Nuclear fuel - Knowledge (XXG)

1490:) layer surrounds the fuel kernel of ordinary TRISO particles to better manage the excess of reactivity. If the core is equipped both with TRISO and QUADRISO fuels, at beginning of life neutrons do not reach the fuel of the QUADRISO particles because they are stopped by the burnable poison. During reactor operation, neutron irradiation of the poison causes it to "burn up" or progressively transmute to non-poison isotopes, depleting this poison effect and leaving progressively more neutrons available for sustaining the chain-reaction. This mechanism compensates for the accumulation of undesirable neutron poisons which are an unavoidable part of the fission products, as well as normal fissile fuel "burn up" or depletion. In the generalized QUADRISO fuel concept the poison can eventually be mixed with the fuel kernel or the outer pyrocarbon. The QUADRISO concept was conceived at 46: 1044:) powder is compacted to cylindrical pellets and sintered at high temperatures to produce ceramic nuclear fuel pellets with a high density and well defined physical properties and chemical composition. A grinding process is used to achieve a uniform cylindrical geometry with narrow tolerances. Such fuel pellets are then stacked and filled into the metallic tubes. The metal used for the tubes depends on the design of the reactor. Stainless steel was used in the past, but most reactors now use a 38: 1270: 1521:-type reactors. This is a low-enriched uranium oxide fuel. The fuel elements in an RBMK are 3 m long each, and two of these sit back-to-back on each fuel channel, pressure tube. Reprocessed uranium from Russian VVER reactor spent fuel is used to fabricate RBMK fuel. Following the Chernobyl accident, the enrichment of fuel was changed from 2.0% to 2.4%, to compensate for control rod modifications and the introduction of additional absorbers. 1097: 2066: 1124: 1539: 1498: 61: 6425: 4562: 2396: 1135: 1218:) pellets in zirconium alloy tubes, welded to zirconium alloy end plates. Each bundle weighs roughly 20 kilograms (44 lb), and a typical core loading is on the order of 4500–6500 bundles, depending on the design. Modern types typically have 37 identical fuel pins radially arranged about the long axis of the bundle, but in the past several different configurations and numbers of pins have been used. The 1112: 4586: 2382: 188: 3159:"The effect of fuel swelling on strains in the cladding of cylindrical fuel pins is analyzed. Simplifying assumptions are made to permit solutions for strain rates in terms of dimensionless parameters. The results of the analysis are presented in the form of equations and graphs which illustrate the volumetric swelling of the fuel and the strain rate of the fuel pin clad." 6413: 4598: 2368: 1707:

In addition information is gained which enables the users of fuel to assure themselves of its quality and it also assists in the development of new fuels. After major accidents the core (or what is left of it) is normally subject to PIE to find out what happened. One site where PIE is done is the ITU which is the EU centre for the study of highly radioactive materials.

6437: 4574: 1083:. Cladding prevents radioactive fission fragments from escaping the fuel into the coolant and contaminating it. Besides the prevention of radioactive leaks this also serves to keep the coolant as non-corrosive as feasible and to prevent reactions between chemically aggressive fission products and the coolant. For example, the highly reactive 1465: 2259:, as is done in the Sun and other stars, has also not been considered practical on Earth. Although the energy density of fusion fuel is even higher than fission fuel, and fusion reactions sustained for a few minutes have been achieved, utilizing fusion fuel as a net energy source remains only a theoretical possibility. 2176: 2304:

walls of a fusion chamber, making them radioactive. They cannot be confined by magnetic fields, because they are not electrically charged. This group consists of deuterium and helium-3. The products are all charged particles, but there may be significant side reactions leading to the production of neutrons.

