieved 3421: 3415: 3405: 3396: 3390: 3368: 3364: 3359: 3337: 3299: 3290: 3260: 3244:Soviet Union 3225: 3210: 3181: 3177: 3163:great powers 3158: 3157:in his book 3152: 3144:(1983–2009). 3097: 3091: 3088: 3081:, 1982. The 3002: 2961: 2957: 2949:World War II 2945: 2909:Soviet Union 2884: 2870: 2842:Great Powers 2831: 2816:, allied to 2775: 2761: 2749: 2719:World War II 2712: 2711:, author of 2709:Ann Hironaka 2707: 2672: 2646: 2639:of whatever 2637:depreciation 2633: 2616: 2599: 2591: 2582: 2550: 2537: 2529:Other causes 2522: 2516: 2506: 2496: 2488: 2484: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2458: 2442: 2434: 2427: 2411: 2399: 2388: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2367: 2359: 2356: 2353: 2349: 2346: 2343: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2293: 2285: 2281: 2277:South Africa 2261:The Troubles 2232:James Fearon 2230: 2181: 2170: 2166:World War II 2161: 2160:in his book 2155: 2144: 2137:independence 2120: 2118: 2019:Fifth column 1999:War resister 1994:Women in war 1889:Peacekeeping 1834:Arms control 1779: 1468:Mobilization 1463:Conscription 1421:Intelligence 1374:Organization 1020: 949:Encirclement 829:Radiological 765:Conventional 619:Subterranean 526:Development: 525: 502: 464: 426: 389:Naval units: 388: 381:Signal corps 348: 326:Intelligence 311:Specialties: 310: 235:Organization 186:Early modern 73: 53: 36: 5410:Boix Carles 5053:: 361–377. 4540:: 265–270. 4352:: 215–238. 4257:1: 385–472. 3373:war studies 3277:El Salvador 3268:Berlin Wall 3228:superpowers 3217:Warsaw Pact 3201:Berlin Wall 2828:(1936–1939) 2824:during the 2764:sovereignty 2698:El Salvador 2414:commodities 2315:Addis Ababa 2199:(Myanmar), 2004:War studies 1827:Non-warfare 1755:Appeasement 1720:Martial law 1559:War economy 1498:Transgender 1451:Recruitment 1211:Containment 1096:Culminating 1004:Operational 924:Envelopment 867:Air assault 748:Air cavalry 708:Air defence 688:Information 589:Cold-region 554:Battlespace 503:Historical: 349:Land units: 275:Space force 270:Coast guard 203:Late modern 164:Prehistoric 95:during the 5509:Civil wars 5503:Categories 5160:: 99–118. 4569:2017-10-24 3729:commentary 3675:2021-11-09 3536:2015-11-06 3382:References 3323:Insurgency 3240:Yugoslavia 3134:rebel LTTE 3122:Somaliland 3079:US Marines 3026:corruption 2923:Since 1945 2911:supported 2834:monarchism 2613:Inequality 2547:Governance 2402:World Bank 2177:casualties 2064:War crimes 2054:Operations 1961:Foot drill 1931:Battle cry 1844:deterrence 1503:Harassment 1478:Specialism 1301:Technology 1296:Succession 1241:Liberation 1176:Asymmetric 1111:Empty fort 1022:Blitzkrieg 991:Withdrawal 954:Investment 733:Camouflage 728:Biological 666:Underwater 641:Amphibious 560:Aerospace 427:Air units: 404:Submarines 213:fourth-gen 208:industrial 196:napoleonic 109:Granollers 93:Red Guards 5470:153678074 5326:. Crown. 5276:155874771 5247:145668725 5218:144717008 5174:144164335 4943:220454361 4921:CiteSeerX 4898:916002160 4859:cite book 4851:785583130 4542:CiteSeerX 4498:: 25–34. 4468:: 56–79. 4423:: 45–66. 