Civil war - Knowledge (XXG)

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it makes little sense to test hypotheses relating national ethnic diversity to civil war outbreak without any explicit reference to how many different ethnic groups actually hold power in the state. This suggests that ethnic, linguistic and religious cleavages can matter, depending on the extent to which the various groups have ability and influence to mobilize on either side of a forming conflict. Themes explored in Cederman's later work criticizing the use of ethnic fractionalization measures as input variables to predict civil war outbreak relate to these indices not accounting for the geographical distribution of ethnic groups within countries, as this can affect their access to regional resources and commodities, which in turn can lead to conflict. A third theme explored by Cederman is that ethnolinguistic fractionalization does not quantify the extent to which there is pre-existing economic inequality between ethnic groups within countries. In a 2011 article, Cederman and fellow researchers describe finding that “in highly unequal societies, both rich and poor groups fight more often than those groups whose wealth lies closer to the country average”, going against the opportunity-based explanation for civil war outbreak.

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ethnic group comprises a majority of the population, increased the risk of civil war. A country characterized by ethnic dominance has nearly twice the chance of a civil war. However, the combined effects of ethnic and religious fractionalization, i.e. the greater chance that any two randomly chosen people will be from separate ethnic or religious groups, the less chance of a civil war, were also significant and positive, as long as the country avoided ethnic dominance. The study interpreted this as stating that minority groups are more likely to rebel if they feel that they are being dominated, but that rebellions are more likely to occur the more homogeneous the population and thus more cohesive the rebels. These two factors may thus be seen as mitigating each other in many cases.

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other scholars disagree. Knaus and Stewart are extremely skeptical as to the effectiveness of interventions, holding that they can only work when they are performed with extreme caution and sensitivity to context, a strategy they label 'principled incrementalism'. Few interventions, for them, have demonstrated such an approach. Other scholars offer more specific criticisms; Dube and Naidu, for instance, show that US military aid, a less conventional form of intervention, seems to be siphoned off to paramilitaries thus exacerbating violence. Weinstein holds more generally that interventions might disrupt processes of 'autonomous recovery' whereby civil war contributes to state-building.

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Walter argues that when these issues are properly reversed, they act as political and legal restraints on executive power forcing the established government to better serve the people. Additionally, these political and legal restraints create a standardized avenue to influence government and increase the commitment credibility of established peace treaties. It is the strength of a nation's institutionalization and good governance—not the presence of democracy nor the poverty level—that is the number one indicator of the chance of a repeat civil war, according to Walter.

2939: 3172:(2000) about 2/3rds of the 138 intrastate conflicts between the end of World War II and 2000 saw international intervention, with the United States intervening in 35 of these conflicts. While intervention has been practiced since the international system has existed, its nature changed substantially. It became common for both the state and opposition group to receive foreign support, allowing wars to continue well past the point when domestic resources had been exhausted. Superpowers, such as the European 99: 2536:, which tested numerous variables for their relationship to civil war outbreak with different datasets, including that utilized by Fearon and Laitin. Bleaney concluded that neither ethnoreligious diversity, as measured by fractionalization, nor another variable, ethnic polarization, defined as the extent to which individuals in a population are distributed across different ethnic groups, were "a sufficient measure of diversity as it affects the probability of conflict." 2321: 2999:, respectively. The Western process of forming effective and impersonal bureaucracies, developing efficient tax systems, and integrating national territory continued into the 20th century. Nevertheless, Western states that survived into the latter half of the 20th century were considered "strong" by simple reason that they had managed to develop the institutional structures and military capability required to survive predation by their fellow states. 3081: 2947: 2746: 2728:, divides the modern history of civil wars into the pre-19th century, 19th century to early 20th century, and late 20th century. In 19th-century Europe, the length of civil wars fell significantly, largely due to the nature of the conflicts as battles for the power center of the state, the strength of centralized governments, and the normally quick and decisive intervention by other states to support the government. Following 2451:

civil war of about 1%. The study interpreted these three factors as proxies for earnings forgone by rebellion, and therefore that lower forgone earnings encourage rebellion. Phrased another way: young males (who make up the vast majority of combatants in civil wars) are less likely to join a rebellion if they are getting an education or have a comfortable salary, and can reasonably assume that they will prosper in the future.

2809: 2313:, noting that the Conventions are "so general, so vague, that many of the delegations feared that it might be taken to cover any act committed by force of arms". Accordingly, the commentaries provide for different 'conditions' on which the application of the Geneva Convention would depend; the commentary, however, points out that these should not be interpreted as rigid conditions. The conditions listed by the 3207: 2227: 2851:, led to several civil wars. However, a bi-polar world, divided between the two ideologies, did not develop, largely due to the dominance of monarchists through most of the period. The monarchists would thus normally intervene in other countries to stop democratic movements taking control and forming democratic governments, which were seen by monarchists as being both dangerous and unpredictable. The 2576: 56: 2436:

commodity. The authors of the study interpreted this as being the result of the ease by which primary commodities may be extorted or captured compared to other forms of wealth; for example, it is easy to capture and control the output of a gold mine or oil field compared to a sector of garment manufacturing or hospitality services.

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The effectiveness of intervention is widely debated, in part because the data suffers from selection bias; as Fortna has argued, peacekeepers select themselves into difficult cases. When controlling for this effect, Forta holds that peacekeeping is resoundingly successful in shortening wars. However,

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High levels of population dispersion and, to a lesser extent, the presence of mountainous terrain, increased the chance of conflict. Both of these factors favor rebels, as a population dispersed outward toward the borders is harder to control than one concentrated in a central region, while mountains

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used by Fearon, Laitin and other political scientists is flawed. ELF, Cederman states, measures diversity on a country's population-wide level and makes no attempt to determine the number of ethnic groups in relation to what role they play in the power of the state and its military. Cederman believes

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Using a separate statistical evaluation than used above for interventions, civil wars that included pro- or anti-communist forces lasted 141% longer than the average non-Cold War conflict, while a Cold War civil war that attracted superpower intervention resulted in wars typically lasting over three

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and an official economic policy, they were in actuality far weaker than the Western states they were modeled after. In Western states, the structure of governments closely matched states' actual capabilities, which had been arduously developed over centuries. The development of strong administrative

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In a state torn by civil war, the contesting powers often do not have the ability to commit or the trust to believe in the other side's commitment to put an end to war. When considering a peace agreement, the involved parties are aware of the high incentives to withdraw once one of them has taken an

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James Fearon and David Laitin find that ethnic and religious diversity does not make civil war more likely. They instead find that factors that make it easier for rebels to recruit foot soldiers and sustain insurgencies, such as "poverty—which marks financially & bureaucratically weak states and

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and economic growth rate all had significant effects on reducing the chance of civil war. Specifically, a male secondary school enrollment 10% above the average reduced the chance of a conflict by about 3%, while a growth rate 1% higher than the study average resulted in a decline in the chance of a

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Civil wars since the end of World War II have lasted on average just over four years, a dramatic rise from the one-and-a-half-year average of the 1900–1944 period. While the rate of emergence of new civil wars has been relatively steady since the mid-19th century, the increasing length of those wars

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According to Barbara F. Walter, post-2003 civil wars are different from previous civil wars in that most are situated in Muslim-majority countries; most of the rebel groups espouse radical Islamist ideas and goals; and most of these radical groups pursue transnational rather than national aims. She

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the rebellion was fought over and thus increase the opportunity cost of restarting the conflict. Alternatively, elapsed time may represent the gradual process of healing of old hatreds. The study found that the presence of a diaspora substantially reduced the positive effect of time, as the funding

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David Keen, a professor at the Development Studies Institute at the London School of Economics is one of the major critics of greed vs. grievance theory, defined primarily by Paul Collier, and argues the point that a conflict, although he cannot define it, cannot be pinpointed to simply one motive.

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suggests that most contemporary civil wars are actually repeats of earlier civil wars that often arise when leaders are not accountable to the public, when there is poor public participation in politics, and when there is a lack of transparency of information between the executives and the public.