1678:. The radiation hazard from spent nuclear fuel declines as its radioactive components decay, but remains high for many years. For example 10 years after removal from a reactor, the surface dose rate for a typical spent fuel assembly still exceeds 10,000 rem/hour, resulting in a fatal dose in just minutes. 1402:

stresses from processes (such as differential thermal expansion or fission gas pressure) at temperatures up to 1600 °C, and therefore can contain the fuel in the worst of accident scenarios in a properly designed reactor. Two such reactor designs are the prismatic-block gas-cooled reactor (such as the

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Under reasonable assumptions, side reactions will result in about 0.1% of the fusion power being carried by neutrons. With 123 keV, the optimum temperature for this reaction is nearly ten times higher than that for the pure hydrogen reactions, the energy confinement must be 500 times better than that

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Second-generation fuels require either higher confinement temperatures or longer confinement time than those required of first-generation fusion fuels, but generate fewer neutrons. Neutrons are an unwanted byproduct of fusion reactions in an energy generation context, because they are absorbed by the

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where a small disc of fuel is placed in a furnace. After being heated to the required temperature one side of the disc is illuminated with a laser pulse, the time required for the heat wave to flow through the disc, the density of the disc, and the thickness of the disk can then be used to calculate

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Post-Irradiation Examination (PIE) is the study of used nuclear materials such as nuclear fuel. It has several purposes. It is known that by examination of used fuel that the failure modes which occur during normal use (and the manner in which the fuel will behave during an accident) can be studied.

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Third-generation fusion fuels produce only charged particles in the primary reactions, and side reactions are relatively unimportant. Since a very small amount of neutrons is produced, there would be little induced radioactivity in the walls of the fusion chamber. This is often seen as the end goal

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from affecting neutronics and thermal hydraulics of the reactor core. In modern BWR fuel bundles, there are either 91, 92, or 96 fuel rods per assembly depending on the manufacturer. A range between 368 assemblies for the smallest and 800 assemblies for the largest BWR in the U.S. form the reactor

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Materials in a high-radiation environment (such as a reactor) can undergo unique behaviors such as swelling and non-thermal creep. If there are nuclear reactions within the material (such as what happens in the fuel), the stoichiometry will also change slowly over time. These behaviors can lead to

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Sodium-bonded fuel consists of fuel that has liquid sodium in the gap between the fuel slug (or pellet) and the cladding. This fuel type is often used for sodium-cooled liquid metal fast reactors. It has been used in EBR-I, EBR-II, and the FFTF. The fuel slug may be metallic or ceramic. The sodium

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Liquid fuels contain dissolved nuclear fuel and have been shown to offer numerous operational advantages compared to traditional solid fuel approaches. Liquid-fuel reactors offer significant safety advantages due to their inherently stable "self-adjusting" reactor dynamics. This provides two major

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Plate-type fuel has fallen out of favor over the years. Plate-type fuel is commonly composed of enriched uranium sandwiched between metal cladding. Plate-type fuel is used in several research reactors where a high neutron flux is desired, for uses such as material irradiation studies or isotope

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bundle has 43 fuel elements, with two element sizes. It is also about 10 cm (4 inches) in diameter, 0.5 m (20 in) long and weighs about 20 kg (44 lb) and replaces the 37-pin standard bundle. It has been designed specifically to increase fuel performance by utilizing two

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from the fuel to the cladding. There are about 179–264 fuel rods per fuel bundle and about 121 to 193 fuel bundles are loaded into a reactor core. Generally, the fuel bundles consist of fuel rods bundled 14×14 to 17×17. PWR fuel bundles are about 4 m (13 ft) long. In PWR fuel bundles,

2057:. The thermal atomic batteries on the other hand, convert the heat from the radioactive decay to electricity. These designs include thermionic converter, thermophotovoltaic cells, alkali-metal thermal to electric converter, and the most common design, the radioisotope thermoelectric generator. 1401:

to retain fission products at elevated temperatures and to give the TRISO particle more structural integrity, followed by a dense outer layer of PyC. TRISO particles are then encapsulated into cylindrical or spherical graphite pellets. TRISO fuel particles are designed not to crack due to the

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CerMet fuel consists of ceramic fuel particles (usually uranium oxide) embedded in a metal matrix. It is hypothesized that this type of fuel is what is used in United States Navy reactors. This fuel has high heat transport characteristics and can withstand a large amount of expansion.