4327:154632359 4319:0022-0027 4215:0003-0554 4166:0022-0027 4127:0003-0554 4019:CiteSeerX 3954:0022-3433 3905:0022-2186 3788:149212588 3780:0022-0027 3458:5 January 3439:2160/1963 3287:Post-2003 3281:Nicaragua 3273:Guatemala 3138:Sri Lanka 3077:army and 3052:Argentina 3013:Sri Lanka 2917:proxy war 2838:democracy 2569:Communist 2455:Grievance 2430:diasporas 2422:petroleum 2273:Apartheid 2143:of Latin 2121:civil war 1951:War novel 1854:Grey-zone 1814:War games 1775:Overmatch 1725:War crime 1675:Desertion 1665:Ceasefire 1660:Armistice 1547:Logistics 1525:Mercenary 1513:Volunteer 1444:Personnel 1416:Engineers 1361:Sociology 1316:World war 1311:Total war 1291:Strategic 1281:Religious 1266:Political 1261:Perpetual 1236:Irregular 1151:Offensive 1126:Defensive 1121:Deception 1081:Attrition 934:Guerrilla 929:Formation 872:Airbridge 804:Loitering 718:Artillery 371:Artillery 321:Engineers 289:Irregular 260:Air force 68:talk page 56:full view 5493:BBC News 5392:: 3–57. 5356:Archived 4560:Archived 4441:Archived 4395:18168622 4271:Archived 4243:(8): 29. 4083:15 April 4077:Archived 3859:Archived 3792:Archived 3732:Archived 3693:Archived 3669:Archived 3665:14897960 3622:Archived 3530:Archived 3487:Archived 3452:Archived 3448:56449614 3312:See also 3254:and the 3242:and the 3213:Cold War 3099:de facto 3075:Lebanese 3048:fragile" 3039:Malaysia 3030:nepotism 2907:and the 2903:, while 2897:Portugal 2784:Virginia 2776:de facto 2664:misogyny 2660:polygamy 2655:polygyny 2185:Cold War 1966:War song 1941:War film 1574:Materiel 1493:Children 1473:Training 1411:Medicine 1396:Doctrine 1351:Training 1286:Resource 1271:Princely 1221:Economic 1206:Conquest 1201:Colonial 1196:Cold war 1181:Blockade 1066:Strategy 1038:Maneuver 799:Infantry 755:Chemical 609:Mountain 569:Airborne 432:Fighters 399:Warships 354:Infantry 280:Reserves 228:Military 76:May 2019 5210:2082982 4512:1492307 4437:3460450 4049:8303905 4041:3118222 3867:un.org. 3296:Effects 3093:de jure 3021:Belgium 2999:(1993). 2982:Prussia 2974:Germany 2889:Germany 2858:Prussia 2848:as the 2811:Italian 2790:in the 2770:of the 2768:pirates 2641:capital 2602:poverty 2596:Poverty 2193:Somalia 2133:country 2079:Writers 2074:Weapons 2039:Battles 1988:Related 1976:Wargame 1971:Uniform 1919:Culture 1700:Perfidy 1695:Justice 1616:Science 1601:Outpost 1554:History 1534:Warrior 1530:Soldier 1518:foreign 1456:counter 1356:Service 1306:Theater 1246:Limited 1226:Endemic 1141:Nuclear 914:Foxhole 889:Cavalry 877:Airdrop 862:Airlift 847:Tactics 819:Nuclear 809:Missile 738:Cavalry 723:Barrage 701:Weapons 661:Surface 442:Command 437:Bombers 394:Frogman 364:Cavalry 336:Medical 303:Militia 285:Regular 265:Marines 179:castles 169:Ancient 157:History 136:outline 99:of 1918 62:Please 5468: 5330: 5314: 5288:online 5274: 5245: 5216: 5208: 5172: 5141: 5120: 4941: 4923: 4896: 4886: 4849: 4839: 4620: 4593: 4544: 4510: 4435: 4393: 4325: 4317: 4213: 4164: 4125: 4047: 4039: 4021: 3952: 3911: 3903: 3786: 3778: 3663: 3653: 3614: 3565: 3446: 3207:(1990) 3064:Israel 3056:Brazil 3043:Angola 3035:Uganda 2905:France 2895:, and 2866:Russia 2864:, and 2862:France 2822:Madrid 2746:, 1918 2740:Whites 2579:, 1946 2364:Causes 2325:(1991) 2319:seized 2227:, 1863 2205:Angola 2201:Uganda 2141:calque 2059:Sieges 1743:Theory 1483:Morale 1341:Policy 1336:Branch 1116:Mosaic 1106:Fabian 1053:Covert 986:Trench 971:Screen 894:Charge 884:Battle 857:Aerial 775:Denial 743:Horses 671:Seabed 624:Tunnel 604:Jungle 594:Desert 564:Aerial 5466:S2CID 5272:S2CID 5243:S2CID 