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Most proxies for "grievance"—the theory that civil wars begin because of issues of identity, rather than economics—were statistically insignificant, including economic equality, political rights, ethnic polarization and religious fractionalization. Only ethnic dominance, the case where the largest

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may be included. Neither did imperial powers make territorial integration a priority, and may have discouraged nascent nationalism as a danger to their rule. Many newly independent states thus found themselves impoverished, with minimal administrative capacity in a fragmented society, while faced

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Following World War II, the major European powers divested themselves of their colonies at an increasing rate: the number of ex-colonial states jumped from about 30 to almost 120 after the war. The rate of state formation leveled off in the 1980s, at which point few colonies remained. More states

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Civil wars in the 19th century and in the early 20th century tended to be short; civil wars between 1900 and 1944 lasted on average one and a half years. The state itself formed the obvious center of authority in the majority of cases, and the civil wars were thus fought for control of the state.

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defines civil war as "armed combat taking place within the boundaries of a recognized sovereign entity between parties that are subject to a common authority at the outset of the hostilities." The intensity at which a civil disturbance becomes a civil war is contested by academics. Some political

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On average, a civil war with interstate intervention was 300% longer than those without. When disaggregated, a civil war with intervention on only one side is 156% longer, while when intervention occurs on both sides the average civil war is longer by an additional 92%. If one of the intervening

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in diplomatic recognition limbo. While there is not a large body of academic work examining the relationship, Hironaka's statistical study found a correlation that suggests that every major international anti-secessionist declaration increased the number of ongoing civil wars by +10%, or a total

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This meant that whoever had control of the capital and the military could normally crush resistance. A rebellion which failed to quickly seize the capital and control of the military for itself normally found itself doomed to rapid destruction. For example, the fighting associated with the 1871

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regime and norms against territorial aggression is strongly associated with the dramatic drop in the number of interstate wars, though it has also been attributed to the effect of the Cold War or to the changing nature of economic development. Consequently, military aggression that results in

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and non-petroleum groupings showed different results: a country with relatively low levels of dependence on petroleum exports is at slightly less risk, while a high level of dependence on oil as an export results in slightly more risk of a civil war than national dependence on another primary

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Historically, the international community would have targeted weak states for territorial absorption or colonial domination or, alternatively, such states would fragment into pieces small enough to be effectively administered and secured by a local power. However, international norms towards

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Beyond Keen, several other authors have introduced works that either disprove greed vs. grievance theory with empirical data, or dismiss its ultimate conclusion. Authors such as Cristina Bodea and Ibrahim Elbadawi, who co-wrote the entry, "Riots, coups and civil war: Revisiting the greed and

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Based on the 1,000-casualties-per-year criterion, there were 213 civil wars from 1816 to 1997, 104 of which occurred from 1944 to 1997. If one uses the less-stringent 1,000 casualties total criterion, there were over 90 civil wars between 1945 and 2007, with 20 ongoing civil wars as of 2007.

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to favor a particular interest group. In such a situation, factions manipulate the state to benefit themselves or, alternatively, state leaders use the bureaucracy to further their own self-interest. The lack of credible governance was compounded by the fact that most colonies were economic

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prohibited any self-government up until it suddenly granted independence to its colonies in 1960. Like Western states of previous centuries, the new ex-colonies lacked autonomous bureaucracies, which would make decisions based on the benefit to society as a whole, rather than respond to

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and Marta Reynal-Querol argue that the correlation is spurious, and that lower income and heightened conflict are instead products of other phenomena. In contrast, a study by Alex Braithwaite and colleagues showed systematic evidence of "a causal arrow running from poverty to conflict".

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He believes that conflicts are much more complex and thus should not be analyzed through simplified methods. He disagrees with the quantitative research methods of Collier and believes a stronger emphasis should be put on personal data and human perspective of the people in conflict.

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which center on factors that make it easier to engage in violent mobilization. According to the study, the most influential explanation for civil war onset is the opportunity-based explanation by James Fearon and David Laitin in their 2003 American Political Science Review article.

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grievance debate", argue that empirical data can disprove many of the proponents of greed theory and make the idea "irrelevant". They examine a myriad of factors and conclude that too many factors come into play with conflict, which cannot be confined to simply greed or grievance.

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do not specifically define the term "civil war"; nevertheless, they do outline the responsibilities of parties in "armed conflict not of an international character". This includes civil wars; however, no specific definition of civil war is provided in the text of the Conventions.

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In the 1990s, about twenty civil wars were occurring concurrently during an average year, a rate about ten times the historical average since the 19th century. However, the rate of new civil wars had not increased appreciably; the drastic rise in the number of ongoing wars after

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in the early 21st century. The study framework, which came to be called the Collier–Hoeffler Model, examined 78 five-year increments when civil war occurred from 1960 to 1999, as well as 1,167 five-year increments of "no civil war" for comparison, and subjected the data set to

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action that weakens their military, political or economical power. Commitment problems may deter a lasting peace agreement as the powers in question are aware that neither of them is able to commit to their end of the bargain in the future. States are often unable to escape

2408:, or do conflicts begin because it is in the economic best interests of individuals and groups to start them? Scholarly analysis supports the conclusion that economic and structural factors are more important than those of identity in predicting occurrences of civil war. 3281:

in 1989 resulted in a reduction in the duration of Cold War civil wars of 92% or, phrased another way, a roughly ten-fold increase in the rate of resolution of Cold War civil wars. Lengthy Cold War-associated civil conflicts that ground to a halt include the wars of

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are not sufficient to explain the emergence of that insurgent movement. Instead, she argues that "emotional engagements" and "moral commitments" are the main reasons why thousand of civilians, most of them from poor and rural backgrounds, joined or supported the

2879:) would frequently coordinate interventions in other nations' civil wars, nearly always on the side of the incumbent government. Given the military strength of the Great Powers, these interventions nearly always proved decisive and quickly ended the civil wars. 2973:

While the new ex-colonial states appeared to follow the blueprint of the idealized state—centralized government, territory enclosed by defined borders, and citizenry with defined rights—as well as accessories such as a national flag, an anthem, a seat at the

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the duration of civil wars grew past the norm of the pre-19th century, largely due to weakness of the many postcolonial states and the intervention by major powers on both sides of conflict. The most obvious commonality to civil wars are that they occur in

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has resulted in increasing numbers of wars ongoing at any one time. For example, there were no more than five civil wars underway simultaneously in the first half of the 20th century while there were over 20 concurrent civil wars close to the end of the

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or population size are known to increase civil war risk, also, one may conclude that "the discontent of the colonized, caused by the creation of borders across tribal lines and bad treatment by the colonizers" is one important cause of civil conflicts.

2341:(1) That the Party in revolt against the de jure Government possesses an organized military force, an authority responsible for its acts, acting within a determinate territory and having the means of respecting and ensuring respect for the Convention. 2443:, which can fund rebellions and insurgencies from abroad. The study found that statistically switching the size of a country's diaspora from the smallest found in the study to the largest resulted in a sixfold increase in the chance of a civil war. 3044:

loss-makers at independence, lacking both a productive economic base and a taxation system to effectively extract resources from economic activity. Among the rare states profitable at decolonization was India, to which scholars credibly argue that

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The more time that has elapsed since the last civil war, the less likely it is that a conflict will recur. The study had two possible explanations for this: one opportunity-based and the other grievance-based. The elapsed time may represent the

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of 1821 for events in its Central American "backyard". However, the large population of weak states after 1945 allowed intervention by former colonial powers, regional powers and neighboring states who themselves often had scarce resources.

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also meant more states in which to have long civil wars. Hironaka statistically measures the impact of the increased number of ex-colonial states as increasing the post-World War II incidence of civil wars by +165% over the pre-1945 number.

3136:+114% from 1945 to 1997. The diplomatic and legal protection given by the international community, as well as economic support to weak governments and discouragement of secession, thus had the unintended effect of encouraging civil wars. 3226:(1947–1991) provided a global network of material and ideological support that often helped perpetuate civil wars, which were mainly fought in weak ex-colonial states rather than the relatively strong states that were aligned with the 3131:, international military intervention to reverse the territorial aggression. Similarly, the international community has largely refused to recognize secessionist regions, while keeping some secessionist self-declared states such as 3117:

to weak states, which helps maintain the facade of a functioning modern state by giving the appearance that the state is capable of fulfilling its implied responsibilities of control and order. The formation of a strong

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Anthony Vinci makes a strong argument that "fungible concept of power and the primary motivation of survival provide superior explanations of armed group motivation and, more broadly, the conduct of internal conflicts".