1160:(PWR) fuel consists of cylindrical rods put into bundles. A uranium oxide ceramic is formed into pellets and inserted into Zircaloy tubes that are bundled together. The Zircaloy tubes are about 1 centimetre (0.4 in) in diameter, and the fuel cladding gap is filled with 2255:(He). Many other elements can be fused together, but the larger electrical charge of their nuclei means that much higher temperatures are required. Only the fusion of the lightest elements is seriously considered as a future energy source. Fusion of the lightest atom, H 2267:

Deuterium and tritium are both considered first-generation fusion fuels; they are the easiest to fuse, because the electrical charge on their nuclei is the lowest of all elements. The three most commonly cited nuclear reactions that could be used to generate energy are:

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in 1946 to many test and research reactors. Metal fuels have the potential for the highest fissile atom density. Metal fuels are normally alloyed, but some metal fuels have been made with pure uranium metal. Uranium alloys that have been used include uranium aluminum,

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are inserted through the top directly into the fuel bundle. The fuel bundles usually are enriched several percent in U. The uranium oxide is dried before inserting into the tubes to try to eliminate moisture in the ceramic fuel that can lead to corrosion and

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and radiation damage of the lattice. The low thermal conductivity can lead to overheating of the center part of the pellets during use. The porosity results in a decrease in both the thermal conductivity of the fuel and the swelling which occurs during use.

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Molten salt fuels are mixtures of actinide salts (e.g. thorium/uranium fluoride/chloride) with other salts, used in liquid form above their typical melting points of several hundred degrees C. In some molten salt-fueled reactor designs, such as the

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Molten salt fuels were used in the LFTR known as the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment, as well as other liquid core reactor experiments. The liquid fuel for the molten salt reactor was a mixture of lithium, beryllium, thorium and uranium fluorides:

2172:. This fuel provides phenomenally huge energy density, (a single gram of polonium-210 generates 140 watts thermal) but has limited use because of its very short half-life and gamma production, and has been phased out of use for this application. 1265:

Various other nuclear fuel forms find use in specific applications, but lack the widespread use of those found in BWRs, PWRs, and CANDU power plants. Many of these fuel forms are only found in research reactors, or have military applications.

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The high thermal conductivity and high melting point makes uranium carbide an attractive fuel. In addition, because of the absence of oxygen in this fuel (during the course of irradiation, excess gas pressure can build from the formation of

974:, the fuel salt is contained in fuel pins and the coolant is a separate, non-radioactive salt. There is a further category of molten salt-cooled reactors in which the fuel is not in molten salt form, but a molten salt is used for cooling. 861:

benefits: virtually eliminating the possibility of a runaway reactor meltdown, and providing an automatic load-following capability which is well suited to electricity generation and high-temperature industrial heat applications.

513:, the more plutonium is present in the spent fuel, but the available fissile plutonium is lower. Typically about one percent of the used fuel discharged from a reactor is plutonium, and some two thirds of this is fissile (c. 50% 764:

during their intense study in the 1960s and 1970s. Recently there has been a revived interest in uranium carbide in the form of plate fuel and most notably, micro fuel particles (such as tristructural-isotropic particles).

1663:. Also the fuel may well have cracked, swollen, and been heated close to its melting point. Despite the fact that the used fuel can be cracked, it is very insoluble in water, and is able to retain the vast majority of the 1367: 864:

In some liquid core designs, the fuel can be drained rapidly into a passively safe dump-tank. This advantage was conclusively demonstrated repeatedly as part of a weekly shutdown procedure during the highly successful

710:) to recover the initially used nitrogen. If the fuel could be processed in such a way as to ensure low contamination with non-radioactive carbon (not a common fission product and absent in nuclear reactors that don't 492:

reprocessed in a way that renders the plutonium in it usable for nuclear fuel but not for nuclear weapons. Reprocessing of spent commercial-reactor nuclear fuel has not been permitted in the United States due to

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launched its Reduced Enrichment for Research Test Reactors program, which promoted reactor conversion to low-enriched uranium fuel. There are 35 TRIGA reactors in the US and an additional 35 in other countries.

5188: 910:) and causes structural occlusions in solid fuel elements (leading to the early replacement of solid fuel rods with over 98% of the nuclear fuel unburned, including many long-lived actinides). In contrast, 773:

or other gases) as well as the ability to complement a ceramic coating (a ceramic-ceramic interface has structural and chemical advantages), uranium carbide could be the ideal fuel candidate for certain

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which behaves similarly (though not identically) to the enriched uranium feed for which most nuclear reactors were designed. MOX fuel is an alternative to low enriched uranium (LEU) fuel used in the

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Alrwashdeh, Mohammad; Alameri, Saeed A.; Alkaabi, Ahmed K. (2020). "Preliminary Study of a Prismatic-Core Advanced High-Temperature Reactor Fuel Using Homogenization Double-Heterogeneous Method".