5214:S2CID 5206:JSTOR 5170:S2CID 4968:(PDF) 4961:(PDF) 4939:S2CID 4563:(PDF) 4530:(PDF) 4508:S2CID 4444:(PDF) 4433:S2CID 4413:(PDF) 4391:S2CID 4323:S2CID 4233:(PDF) 4045:S2CID 4037:JSTOR 3909:JSTOR 3795:(PDF) 3784:S2CID 3756:(PDF) 3661:S2CID 3444:S2CID 3351:Notes 3060:Egypt 3009:India 2978:Italy 2915:(see 2893:Italy 2809:, of 2803:plane 2757:Paris 2679:from 2385:Greed 2275:-era 2240:state 2197:Burma 2129:state 2123:is a 2032:Lists 1488:Women 1426:Ranks 1346:Staff 1276:Proxy 1191:Class 1146:Naval 1131:Depth 966:Swarm 959:Siege 939:Naval 919:Drone 814:Music 789:Robot 785:Drone 770:Cyber 713:Armor 683:Cyber 656:Green 651:Brown 614:Urban 574:Space 495:Radar 490:Sonar 359:Armor 316:Staff 294:Ranks 5328:ISBN 5312:ISBN 5139:ISBN 5118:ISBN 4894:OCLC 4884:ISBN 4865:link 4847:OCLC 4837:ISBN 4618:ISBN 4591:ISBN 4315:ISSN 4211:ISSN 4162:ISSN 4123:ISSN 4085:2021 3950:ISSN 3901:ISSN 3776:ISSN 3651:ISBN 3612:ISBN 3563:ISBN 3460:2017 3219:and 3211:The 3118:Iraq 3062:and 3054:and 3041:and 3028:and 3011:and 2984:and 2976:and 2885:both 2836:and 2786:and 2630:Time 2304:ICRC 2286:The 2255:and 2203:and 2131:(or 2069:Wars 1586:Base 1136:Goal 1048:Raid 646:Blue 584:Land 255:Navy 250:Army 23:and 5456:doi 5430:". 5394:doi 5375:". 5264:doi 5235:doi 5198:doi 5162:doi 5055:doi 5022:doi 4931:doi 4552:doi 4500:doi 4470:doi 4425:doi 4383:doi 4354:doi 4307:doi 4277:". 4201:hdl 4193:doi 4189:105 4154:doi 4115:doi 4111:101 4029:doi 3942:doi 3893:doi 3768:doi 3643:doi 3604:doi 3493:in 3434:hdl 3426:doi 3371:in 3302:GDP 3203:at 3136:in 3116:by 2919:). 2271:in 2263:of 2125:war 1653:Law 1596:FOB 1591:MOB 636:Sea 128:War 5505:: 5491:, 5464:. 5452:13 5450:. 5446:. 5434:. 5412:, 5390:48 5388:. 5270:. 5260:40 5258:. 5241:. 5231:39 5229:. 5212:. 5204:. 5194:89 5192:. 5168:. 5158:54 5156:. 5116:. 5112:: 5051:22 5049:. 5045:. 5018:20 5016:. 5012:. 5000:^ 4937:. 4929:. 4917:77 4915:. 4892:. 4861:}} 4857:{{ 4845:. 4764:^ 4558:. 4550:. 4538:73 4536:. 4532:. 4506:. 4496:71 4494:. 4466:32 4464:. 4452:^ 4439:. 4431:. 4421:33 4419:. 4415:. 4389:. 4379:92 4377:. 4350:21 4348:. 4344:. 4321:. 4313:. 4303:59 4301:. 4289:^ 4282:53 4241:09 4239:. 4235:. 4209:. 4199:. 4187:. 4183:. 4160:. 4150:53 4148:. 4144:. 4121:. 4109:. 4105:. 4093:^ 4075:. 4069:. 4057:^ 4043:. 4035:. 4027:. 4015:97 4013:. 4001:^ 3962:^ 3948:. 3938:51 3936:. 3930:. 3907:. 3899:. 3889:48 3887:. 3883:. 3865:– 3834:^ 3820:^ 3790:. 3782:. 3774:. 3764:61 3762:. 3758:. 3743:^ 3667:. 3659:. 3649:. 3620:. 3610:. 3598:. 3545:^ 3526:79 3524:. 3520:. 3508:^ 3482:, 3468:^ 3450:. 3442:. 3432:. 3422:42 3420:. 3414:. 3258:. 3223:. 3037:, 2891:, 2860:, 2856:, 2852:, 2801:A 2726:. 2575:, 2279:. 2242:. 2223:, 2195:, 2119:A 1532:/ 787:/ 301:/ 287:/ 5472:. 5458:: 5436:1 5400:. 5396:: 5336:. 5318:. 5278:. 5266:: 5249:. 5237:: 5220:. 5200:: 5176:. 5164:: 5147:. 5126:. 5063:. 5057:: 5030:. 5024:: 4945:. 4933:: 4900:. 4867:) 4853:. 4626:. 4599:. 4572:. 4554:: 4514:. 4502:: 4476:. 4472:: 4427:: 4397:. 4385:: 4362:. 4356:: 4329:. 4309:: 4217:. 4203:: 4195:: 4168:. 4156:: 4129:. 4117:: 4087:. 4051:. 4031:: 3956:. 3944:: 3915:. 3895:: 3770:: 3678:. 3645:: 3606:: 3571:. 3539:. 3503:. 3462:. 3436:: 3428:: 2108:e 2101:t 2094:v 138:) 134:( 78:) 74:( 70:. 60:. 34:. 27:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index