3198:, in which there is two-sided foreign intervention, including by a superpower (actually, two superpowers in the case of Angola), would be 538% longer on average than a civil war without any international intervention. 4087: 2668:

greatly increased the frequency of civil wars but not interstate wars. Gleditsch et al. did not find a relationship between ethnic groups with polygyny and increased frequency of civil wars but nations having legal

3422: 2358:(d) That the dispute has been admitted to the agenda of the Security Council or the General Assembly of the United Nations as being a threat to international peace, a breach of the peace, or an act of aggression. 3123:

territorial annexation became increasingly likely to prompt international condemnation, diplomatic censure, a reduction in international aid or the introduction of economic sanction, or, as in the case of 1990

3540: 2707:, despite individually facing both high risks and virtually no foreseeable gains. Wood also attributes participation in the civil war to the value that insurgents assigned to changing social relations in 2521: 3241:

would superimpose Cold War ideology onto local conflicts, while in others local actors using Cold War ideology would attract the attention of a superpower to obtain support. A notable example is the

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Such research finds that civil wars happen because the state is weak; both authoritarian and democratic states can be stable if they have the financial and military capacity to put down rebellions.

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sovereignty or control of their own territory, including the privileges of international diplomatic recognition and an equal vote in the United Nations. Further, the international community offers

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was an entirely different process of state formation. Most imperial powers had not foreseen a need to prepare their colonies for independence; for example, Britain had given limited self-rule to

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and the probability of civil war outbreak, relative deprivation may actually be a more pertinent possible cause. Historically, higher inequality levels led to higher civil war probability. Since

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The various factors contributing to the risk of civil war rise increase with population size. The risk of a civil war rises approximately proportionately with the size of a country's population.

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and civil war, but the causality (which causes the other) is unclear. Some studies have found that in regions with lower income per capita, the likelihood of civil war is greater. Economists

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to see the effect of various factors. The factors that were shown to have a statistically significant effect on the chance that a civil war would occur in any given five-year period were:

2345:(2) That the legal Government is obliged to have recourse to the regular military forces against insurgents organized as military and in possession of a part of the national territory. 3632: 3176:, had always felt no compunction in intervening in civil wars that affected their interests, while distant regional powers such as the United States could declare the interventionist 2979:

structures, in particular those related to extraction of taxes, is closely associated with the intense warfare between predatory European states in the 17th and 18th centuries, or in

3679: 4077: 3826:, Anke Hoeffler and Nicholas Sambanis, "The Collier-Hoeffler Model of Civil War Onset and the Case Study Project Research Design," in Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 13 3749:

on Third 1949 Geneva Convention, Article III, Section "A. Cases of armed conflict" for the ICRC's reading of the definition and a listing of proposed alternative wording

66: 4875: 3497: 2554:(recurring civil war conflicts) due to the lack of strong political and legal institutions that motivate bargaining, settle disputes, and enforce peace settlements. 2513: 2431:, has a 22% risk of falling into civil war in a given five-year period, while a country with no primary commodity exports has a 1% risk. When disaggregated, only 3869: 3703: 3528: 3315:

growth by about 2%. It also has a regional effect, reducing the GDP growth of neighboring countries. Civil wars also have the potential to lock the country in a

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An American Cadillac Gage Light Armored Reconnaissance Vehicle and Italian Fiat-OTO Melara Type 6614 Armored Personnel Carrier guard an intersection during the

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did not have sovereign status, but had significant political and economic independence coupled with weak federal control, reducing the incentive to secede.

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was a result of the tripling of the average duration of civil wars to over four years. This increase was a result of the increased number of states, the

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Baten, Joerg; Mumme, Christina (2011). "Does Inequality Lead to Civil Wars? A global long-term study using anthropometric indicators (1816-1999)".

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There has been an enormous amount of international intervention in civil wars since 1945 that some have argued served to extend wars. According to

2886:(1861–1865) was unusual for at least two reasons: it was fought around regional identities as well as political ideologies, and it ended through a 1508: 2454:

Low per capita income has also been proposed as a cause for grievance, prompting armed rebellion. However, for this to be true, one would expect

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scientists define a civil war as having more than 1,000 casualties, while others further specify that at least 100 must come from each side. The

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offer terrain where rebels can seek sanctuary. Rough terrain was highlighted as one of the more important factors in a 2006 systematic review.

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Anthony Vinci. "Greed-Grievance Reconsidered: The Role of Power and Survival in the Motivation of Armed Groups." Civil Wars "8(1)" (2007): 35.

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has argued that an important cause of intergroup conflict may be the relative availability of women of reproductive age. He found that

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sovereignty changed in the wake of World War II in ways that support and maintain the existence of weak states. Weak states are given

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in national exports significantly increases the risk of a conflict. A country at "peak danger", with commodities comprising 32% of

2368:(c) That the armed forces act under the direction of an organized authority and are prepared to observe the ordinary laws of war. 3144: 1591: 5366: 1574: 3139: 1936: 1361: 206: 5494: 5388: 1700: 4113: 3494: 2117: 1564: 114: 3998:

Christina Bodea. "Riots, coups and civil war : revisiting the greed and grievance debate." Policy Research 1 (2007).

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Civil wars often have severe economic consequences: two studies estimate that each year of civil war reduces a country's

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to also be a significant factor in rebellions, which it is not. The study therefore concluded that the economic model of

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also favors rebel recruitment—political instability, rough terrain, and large populations" make civil wars more likely.

2355:(c) That it has accorded the insurgents recognition as belligerents for the purposes only of the present Convention; or 2054: 518: 4968: 3866: 2983:'s famous formulation: "War made the state and the state made war". For example, the formation of the modern states of 3700: 3355: 2681:

were associated with fewer civil wars and that legal polygamy had no effect after women's rights were controlled for.

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attributes this shift to changes in information technology, especially the advent of the Web 2.0 in the early 2000s.

3061:. The "strong"-"weak" categorization is not the same as "Western"-"non-Western", as some Latin American states like 4922:

Dube, Vargas (2015). "Bases, Bullets and Ballots; The Effect of US-Military Aid on Political Conflict in Colombia".

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Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James Robinson. 2005. "Institutions as a fundamental cause of long-run growth".

2516:, have criticized the data used by Fearon and Laitin to determine ethnic and religious diversity. In his 2007 paper 4281: 3089: 1528: 31: 3943: 3427: 3246: 3057:

with the expectation of immediately meeting the demands of a modern state. Such states are considered "weak" or "

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are examples of nations that were considered to have had promising futures before being engulfed in civil wars.

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According to a 2017 review study of civil war research, there are three prominent explanations for civil war:

5298: 3245:(1946–1949), which erupted shortly after the end of World War II. This conflict saw the communist-dominated 2938: 2923: 2579: 2042: 2024: 1780: 1339: 1261: 1206: 804: 467: 4537: 4931: 4552: 4029: 2907: 2813: 2694:

offers yet another rationale for why civilians rebel and/or support civil war. Through her studies of the

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as little more than a trading post, while all major decisions for French colonies were made in Paris and

5524: 2951: 2915: 2793:– their nominal state government – to gain recognition of their sovereignty. Conversely, states such as 1498: 1431: 1384: 1038: 1001: 964: 882: 834: 718: 528: 336: 245: 2724: 98: 4353:"Complicit States and the Governing Strategy of Privilege Violence: When Weakness is Not the Problem" 3291: 3287: 3283: 3152: 3036: 2824: 2695: 2231: 1889: 1791: 1648: 1643: 1461: 1426: 1161: 981: 839: 775: 629: 599: 196: 103: 4969:"Autonomous Recovery and International Intervention in Comparative Perspective, CGDEV Working Paper" 4936: 4557: 4034: 2362:(4) (a) That the insurgents have an organization purporting to have the characteristics of a State. 5519: 5054:"The Consequences of Contention: Understanding the Aftereffects of Political Conflict and Violence" 4082: 3274: 2770:, and ended quickly once the military sided with the government at Versailles and conquered Paris. 2699: 2687: 2651: 2455: 2417: 2333: 2267: 2246: 1740: 1725: 1601: 1488: 1466: 1441: 1401: 1311: 1121: 1026: 976: 743: 733: 698: 490: 480: 250: 174: 2789:

states because of their military power. The Barbary pirates thus had no need to rebel against the

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in the 18th and 19th centuries, which further reduced the number of civil wars. For example, the

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Djankov, Simeon; Reynal-Querol, Marta (2010). "Poverty and Civil War: Revisiting the Evidence".