148:. Alternatively, if the nucleus absorbs the neutron without splitting, it creates a heavier nucleus with one additional neutron. Not all types of nuclear fuels create power from nuclear fission; 1350:

Magnox fuel incorporated cooling fins to provide maximum heat transfer despite low operating temperatures, making it expensive to produce. While the use of uranium metal rather than oxide made

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project. The inclusion of the SiC as diffusion barrier was first suggested by D. T. Livey. The first nuclear reactor to use TRISO fuels was the Dragon reactor and the first powerplant was the

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Alrwashdeh, Mohammad, and Saeed A. Alameri. "Preliminary neutronic analysis of alternative cladding materials for APR-1400 fuel assembly." Nuclear Engineering and Design 384 (2021): 111486.

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Metal fuels have the advantage of a much higher heat conductivity than oxide fuels but cannot survive equally high temperatures. Metal fuels have a long history of use, stretching from the

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Alameri, Saeed A.; Alrwashdeh, Mohammad (2021). "Preliminary three-dimensional neutronic analysis of IFBA coated TRISO fuel particles in prismatic-core advanced high temperature reactor".

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that produce low energy beta particles or sometimes alpha particles of varying energies. Low energy beta particles are needed to prevent the production of high energy penetrating

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more straightforward and therefore cheaper, the need to reprocess fuel a short time after removal from the reactor meant that the fission product hazard was severe. Expensive

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of fusion research. He has the highest Maxwellian reactivity of any 3rd generation fusion fuel. However, there are no significant natural sources of this substance on Earth.

1190:(BWR), the fuel is similar to PWR fuel except that the bundles are "canned". That is, there is a thin tube surrounding each bundle. This is primarily done to prevent local 5198: 1687: 6079: 2419: 837:

will make up only a small isotopic impurity in the overall carbon content and thus make the entirety of the carbon content unsuitable for non-nuclear uses but the

2128:. It has a half-life of 87.7 years, reasonable energy density, and exceptionally low gamma and neutron radiation levels. Some Russian terrestrial RTGs have used 2033:

There are two main categories of atomic batteries: thermal and non-thermal. The non-thermal atomic batteries, which have many different designs, exploit charged

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is a method of reprocessing that does not rely on nitric acid, but it has only been demonstrated in relatively small scale installations whereas the established

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of 705 °C in the experiment, but could have operated at much higher temperatures since the boiling point of the molten salt was in excess of 1400 °C.

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to occur. Most cores that use this fuel are "high leakage" cores where the excess leaked neutrons can be utilized for research. That is, they can be used as a

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which, in addition to being highly corrosion-resistant, has low neutron absorption. The tubes containing the fuel pellets are sealed: these tubes are called

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Accident tolerant fuels (ATF) are a series of new nuclear fuel concepts, researched in order to improve fuel performance under accident conditions, such as

3033: 2625:"New Experimental Data on Partial Pressures of Gas Phase Components over Uranium-Zirconium Carbonitrides at High Temperatures and Its Comparative Analysis" 4971: 2695: 574: 94:

of all practical fuel sources. The processes involved in mining, refining, purifying, using, and disposing of nuclear fuel are collectively known as the

2716: 3503: 5474: 1438: 1178:. The Zircaloy tubes are pressurized with helium to try to minimize pellet-cladding interaction which can lead to fuel rod failure over long periods. 1393:(FCVD). The four layers are a porous buffer layer made of carbon that absorbs fission product recoils, followed by a dense inner layer of protective 457:

Some concern has been expressed that used MOX cores will introduce new disposal challenges, though MOX is a means to dispose of surplus plutonium by

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during an accident. This research is focused on reconsidering the design of fuel pellets and cladding, as well as the interactions between the two.

3675: 3318: 2671: 1990:(also called a nuclear battery or radioisotope battery) is a device which uses the radioactive decay to generate electricity. These systems use 4295: 3169:

Nuclear Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, US Department of Energy (15 January 2008) International Nuclear Safety Center (INSC)

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dramatically and incinerates the vast majority of its own waste as part of the normal operational characteristics. A downside to letting the

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is mixed with an organic binder and pressed into pellets. The pellets are then fired at a much higher temperature (in hydrogen or argon) to

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process is used commercially for about a third of all spent nuclear fuel (the rest being largely subject to a "once through fuel cycle").

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as fuel cladding. Working pressure varies from 6.9 to 19.35 bars (100.1 to 280.6 psi) for the steel pressure vessels, and the two

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Neutronics analyses were performed for the application of the new fuel-cladding material systems for various types of ATF materials.

1141:(also known as a fuel bundle) This fuel assembly is from a pressurized water reactor of the nuclear-powered passenger and cargo ship 4999: 4878: 2414: 1214:(CANDU) fuel bundles are about 0.5 metres (20 in) long and 10 centimetres (4 in) in diameter. They consist of sintered (UO 3249: 1111: 3644: 6229: 6094: 4629: 4422: 1850: 2912:

Zinkle, S.J.; Terrani, K.A.; Gehin, J.C.; Ott, L.J.; Snead, L.L. (May 2014). "Accident tolerant fuels for LWRs: A perspective".

6172: 6006: 5844: 5608: 5486: 5143: 5004: 3353: 2148:; this isotope has a shorter half-life and a much lower energy density, but is cheaper. Early RTGs, first built in 1958 by the 967: 555: 474: 4602: 6162: 6011: 5469: 4432: 866: 619: 3490: 3369: 1234:

compared to light water), however, some newer concepts call for low enrichment to help reduce the size of the reactors. The

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Two main modes of release exist, the fission products can be vaporised or small particles of the fuel can be dispersed.

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fuels other than oxides have the advantage of high heat conductivities and melting points, but they are more prone to

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different pin diameters. Current CANDU designs do not need enriched uranium to achieve criticality (due to the lower

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or other uranium salt in water. Historically, AHRs have all been small research reactors, not large power reactors.

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Alberto Talamo (July 2010) A novel concept of QUADRISO particles. Part II: Utilization for excess reactivity control

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is defined as the time required for the non illuminated surface to experience half its final temperature rise then.

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metal, and it goes down as the temperature goes up. Corrosion of uranium dioxide in water is controlled by similar

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the thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide can be predicted under different conditions by a series of equations.

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0.845 mm TRISO fuel particle which has been cracked, showing multiple layers that are coating the spherical kernel

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Cladding is the outer layer of the fuel rods, standing between the coolant and the nuclear fuel. It is made of a

1052:. The finished fuel rods are grouped into fuel assemblies that are used to build up the core of a power reactor. 577:, meaning that as the temperature of the core increases, the reactivity decreases—so it is highly unlikely for a 542:(UZrH), and uranium zirconium carbonitride. Any of the aforementioned fuels can be made with plutonium and other 539: 535: 1195:

core. Each BWR fuel rod is backfilled with helium to a pressure of about 3 standard atmospheres (300 kPa).

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metal fuel with a non-oxidising covering to contain fission products. This material has the advantage of a low

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escape instead of allowing it to capture neutrons converting it to the basically stable and chemically inert

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which reacts strongly with water, producing hydrogen, and which is among the more common fission products.

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Tristructural-isotropic (TRISO) fuel is a type of micro-particle fuel. A particle consists of a kernel of

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fuels except for Japan. Normally, with the fuel being changed every three years or so, about half of the

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production, without the high temperatures seen in ceramic, cylindrical fuel. It is currently used in the

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Non-Destructive Examination of SiC Nuclear Fuel Shell using X-Ray Fluorescence Microtomography Technique

3188:(2001) 413–422. A Laser Flash Apparatus for Thermal Diffusivity and Specific Heat Capacity Measurements 2464: 1858: 1563: 1546: 1419: 1187: 991: 606:. It can be made inherently safe as thermal expansion of the metal alloy will increase neutron leakage. 494: 466: 458: 3322: 2767: 2221:

contains 82 of these units (in addition to its 3 main RTGs for power generation). The Huygens probe to

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is much higher than that of the metal and because it cannot burn, being already in the oxidized state.