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David Keen. "Complex Emergencies: David Keen Responds" African Arguments: Royal African Society.

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There were several exceptions from the general rule of quick civil wars during this period. The

5455:"A Review of Recent Advances and Future Directions in the Quantitative Literature on Civil War" 2371:(d) That the insurgent civil authority agrees to be bound by the provisions of the Convention. 2198:. Since 1945, civil wars have resulted in the deaths of over 25 million people, as well as the 5338: 5322: 5199:

Licklider, Roy (1995). "The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945–1993".

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in the 19th century is closely associated with the wars of expansion and consolidation led by

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Neverending Wars: The International Community, Weak States, and the Perpetuation of Civil War

5466: 5404: 5274: 5245: 5208: 5172: 5120: 5065: 5032: 4941: 4562: 4510: 4498: 4480: 4435: 4393: 4364: 4317: 4211: 4203: 4164: 4125: 4039: 3952: 3903: 3778: 3763: 3653: 3614: 3444: 3436: 3165: 3007: 2911: 2903: 2828: 2821: 2750: 2661: 2583: 2459: 2329: 2275: 2199: 2168: 2161: 2084: 2049: 1981: 1874: 1812: 1705: 1633: 1626: 1483: 1416: 1366: 1356: 1231: 1151: 1111: 1096: 1063: 1048: 919: 904: 857: 765: 723: 666: 661: 619: 442: 419: 326: 255: 184: 167: 5499: 3938: 3080: 5370: 5319:

The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests, and the Indivisibility of Territory

5297:(2011). internal insurrections in Russia, Spain, Greece, Yugoslavia, and other countries; 5070: 5053: 5037: 5020: 4369: 4352: 4285: 3873: 3746: 3739: 3707: 3506: 3501: 3328: 3262: 3242: 3177: 3151:

in 2003 passes the hulk of an LTTE supply ship that had been sunk by government aircraft,

3114: 2864: 2745: 2691: 2254: 2186:, that is sustained, organized and large-scale. Civil wars may result in large numbers of 2139: 1894: 1879: 1797: 1753: 1695: 1351: 1346: 1236: 1226: 1141: 1116: 1058: 899: 829: 819: 758: 671: 656: 579: 551: 351: 331: 179: 5148:. Vol. 2: Europe, Central Asia, and Other Regions. Washington, DC: The World Bank. 3406:

Higgins, Noelle (2019). "The Geneva Conventions and Non-International Armed Conflicts".

5124: 3440: 3077:

are considered to have "strong" administrative structures and economic infrastructure.

3015: 2975: 2890:, rather than with a decisive battle over control of the capital, as was the norm. The 2860: 2808: 2790: 2778: 2616: 2250: 2079: 2069: 1817: 1241: 1201: 1179: 1166: 1156: 1126: 1043: 996: 799: 790: 681: 634: 614: 604: 574: 541: 429: 386: 341: 213: 146: 78: 42: 5363: 5052:

Davenport, Christian; Mokleiv Nygård, Håvard; Fjelde, Hanne; Armstrong, David (2019).

2404:. Roughly stated: are conflicts caused by differences of ethnicity, religion or other 2400:

Scholars investigating the cause of civil war are attracted by two opposing theories,

2156: 5513: 5480: 5286: 5257: 5228: 5184: 4953: 4337: 3939:"The inequality–conflict nexus re-examined: Income, education and popular rebellions" 3798: 3316: 3266: 3194:

states was a superpower, a civil war is a further 72% longer; a conflict such as the

3058: 2980: 2963: 2802: 2798: 2782: 2763: 2734: 2551: 2146:). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve 1916: 1904: 1760: 1680: 1596: 1579: 1436: 1291: 1271: 954: 949: 929: 909: 824: 795: 770: 646: 624: 609: 584: 424: 346: 309: 304: 201: 4405: 3675: 3458: 3206: 2387:

which center on conflict as a response to socioeconomic or political injustice, and

2349:(3) (a) That the de jure Government has recognized the insurgents as belligerents; 2226: 5424: 5110: 4522: 4484: 4447: 4059: 4020:

Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D. (2003). "Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War".

3823: 3490: 3254: 3173: 2959: 2919: 2899: 2729: 2647: 2287: 2271: 2242: 2183: 2176: 2147: 2103: 2029: 2009: 2004: 1899: 1844: 1478: 1473: 1296: 1211: 959: 693: 594: 391: 295: 2575: 4975: 4622: 4595: 4308:

Walter, Barbara F. (2015-10-01). "Why Bad Governance Leads to Repeat Civil War".

4190:

CEDERMAN, LARS-ERIK; WEIDMANN, NILS B.; GLEDITSCH, KRISTIAN SKREDE (2011-07-11).

5420: 5278: 5249: 5163:

Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2001). ""New" and "Old" Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?".

4421:"Does poverty cause conflict? Isolating the causal origins of the conflict trap" 3383: 3278: 3227: 3211: 2852: 2774: 2708: 2633: 2325: 2014: 1765: 1730: 1569: 1256: 1221: 934: 877: 780: 564: 285: 280: 4216: 4191: 5236:

Mack, Andrew (2002). "Civil War: Academic Research and the Policy Community".

4566: 4514: 4207: 4152: 4129: 4043: 3923: 3891: 3333: 3250: 3238: 3132: 2844: 2817: 2412: 1971: 1941: 1663: 1032: 119: 4908: 4861: 4439: 4329: 4321: 4225: 4192:"Horizontal Inequalities and Ethnonationalist Civil War: A Global Comparison" 4176: 4168: 4137: 3964: 3956: 3915: 3790: 3782: 3657: 5193:

The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation

3529:"Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate Conflict" 3510:, March/April 2007. For further discussion on civil war classification, see 3148: 3062: 3023: 2966:

formed after 1945, the decline in interstate war, and the Cold War rivalry.

2927: 2848: 2432: 2424: 2167:

Most modern civil wars involve intervention by outside powers. According to

1961: 1785: 1735: 1685: 1675: 1670: 1535: 1326: 1321: 1286: 728: 414: 381: 270: 5471: 5454: 4114:"Beyond Fractionalization: Mapping Ethnicity onto Nationalist Insurgencies" 2175:(2000) about two thirds of the 138 intrastate conflicts between the end of 5305:

Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate Conflict

4538:"Polygyny or Misogyny? Reexamining the "First Law of Intergroup Conflict"" 17: 5503: 5176: 4397: 4279:

Fostering Peace after Civil War: Commitment Problems and Agreement Design

3701:"A Matter of Definition: What Makes a Civil War, and Who Declares It So?" 3261:, which was backed by the United Kingdom and the United States under the 3223: 3109: 3049: 3040: 2794: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2518:

Beyond Fractionalization: Mapping Ethnicity onto Nationalist Insurgencies

2440: 2309:

has sought to provide some clarification through its commentaries on the

2270:, for example, but excludes several highly publicized conflicts, such as 2202:

of millions more. Civil wars have further resulted in economic collapse;

2195: 1976: 1951: 1584: 1216: 1191: 809: 364: 238: 4627:(Reprint. ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 17–20. 4278: 5408: 5220: 4600:(Reprint. ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 1–16. 4241:"Incidence, onset and duration of civil wars: A review of the evidence" 4051: 3103: 3085: 3031: 2992: 2984: 2868: 2655:

from diasporas offsets the depreciation of rebellion-specific capital.

2629: 2612: 2203: 2143: 1986: 1946: 1710: 1544: 1540: 887: 872: 748: 409: 404: 374: 313: 275: 5431: 4536:

Gleditsch, K. S.; Wucherpfennig, J.; Hug, S.; Reigstad, K. G. (2011).