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Their function is to provide highly localised heating of sensitive equipment (such as electronics in

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for a considerably longer period than the existing fuel designs and prevent or delay the release of

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https://pubs.aip.org/aip/adv/article/9/7/075112/22584/Reactor-Monte-Carlo-RMC-model-validation-and

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was originally designed for non-enriched fuel but since switched to slightly enriched fuel with a

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Alhattawi, Nouf T.; Alrwashdeh, Mohammad; Alameri, Saeed A.; Alaleeli, Maitha M. (2023-08-15).

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designs operated at 24.8 and 27 bars (24.5 and 26.6 atm). Magnox alloy consists mainly of

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are capable of retaining the fuel mixture for significantly extended periods, which increases

782:. While the neutron cross section of carbon is low, during years of burnup, the predominantly 153: 3563:"The Use of Molybdenum-Based Ceramic-Metal (CerMet) Fuel for the Actinide Management in LWRs" 3539: 1595:(LOCA) or reaction-initiated accidents (RIA). These concerns became more prominent after the 1553:

uses plate-type fuel in a clover leaf arrangement. The blue glow around the core is known as

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required for the D-T reaction, and the power density will be 2500 times lower than for D-T.

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It reacts with water, preventing long-term storage of spent fuel under water - such as in a

1296: 1269: 1254: 1191: 849: 669: 656:. Uranium nitride has a very high melting point. This fuel has the disadvantage that unless 645: 578: 498: 443: 274: 191:

The thermal conductivity of zirconium metal and uranium dioxide as a function of temperature

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Molten plutonium, alloyed with other metals to lower its melting point and encapsulated in

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is 'burned' in the reactor, providing about one third of the total energy. It behaves like

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in Japan. In the United States, spherical fuel elements utilizing a TRISO particle with a

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to enable recovery of the N. It is likely that if the fuel was processed and dissolved in

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All nitrogen-fluoride compounds are volatile or gaseous at room temperature and could be

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produces. One advantage is that uranium nitride has a better thermal conductivity than UO

585:. TRIGA fuel was originally designed to use highly enriched uranium, however in 1978 the 3445: 2964: 2925: 6157: 6137: 6132: 6127: 5877: 5784: 5753: 5735: 5259: 5165: 5111: 5076: 5009: 4956: 4810: 4703: 4688: 4678: 4542: 4491: 4466: 4270: 4235: 4168: 4158: 4074: 4054: 4049: 4034: 4004: 3984: 3942: 3920: 3902: 3802: 3792: 3728: 3641: 3253: 2444: 2042: 2034: 1995: 1987: 1981: 1656: 1644: 1479: 1426: 1308: 1292: 1007: 890: 582: 208: 161: 145: 137: 91: 54: 50: 17: 1538: 1497: 679:

needed for such a fuel would be so expensive it is likely that the fuel would require

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The aim of the research is to develop nuclear fuels that can tolerate loss of active

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TRISO fuel particles were originally developed in the United Kingdom as part of the

1134: 5888: 5024: 4966: 4893: 4845: 4346: 4290: 4240: 4044: 3817: 3750: 2240: 2234: 2222: 2154: 2130: 2099: 2046: 1991: 1652: 1614: 1514: 1483: 1084: 954: 852:

discharged from reactors where it was used as a moderator presents the same issue.

366: 113: 3557:

Thoria-based Cermet Nuclear Fuel: Sintered Microsphere Fabrication by Spray Drying

3453: 3424: 3364:

The Evolution of CANDU Fuel Cycles and their Potential Contribution to World Peace

3341: 2973: 2948: 2933: 1198: 3376: 2781:

Price, M. S. T. (2012). "The Dragon Project origins, achievements and legacies".

6299: 5946: 5536: 5043: 5014: 4351: 4317: 4191: 4181: 4124: 4107: 4092: 4039: 3937: 3393: 3101:"Chromium-Coated Zirconium Cladding Neutronics Impact for APR-1400 Reactor Core" 2881:"SiC and FeCrAl as Potential Cladding Materials for APR-1400 Neutronic Analysis" 2395: 2210: 2095: 1735: 1228: 1170: 1142: 942: 684: 661: 657: 622:

in the 1960s. LAMPRE experienced three separate fuel failures during operation.

308: 121: 117: 3398: 3203: 3010: 2997: 2845:"Development Status of Accident-tolerant Fuel for Light WaterReactors in Korea" 848:

concentration will be too low for use in nuclear batteries without enrichment.

4385: 4307: 4245: 4213: 4153: 3847: 3227: 2949:"Sensitivity neutronic analysis of accident tolerant fuel concepts in APR1400" 2861: 2844: 2768:"Dual Fluid Reactor – Variant with Liquid Metal Fissionable Material (DFR/ M)" 2363: 2023: 895: 152:

and some other isotopes are used to produce small amounts of nuclear power by

3019: 2982: 2650: 1456:, and Kairos Power is developing a 140 MWE nuclear reactor that uses TRISO. 6294: 5657: 5647: 4775: 4728: 4693: 4395: 4322: 4196: 4176: 4148: 4087: 3157:

Armin F. Lietzke (Jan 1970) Simplified Analysis of Nuclear Fuel Pin Swelling

2381: 2244: 2011: 1739: 1664: 1660: 1640: 1386: 1320: 1316: 1076: 1056: 878: 665: 435: 351: 340: 187: 132:, they frequently split, creating two daughter nuclei and two or three more 6152: 2206:

of plutonium-238. This heat is given off continuously for several decades.

369:

during normal operation in the core environment, a small percentage of the

970:(LFTR), this fuel salt is also the coolant; in other designs, such as the 573:) reactors. The TRIGA reactor uses UZrH fuel, which has a prompt negative 180:; the oxides are used rather than the metals themselves because the oxide 6383: 6177: 6026: 6021: 5961: 5630: 5558: 5541: 5526: 5501: 5244: 4733: 4131: 4112: 4097: 3797: 3363: 2710:"LAHDRA: Los Alamos Historical Document Retrieval and Assessment Project" 2256: 2252: 1723: 1453: 1430: 1068: 1045: 1023: 676: 615: 543: 422: 266: 105: 3034:"State-of-the-Art Report on Light Water Reactor Accident-Tolerant Fuels" 6352: 6304: 6167: 6147: 5546: 5521: 4961: 4850: 4792: 4780: 4758: 4723: 4265: 3807: 3296: 3117: 3100: 3084: 3067: 2897: 2880: 2641: 2624: 2585: 2282: 2273: 2248: 2015: 1904: 1766: 1751: 1636: 1610: 1487: 1328: 1324: 1219: 1087: 630: 281: 173: 133: 83: 31: 2808: 2175: 618:, was tested in two experimental reactors, LAMPRE I and LAMPRE II, at 546:

as part of a closed nuclear fuel cycle. Metal fuels have been used in

461:. Reprocessing of commercial nuclear fuel to make MOX was done in the 331:

which is then converted by heating with hydrogen or ammonia to form UO

5956: 5951: 5931: 5911: 5896: 5779: 5516: 5496: 5464: 4614: 3812: 3733: 3684: 2348: 2333: 2309: 2291: 2218: 2019: 2007: 2003: 1434: 1403: 1288: 1283: 1161: 1080: 1079:

with small amount of aluminium and other metals for the now-obsolete

510: 3533:"A Review of Fifty Years of Space Nuclear Fuel Development Programs" 1998:

radiation that would require heavy shielding. Radioisotopes such as

1464: 509:

and its fission releases a similar amount of energy. The higher the

5506: 6373: 6330: 5993: 5849: 5652: 5642: 2843:

Kim, Hyun-Gil; Yang, Jae-Ho; Kim, Weon-Ju; Koo, Yang-Hyun (2016).

2341: 2174: 2064: 1747: 1537: 1496: 1463: 1422:

that is attempting to reach even higher HTGR outlet temperatures.

1365: 1268: 1197: 1133: 1072: 873: 696: 566: 186: 177: 59: 44: 36: 3272: 343:

the solid. The aim is to form a dense solid which has few pores.

5854: 5743: 5553: 5511: 4186: 4119: 4102: 3770: 3620: 3066:

Alaleeli, Maithah; Alameri, Saeed; Alrwashdeh, Mohammad (2022).