3107:

sovereignty equal to that of other states, even when they do not have

2898:

sides in the struggle received support from intervening great powers:

2411:

A comprehensive study of civil war was carried out by a team from the

4844:

Does peacekeeping work? shaping belligerents' choices after civil war

3449: 3074: 3066: 3053: 3045: 2876: 2872: 2832: 2534:

Incidence, Onset and Duration of Civil Wars: A Review of the Evidence

2215: 2211: 2151: 1493: 894: 711: 447: 5212: 41:"Civil conflict" redirects here. For the college football game, see 4945: 4151:

Cederman, Lars-Erik; Buhaug, Halvard; Rød, Jan Ketil (2009-05-27).

3907: 3319:, where each conflict increases the likelihood of future conflict. 2352:(b) That it has claimed for itself the rights of a belligerent; or 3605:

Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2009). Boix, Carles; Stokes, Susan C (eds.).

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The power of non-state actors resulted in a lower value placed on

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is a better explanation than polygyny. They found that increased

5265:

Mason, T. David; Fett, Patrick J. (1996). "How Civil Wars End".

4501:(2009). "Evolutionary Psychological Foundations of Civil Wars". 3096:(1975–1990) was characterized by multiple foreign interventions. 2628:

While there is a supposed negative correlation between absolute

2314: 2182:

A civil war is often a high-intensity conflict, often involving

265: 260: 5495:

Royal Air Force Doctrine – The Nature of War and Armed Conflict

4078:"Americans hate each other. But we aren't headed for civil war" 2383:

which center on individuals' desire to maximize their profits,

3312: 2150:

for a region, or to change government policies. The term is a

2135: 138: 49: 2528:

Michael Bleaney, Professor of International Economics at the

5353:

Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars

5104:

Breaking the Conflict Trap: civil war and development policy

5395:

Blattman, Christopher; Miguel, Edward (2010). "Civil War".

3867:

A CLASH OF GENERATIONS? YOUTH BULGES AND POLITICAL VIOLENCE

5439:

Stathis Kalyvas on 20 years of studying political violence

4419:

Braithwaite, Alex; Dasandi, Niheer; Hudson, David (2016).

122:

after a raid by German aircraft on 31 May 1938 during the

5312:

Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements

3572:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 3. 3423:"Towards an Understanding of Contemporary Intrastate War" 2711:, an experience she defines as the "pleasure of agency". 5088:

Ali, Taisier Mohamed Ahmed and Robert O. Matthews, eds.

4624:

Insurgent collective action and civil war in El Salvador

4597:

Insurgent collective action and civil war in El Salvador

5358:

Elisabeth Jean Wood; "Civil Wars: What We Don't Know,"

74: 4112:

Cederman, Lars-Erik; Girardin, Luc (February 2007).

3522: 3520: 5097:

Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars

3273:times as long as other civil wars. Conversely, the 5321:(Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003). 2749:An artillery school set up by the anti-socialist " 5142:Collier, Paul; Sambanis, Nicholas, eds. (2005). 4107: 4105: 3892:"Income Inequality and the Taste for Revolution" 3762:Cederman, Lars-Erik; Vogt, Manuel (2017-07-26). 2512:of the Center for Security Studies (CSS) at the 2475:Criticism of the "greed versus grievance" theory 5427:, 416–434. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2942:Civil conflicts vs other conflicts 1946 to 2016 2698:, Wood finds that traditional explanations of 2522:ethno-linguistic fractionalization index (ELF) 2190:and the consumption of significant resources. 5145:Understanding Civil War:Evidence and Analysis 5116:Understanding Civil War:Evidence and Analysis 5014: 5012: 2111: 63:The examples and perspective in this article 8: 4874:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3408:Revisiting the Geneva Conventions: 1949-2019 3611:The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics 3563: 3561: 3559: 3557: 2673:may have more civil wars. They argued that 5335:How Civil Wars Start: And How to Stop Them 5090:Civil Wars in Africa: roots and resolution 4071: 4069: 3511: 2118: 2104: 128: 5470: 5437:Kalyvas, Stathis; Straus, Scott (2020). " 5382:Lars-Erik Cederman; Manuel Vogt (2017). " 5069: 5036: 4935: 4842:Page), Fortna, V. Page (Virginia (2008). 4556: 4368: 4351:Kleinfeld, Rachel; Barham, Elena (2018). 4215: 4033: 3652:. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. 3448: 2705:Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front 2446:Higher male secondary school enrollment, 2179:and 2000 saw international intervention. 2138:between organized groups within the same 5003: 4991: 4829: 4817: 4805: 4793: 4767: 4755: 4743: 4731: 4719: 4707: 4695: 4683: 4671: 4659: 4647: 3819: 3737:International Committee of the Red Cross 3592: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3480: 2307:International Committee of the Red Cross 1082:List of military strategies and concepts 5417:Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics 5415:Kalyvas Stathis N. 2007. "Civil Wars." 4153:"Ethno-Nationalist Dyads and Civil War" 3976: 3974: 3852: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3836: 3834: 3832: 3724:Diplomatic Conference of Geneva of 1949 3619:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566020.003.0018 3398: 3367: 2894:(1936–1939) proved exceptional because 2504:Critical Responses to Fearon and Laitin 2439:A second source of finance is national 2160:which was used to refer to the various 136: 5191:David Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds. 4867: 2950:Members of ARDE Frente Sur during the 30:For specific wars and other uses, see 5432:Conflict: Trajectories and Challenges 5377:Review articles of civil war research 5071:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064057 5038:10.1146/annurev-polisci-060415-093921 4780: 4778: 4776: 4466: 4464: 4428:Conflict Management and Peace Science 4370:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041916-015628 4303: 4301: 4277:Mattes, M., & Savun, B. (2009). " 4022:The American Political Science Review 4015: 4013: 3757: 3755: 2514:Swiss Federal Institute of Technology 7: 4473:European Review of Political Economy 3980:Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 18 3856:Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 16 3840:Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 17 2741:In the 19th and early 20th centuries 5355:(Princeton University Press, 2002), 5195:(Princeton University Press, 1996). 5113:; Sambanis, Nicholas, eds. (2005). 3512:the section "Formal classification" 3465:from the original on 5 January 2017 5443:Violence: An International Journal 5058:Annual Review of Political Science 5025:Annual Review of Political Science 4386:Review of Economics and Statistics 4357:Annual Review of Political Science 4090:from the original on 19 April 2021 3896:The Journal of Law & Economics 3764:"Dynamics and Logics of Civil War" 3649:The Logic of Violence in Civil War 3441:10.1111/j.1477-7053.2007.00215_1.x 3421:Jackson, Richard (28 March 2014). 3350:The Logic of Violence in Civil War 3232:North Atlantic Treaty Organization 2317:in its commentary are as follows: 25: 5201:American Political Science Review 5095:Mats Berdal and David M. Malone, 5019:Walter, Barbara F. (2017-01-01). 4196:American Political Science Review 4118:American Political Science Review 3527:Ikenberry, G. John (2009-01-28). 2843:The two major global ideologies, 5384:Dynamics and Logics of Civil War 4967:Weinstein, Jeremy (April 2005). 4457:from the original on 2020-03-10. 3937:Bartusevičius, Henrikas (2014). 3808:from the original on 2018-07-23. 3635:from the original on 2012-12-31. 3376:non-international armed conflict 2532:, published a 2009 paper titled 2162:civil wars of the Roman Republic 156: 54: 5310:Stephen John and others., eds. 4576:from the original on 2017-09-21 4290:International Studies Quarterly 4076:Richard Hanania (29 Oct 2020). 3682:from the original on 2021-11-09 3543:from the original on 2021-03-08 3160:Interventions by outside powers 3069:and Middle Eastern states like 2611:There is a correlation between 2462:better explained the findings. 5397:Journal of Economic Literature 5389:Journal of Conflict Resolution 5295:Civil War in Europe, 1905–1949 5267:Journal of Conflict Resolution 4846:. Princeton University Press. 4485:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2013.06.007 4310:Journal of Conflict Resolution 4157:Journal of Conflict Resolution 3771:Journal of Conflict Resolution 2389:opportunity-based explanations 1: 5430:Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2024). " 5106:World Bank (2003) – 320 pages 4893:. National Geographic Books. 4621:Wood, Elisabeth Jean (2003). 4594:Wood, Elisabeth Jean (2003). 3185:Effectiveness of intervention 3170:Civil Wars and Foreign Powers 2423:A high proportion of primary 2245:, a scholar of civil wars at 2173:Civil Wars and Foreign Powers 77:and discuss the issue on the 3646:Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2006). 3378:(NIAC) and also known as an 3344:List of wars of independence 2910:supported opposition leader 2766:occurred almost entirely in 2385:grievance-based explanations 5459:Defence and Peace Economics 5453:Sambanis, Nicholas (2002). 5279:10.1177/0022002796040004002 5250:10.1177/0022343302039005001 4266:Handbook of Economic Growth 3890:MacCulloch, Robert (2005). 3880:Retrieved 28 December 2012. 3356:Wars of national liberation 3210:Fall and demolition of the 3084:A checkpoint manned by the 2520:, Cederman argues that the 1575:Military–industrial complex 1054:Operational manoeuvre group 118:The destruction wrought on 5541: 5333:Barbara F. Walter (2022). 3410:. Brill. pp. 168–189. 3277:marked by the fall of the 3143:A fast attack boat of the 40: 32:Civil War (disambiguation) 29: 5500:"What makes a civil war?" 5238:Journal of Peace Research 4567:10.1017/S0022381610001003 4515:10.1017/S0022381608090026 4239:Bleaney, Michael (2009). 4208:10.1017/s0003055411000207 4130:10.1017/S0003055407070086 4044:10.1017/S0003055403000534 3944:Journal of Peace Research 3428:Government and Opposition 3247:Democratic Army of Greece 2659:Evolutionary psychologist 2280:African National Congress 2264:Second Sudanese Civil War 1639:Loss-of-strength gradient 496:Combat information center 5021:"The New New Civil Wars" 4440:10.1177/0738894214559673 4322:10.1177/0022002714528006 4169:10.1177/0022002709336455 3957:10.1177/0022343313503179 3783:10.1177/0022002717721385 3658:10.1017/cbo9780511818462 2803:United States of America 2530:University of Nottingham 2381:greed-based explanations 2324:Tanks in the streets of 2278:and the struggle of the 1957:Military science fiction 1442:Technology and equipment 863:List of military tactics 5119:. Vol. 1: Africa. 4924:The Journal of Politics 4889:Gerald., Knaus (2012). 4545:The Journal of Politics 4503:The Journal of Politics 3777:(9): 0022002717721385. 3726:, (Volume II-B, p. 121) 2831:'s Nationalists, bombs 2508:Some scholars, such as 2332:the capital during the 2164:in the 1st century BC. 2025:Wartime sexual violence 1781:Full-spectrum dominance 1592:Supply-chain management 5472:10.1080/10242690210976 5099:(Lynne Rienner, 2000). 4891:Can intervention work? 4734:, pp. 7 & 23. 3568:Hironaka, Ann (2005). 3219: 3202:Effect of the Cold War 3156: 3097: 3011: 2954: 2943: 2840: 2818:smaller fighter planes 2758: 2591: 2429:gross domestic product 2402:greed versus grievance 2337: 2239: 1937:Awards and decorations 1910:Peace through strength 1885:Low-intensity conflict 1519:Conscientious objector 1392:Area of responsibility 126: 111: 5362:Vol. 9, 2003 pp 247+ 4248:CREDIT Research Paper 3822:, pp. 9–10, and 3209: 3142: 3083: 3005: 2952:Nicaraguan Revolution 2949: 2941: 2855:(defined in the 1815 2811: 2748: 2578: 2323: 2229: 2222:Formal classification 529:Torpedo data computer 519:Ship gun fire-control 117: 101: 5177:10.1353/wp.2001.0022 4784:Hironaka, 2005, p. 6 4398:10.1162/REST_a_00046 3722:Final Record of the 3613:. pp. 416–434. 3595:, pp. 1–2, 4–5. 3539:(July/August 2000). 3153:Sri Lankan Civil War 2715:Duration and effects 2696:Salvadoran Civil War 2582:soldiers during the 2562:Political scientist 2232:Battle of Gettysburg 2184:regular armed forces 2055:Military occupations 1890:Military engineering 1792:Unrestricted Warfare 1649:Force multiplication 547:Military manoeuvrers 75:improve this article 65:may not represent a 27:War within a country 5351:Barbara F. Walter, 5317:Monica Duffy Toft, 5293:Stanley G. Payne, 4217:20.500.11850/160115 4083:The Washington Post 3713:. November 26, 2006 3275:end of the Cold War 3014:In sharp contrast, 2964:fragility of states 2825:Legionary Air Force 2785:were recognized as 2700:greed and grievance 2545:Bargaining problems 2456:economic inequality 2418:regression analysis 2334:Ethiopian Civil War 2268:Cambodian Civil War 2247:Stanford University 2200:forced displacement 1741:Penal military unit 1726:Rules of engagement 1402:Command and control 1027:Operations research 491:Director (military) 481:Fire-control system 251:Command and control 132:Part of a series on 5434:". World Politics. 5409:10.1257/jel.48.1.3 5369:2012-06-28 at the 5360:Global Governance, 5303:Patrick M. Regan. 4722:, pp. 1, 4–5. 4284:2018-09-08 at the 3872:2017-07-03 at the 3818:See, for example, 3745:2016-03-22 at the 3706:2021-05-23 at the 3500:2007-03-17 at the 3495:"Iraq's Civil War" 3339:List of civil wars 3220: 3216:Checkpoint Charlie 3157: 3125:invasion of Kuwait 3098: 3094:Lebanese Civil War 3028:British Somaliland 3012: 2955: 2944: 2884:American Civil War 2857:Congress of Vienna 2841: 2759: 2592: 2571:Military advantage 2510:Lars-Erik Cederman 2406:social affiliation 2338: 2311:Geneva Conventions 2305:Nevertheless, the 2299:Geneva Conventions 2240: 2236:American Civil War 1850:Counter-insurgency 1771:Command of the sea 1716:Jewish laws on war 1691:Geneva Conventions 1227:Divide and conquer 1022:Military operation 987:Tactical objective 486:Fire-control radar 463:Electronic-warfare 127: 112: 36:List of civil wars 5314:(2002), 729 pages 5155:978-0-8213-6049-1 5134:978-0-8213-6047-7 5092:(1999), 322 pages 5006:, pp. 48–50. 4994:, pp. 50–51. 4832:, pp. 37–40. 4796:, pp. 59–61. 4674:, pp. 28–29. 3667:978-0-521-85409-2 3374:Legally known as 3259:Kingdom of Greece 3196:Angolan Civil War 3120:international law 3026:, while treating 2997:Sardinia-Piedmont 2892:Spanish Civil War 2837:Spanish Civil War 2755:Finnish Civil War 2685:Political scholar 2588:Chinese Civil War 2564:Barbara F. Walter 2448:per capita income 2260:Correlates of War 2230:Aftermath of the 2128: 2127: 2020:Horses in warfare 1967:Anti-war movement 1870:Gunboat diplomacy 1860:Disaster response 1808:Philosophy of war 1803:Principles of war 1776:Deterrence theory 1721:Right of conquest 1644:Lanchester's laws 1412:Principles of war 1102:Counter-offensive 1087:Military campaign 992:Target saturation 915:Counterinsurgency 524:Gun data computer 458:Close air support 420:Aircraft carriers 124:Spanish Civil War 108:Finnish Civil War 96: 95: 16:(Redirected from 5532: 5484: 5474: 5412: 5348: 5307:(2000) 172 pages 5290: 5261: 5232: 5188: 5159: 5138: 5121:Washington, D.C. 5076: 5075: 5073: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5040: 5016: 5007: 5001: 4995: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4974:. 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Regan 3008:Somali Civil War 2912:Francisco Franco 2888:war of attrition 2865:Habsburg Austria 2829:Francisco Franco 2725:Neverending Wars 2662:Satoshi Kanazawa 2584:Battle of Siping 2460:opportunity cost 2276:Northern Ireland 2169:Patrick M. Regan 2120: 2113: 2106: 1875:Humanitarian aid 1813:Security dilemma 1634:Power projection 1417:Economy of force 1397:Chain of command 1112:Defence in depth 1097:Commerce raiding 920:Defeat in detail 256:Defense ministry 160: 151: 150: 141: 129: 91: 88: 82: 58: 57: 50: 21: 5540: 5539: 5535: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5530: 5529: 5510: 5509: 5506:, 20 April 2006 5491: 5452: 5425:Stokes Susan C. 5394: 5379: 5371:Wayback Machine 5345: 5332: 5264: 5235: 5213:10.2307/2082982 5198: 5162: 5156: 5141: 5135: 5109: 5085: 5083:Further reading 5080: 5079: 5051: 5050: 5046: 5018: 5017: 5010: 5002: 4998: 4990: 4986: 4978: 4971: 4966: 4965: 4961: 4937:10.1.1.622.2394 4921: 4920: 4916: 4901: 4888: 4887: 4883: 4866: 4854: 4841: 4840: 4836: 4828: 4824: 4816: 4812: 4804: 4800: 4792: 4788: 4783: 4774: 4766: 4762: 4754: 4750: 4742: 4738: 4730: 4726: 4718: 4714: 4706: 4702: 4694: 4690: 4682: 4678: 4670: 4666: 4658: 4654: 4646: 4642: 4635: 4620: 4619: 4615: 4608: 4593: 4592: 4588: 4579: 4577: 4573: 4558:10.1.1.518.5482 4540: 4535: 4534: 4530: 4497: 4496: 4492: 4470: 4469: 4462: 4454: 4423: 4418: 4417: 4413: 4383: 4382: 4378: 4350: 4349: 4345: 4307: 4306: 4299: 4286:Wayback Machine 4276: 4272: 4263: 4259: 4243: 4238: 4237: 4233: 4189: 4188: 4184: 4150: 4149: 4145: 4111: 4110: 4103: 4093: 4091: 4075: 4074: 4067: 4035:10.1.1.453.3913 4019: 4018: 4011: 4006: 4002: 3997: 3993: 3988: 3984: 3979: 3972: 3936: 3935: 3931: 3889: 3888: 3884: 3874:Wayback Machine 3865:Henrik Urdal – 3864: 3860: 3855: 3844: 3839: 3830: 3817: 3813: 3805: 3766: 3761: 3760: 3753: 3747:Wayback Machine 3734: 3730: 3721: 3717: 3708:Wayback Machine 3698: 3694: 3685: 3683: 3668: 3645: 3644: 3640: 3629: 3604: 3603: 3599: 3591: 3587: 3580: 3567: 3566: 3555: 3546: 3544: 3533:Foreign Affairs 3526: 3525: 3518: 3507:Foreign Affairs 3502:Wayback Machine 3489: 3478: 3468: 3466: 3420: 3419: 3415: 3405: 3404: 3400: 3395: 3390: 3389: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3329:Frozen conflict 3325: 3309: 3300: 3263:Truman Doctrine 3257:, opposing the 3249:, supported by 3243:Greek Civil War 3237:In some cases, 3204: 3187: 3178:Monroe Doctrine 3162: 3115:development aid 2936: 2816:, supported by 2743: 2717: 2692:Yale University 2643: 2626: 2609: 2601: 2599:Population size 2573: 2560: 2547: 2542: 2506: 2494: 2477: 2468: 2398: 2377: 2361: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2255:Stathis Kalyvas 2224: 2124: 2095: 2094: 2045: 2035: 2034: 2000: 1992: 1991: 1932: 1922: 1921: 1895:Multilateralism 1880:Law enforcement 1840: 1830: 1829: 1798:Just war theory 1756: 1746: 1745: 1696:Geneva Protocol 1666: 1656: 1655: 1629: 1619: 1618: 1560: 1550: 1549: 1457: 1447: 1446: 1387: 1377: 1376: 1342: 1332: 1331: 1262:Network-centric 1182: 1172: 1171: 1079: 1069: 1068: 1017: 1007: 1006: 955:Rapid dominance 860: 850: 849: 805:Electromagnetic 714: 704: 703: 690: 643: 591: 567: 557: 556: 552:Combat training 533: 510: 476:Combat systems: 472: 434: 430:Auxiliary ships 396: 356: 352:Military police 318: 241: 231: 230: 170: 144: 143: 142: 137: 102:Members of the 92: 86: 83: 72: 59: 55: 46: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5538: 5536: 5528: 5527: 5522: 5512: 5511: 5508: 5507: 5497: 5490: 5489:External links 5487: 5486: 5485: 5465:(3): 215–243. 5450: 5435: 5428: 5413: 5392: 5378: 5375: 5374: 5373: 5364:online version 5356: 5349: 5344:978-0593137789 5343: 5330: 5315: 5308: 5301: 5291: 5273:(4): 546–568. 5262: 5244:(5): 515–525. 5233: 5207:(3): 681–690. 5196: 5189: 5165:World Politics 5160: 5154: 5139: 5133: 5125:The World Bank 5107: 5102:Paul Collier, 5100: 5093: 5084: 5081: 5078: 5077: 5044: 5031:(1): 469–486. 5008: 4996: 4984: 4981:on 2012-05-28. 4959: 4946:10.1086/679021 4930:(1): 249–267. 4914: 4899: 4881: 4852: 4834: 4822: 4810: 4798: 4786: 4772: 4760: 4748: 4746:, pp. 36. 4736: 4724: 4712: 4700: 4688: 4676: 4664: 4652: 4640: 4633: 4613: 4606: 4586: 4528: 4490: 4460: 4411: 4376: 4343: 4297: 4270: 4257: 4231: 4202:(3): 478–495. 4182: 4163:(4): 496–525. 4143: 4124:(1): 173–185. 4101: 4065: 4009: 4000: 3991: 3982: 3970: 3929: 3924:10.1086/426881 3908:10.1086/426881 3882: 3858: 3842: 3828: 3811: 3751: 3728: 3715: 3711:New York Times 3692: 3666: 3638: 3628:978-0199566020 3627: 3597: 3585: 3578: 3553: 3516: 3476: 3435:(1): 121–128. 3413: 3397: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3388: 3387: 3380:intrastate war 3366: 3365: 3363: 3360: 3359: 3358: 3353: 3346: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3324: 3321: 3308: 3305: 3299: 3296: 3203: 3200: 3186: 3183: 3161: 3158: 3016:decolonization 2976:United Nations 2935: 2932: 2924:the government 2861:United Kingdom 2791:Ottoman Empire 2742: 2739: 2735:fragile states 2716: 2713: 2688:Elisabeth Wood 2679:women's rights 2642: 2639: 2630:welfare levels 2625: 2622: 2617:Simeon Djankov 2608: 2605: 2600: 2597: 2572: 2569: 2559: 2556: 2552:conflict traps 2546: 2543: 2541: 2538: 2505: 2502: 2493: 2490: 2476: 2473: 2467: 2464: 2397: 2394: 2376: 2373: 2223: 2220: 2126: 2125: 2123: 2122: 2115: 2108: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2093: 2092: 2087: 2082: 2077: 2072: 2067: 2062: 2060:Military terms 2057: 2052: 2046: 2041: 2040: 2037: 2036: 2033: 2032: 2027: 2022: 2017: 2012: 2007: 2001: 1998: 1997: 1994: 1993: 1990: 1989: 1984: 1979: 1974: 1969: 1964: 1959: 1954: 1949: 1944: 1939: 1933: 1928: 1927: 1924: 1923: 1920: 1919: 1914: 1913: 1912: 1907: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1847: 1841: 1836: 1835: 1832: 1831: 1828: 1827: 1822: 1821: 1820: 1818:Tripwire force 1810: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1768: 1763: 1757: 1752: 1751: 1748: 1747: 1744: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1693: 1688: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1667: 1662: 1661: 1658: 1657: 1654: 1653: 1652: 1651: 1641: 1636: 1630: 1625: 1624: 1621: 1620: 1617: 1616: 1615: 1614: 1609: 1604: 1594: 1589: 1588: 1587: 1582: 1572: 1567: 1561: 1556: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1538: 1533: 1532: 1531: 1521: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1470: 1469: 1458: 1453: 1452: 1449: 1448: 1445: 1444: 1439: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1388: 1383: 1382: 1379: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1343: 1340:Administrative 1338: 1337: 1334: 1333: 1330: 1329: 1324: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1304: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1267:New generation 1264: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1242:Fleet in being 1239: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1183: 1180:Grand strategy 1178: 1177: 1174: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1167:Scorched earth 1164: 1159: 1154: 1149: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1094: 1089: 1080: 1075: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1044:Deep operation 1041: 1036: 1029: 1024: 1018: 1013: 1012: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1004: 999: 994: 989: 984: 979: 974: 973: 972: 962: 957: 952: 947: 942: 937: 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 897: 892: 891: 890: 885: 880: 870: 861: 856: 855: 852: 851: 848: 847: 845:Unconventional 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 802: 793: 791:Disinformation 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 763: 762: 761: 756: 746: 741: 736: 731: 726: 721: 715: 710: 709: 706: 705: 702: 701: 696: 689: 688: 687: 686: 685: 684: 674: 669: 664: 659: 654: 642: 641: 640: 639: 638: 637: 627: 622: 617: 612: 607: 602: 590: 589: 588: 587: 582: 577: 568: 563: 562: 559: 558: 555: 554: 549: 544: 542:Basic training 539: 532: 531: 526: 521: 516: 509: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 471: 470: 468:Reconnaissance 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 433: 432: 427: 422: 417: 412: 407: 402: 395: 394: 389: 387:Special forces 384: 379: 378: 377: 367: 362: 355: 354: 349: 344: 342:Reconnaissance 339: 334: 329: 324: 317: 316: 307: 302: 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 242: 237: 236: 233: 232: 229: 228: 227: 226: 221: 211: 210: 209: 204: 194: 193: 192: 185:Post-classical 182: 177: 171: 166: 165: 162: 161: 153: 152: 134: 133: 94: 93: 69:of the subject 62: 60: 53: 43:Civil Conflict 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5537: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5517: 5515: 5505: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5492: 5488: 5482: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5451: 5449:(2): 389–407. 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5433: 5429: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5393: 5391: 5390: 5385: 5381: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5340: 5336: 5331: 5328: 5327:0-691-12383-7 5324: 5320: 5316: 5313: 5309: 5306: 5302: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5197: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5161: 5157: 5151: 5147: 5146: 5140: 5136: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5112: 5111:Collier, Paul 5108: 5105: 5101: 5098: 5094: 5091: 5087: 5086: 5082: 5072: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5048: 5045: 5039: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5015: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5004:Hironaka 2005 5000: 4997: 4993: 4992:Hironaka 2005 4988: 4985: 4977: 4970: 4963: 4960: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4918: 4915: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4900:9780393342246 4896: 4892: 4885: 4882: 4877: 4871: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4853:9780691136714 4849: 4845: 4838: 4835: 4831: 4830:Hironaka 2005 4826: 4823: 4820:, p. 16. 4819: 4818:Hironaka 2005 4814: 4811: 4808:, p. 56. 4807: 4806:Hironaka 2005 4802: 4799: 4795: 4794:Hironaka 2005 4790: 4787: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4773: 4770:, p. 54. 4769: 4768:Hironaka 2005 4764: 4761: 4758:, p. 40. 4757: 4756:Hironaka 2005 4752: 4749: 4745: 4744:Hironaka 2005 4740: 4737: 4733: 4732:Hironaka 2005 4728: 4725: 4721: 4720:Hironaka 2005 4716: 4713: 4710:, p. 31. 4709: 4708:Hironaka 2005 4704: 4701: 4698:, p. 30. 4697: 4696:Hironaka 2005 4692: 4689: 4686:, p. 29. 4685: 4684:Hironaka 2005 4680: 4677: 4673: 4672:Hironaka 2005 4668: 4665: 4661: 4660:Hironaka 2005 4656: 4653: 4650:, p. 28. 4649: 4648:Hironaka 2005 4644: 4641: 4636: 4634:9780521010504 4630: 4626: 4625: 4617: 4614: 4609: 4607:9780521010504 4603: 4599: 4598: 4590: 4587: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4539: 4532: 4529: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4494: 4491: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4467: 4465: 4461: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4422: 4415: 4412: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4380: 4377: 4371: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4347: 4344: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4304: 4302: 4298: 4295:(3), 737–759. 4294: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4280: 4274: 4271: 4267: 4261: 4258: 4253: 4249: 4242: 4235: 4232: 4227: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4183: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4147: 4144: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4108: 4106: 4102: 4089: 4085: 4084: 4079: 4072: 4070: 4066: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4016: 4014: 4010: 4004: 4001: 3995: 3992: 3986: 3983: 3977: 3975: 3971: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3945: 3940: 3933: 3930: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3902:(1): 93–123. 3901: 3897: 3893: 3886: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3868: 3862: 3859: 3853: 3851: 3849: 3847: 3843: 3837: 3835: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3824:Collier, Paul 3821: 3820:Hironaka 2005 3815: 3812: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3765: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3741: 3738: 3735:See also the 3732: 3729: 3725: 3719: 3716: 3712: 3709: 3705: 3702: 3699:Edward Wong, 3696: 3693: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3650: 3642: 3639: 3634: 3630: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3601: 3598: 3594: 3593:Hironaka 2005 3589: 3586: 3581: 3579:0-674-01532-0 3575: 3571: 3564: 3562: 3560: 3558: 3554: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3523: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3508: 3503: 3499: 3496: 3492: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3477: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3429: 3424: 3417: 3414: 3409: 3402: 3399: 3392: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3371: 3368: 3361: 3357: 3354: 3352: 3351: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3327: 3326: 3322: 3320: 3318: 3317:conflict trap 3314: 3306: 3304: 3297: 3295: 3294:(1970–1990). 3293: 3289: 3286:(1960–1996), 3285: 3280: 3276: 3270: 3268: 3267:Marshall Plan 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3235: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3217: 3213: 3208: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3191: 3184: 3182: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3159: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3137: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3121: 3116: 3112: 3111: 3106: 3105: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3082: 3078: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2981:Charles Tilly 2977: 2971: 2967: 2965: 2961: 2953: 2948: 2940: 2933: 2931: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2880: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2810: 2806: 2804: 2800: 2799:Massachusetts 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2783:Barbary Coast 2780: 2776: 2771: 2769: 2765: 2764:Paris Commune 2756: 2753:" during the 2752: 2747: 2740: 2738: 2736: 2731: 2727: 2726: 2721: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2686: 2682: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2667: 2663: 2660: 2656: 2653: 2649: 2640: 2638: 2635: 2634:colonial rule 2631: 2623: 2621: 2618: 2614: 2606: 2604: 2598: 2596: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2544: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2531: 2526: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2503: 2501: 2498: 2492:Opportunities 2491: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2474: 2472: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2457: 2452: 2449: 2444: 2442: 2437: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2421: 2419: 2414: 2409: 2407: 2403: 2395: 2393: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2366: 2363: 2359: 2356: 2353: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2335: 2331: 2328:after rebels 2327: 2322: 2318: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2303: 2300: 2295: 2291: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2237: 2233: 2228: 2221: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2191: 2189: 2185: 2180: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2158: 2157:bellum civile 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2121: 2116: 2114: 2109: 2107: 2102: 2101: 2099: 2098: 2091: 2088: 2086: 2083: 2081: 2078: 2076: 2073: 2071: 2068: 2066: 2063: 2061: 2058: 2056: 2053: 2051: 2048: 2047: 2044: 2039: 2038: 2031: 2028: 2026: 2023: 2021: 2018: 2016: 2013: 2011: 2008: 2006: 2003: 2002: 1996: 1995: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1980: 1978: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1958: 1955: 1953: 1950: 1948: 1947:Warrior caste 1945: 1943: 1940: 1938: 1935: 1934: 1931: 1926: 1925: 1918: 1917:Show of force 1915: 1911: 1908: 1906: 1905:Peacebuilding 1903: 1902: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1858: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1842: 1839: 1834: 1833: 1826: 1823: 1819: 1816: 1815: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1793: 1789: 1787: 1784: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1761:Air supremacy 1759: 1758: 1755: 1750: 1749: 1742: 1739: 1737: 1734: 1732: 1729: 1727: 1724: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1701:Islamic rules 1699: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1681:Court-martial 1679: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1668: 1665: 1660: 1659: 1650: 1647: 1646: 1645: 1642: 1640: 1637: 1635: 1632: 1631: 1628: 1623: 1622: 1613: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1600: 1599: 1598: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1580:Arms industry 1578: 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