2203: 2199: 1518: 1366: 1238:

in Argentina, a similar design to the CANDU but built by German

649: 6249: 5421: 5408: 4618: 3657: 1504:

1 – distancing armature; 2 – fuel rods shell; 3 – fuel tablets.

5827: 5691: 2124:

has become the most widely used fuel for RTGs, in the form of

1202:

CANDU fuel bundles, each about 50 cm long, 10 cm in diameter.

3496:

LANL webpage showing various stages of TRISO fuel production

1711:

new material properties, cracking, and fission gas release.

3202:. World Nuclear Association. September 2009. Archived from 2340:

Another potential aneutronic fusion reaction is the proton-

373:

in the fuel absorbs excess neutrons and is transmuted into

1418:(VHTRs), one of the six classes of reactor designs in the 3653: 3501:

Method to calculate the temperature profile in TRISO fuel

1385:

or UCO), which has been coated with four layers of three

1148:. Designed and built by the Babcock & Wilcox Company. 740:

is proposed for use in particularly long lived low power

714:) then fluoride volatility could be used to separate the 465:(England). As of 2015, MOX fuel is made in France at the 1769:

of the fuel can be related to the thermal conductivity.

1331:

capture cross-section, but has two major disadvantages:

893:

and is produced both directly and as a decay product of

2623:

Bulatov, G. S.; German, Konstantin E. (December 2022).

1799:) is related to the conductivity of the perfect phase ( 1583:

bonding is used to reduce the temperature of the fuel.

1572:

University of Massachusetts Lowell Radiation Laboratory

413:

at the end of the 18 to 24 month fuel exposure period.

128:. When the unstable nuclei of these atoms are hit by a 3139:. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). 2021-06-23 2996:

Alrwashdeh, Mohammad; Alameri, Saeed A. (2023-05-08).

957:

and can be taken up by organisms in their metabolism.

405:

at initiation of the fuel use to a ratio of about 70%

1414:(HTGRs). These are also the basic reactor designs of 706:

from the other gaseous products (including recovered

648:

is often the fuel of choice for reactor designs that

569:

fuel is used in TRIGA (Training, Research, Isotopes,

350:

of uranium dioxide is very low compared with that of

3342:

Links to BWR photos from the nuclear tourist webpage

2425:

Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents

1808:, no porosity) by the following equation. Note that 1291:(magnesium non-oxidising) reactors are pressurised, 6361: 6313: 6270: 6212: 6113: 6043: 5992: 5983: 5910: 5876: 5867: 5826: 5819: 5799: 5752: 5734: 5690: 5595: 5577: 5445: 5359: 5292: 5237: 5228: 5176: 5084: 5075: 5042: 4985: 4947: 4938: 4859: 4791: 4714: 4656: 4530: 4406: 4254: 4167: 4073: 3913: 3714: 1790:

Then the thermal conductivity of the porous phase (

1603:(LWR) fuels performance under accident conditions. 1323:and other metals—used in cladding unenriched 1129:

NRC photo of fresh fuel assemblies being inspected.

1117:

NRC photo of fresh fuel pellets ready for assembly.

172:For fission reactors, the fuel (typically based on 30:"Fuel rod" redirects here. Not to be confused with 5377:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 3394:CANDU Fuel and Reactor Specifics (Nuclear Tourist) 1688:Behavior of nuclear fuel during a reactor accident 668:would be generated from the nitrogen by the (n,p) 1738:), the precipitation of fission products such as 1335:It limits the maximum temperature, and hence the 1105:(NRC) photo of unirradiated (fresh) fuel pellets. 637:than oxide fuels and are not understood as well. 3099:Alrwashdeh, Mohammad; Alameri, Saeed A. (2022). 2879:Alrwashdeh, Mohammad; Alameri, Saeed A. (2022). 2420:Integrated Nuclear Fuel Cycle Information System 1967:For details see K. Shinzato and T. Baba (2001). 1358:facilities were required to address this issue. 876:gas, which normally acts as a neutron absorber ( 401:accumulates the chain reaction shifts from pure 3599:List of reactors at INL and picture of ATR core 793:will undergo neutron capture to produce stable 2500:split will result in roughly 35 grams each of 2239:Fusion fuels are fuels to use in hypothetical 2202:of heat each, derived from the decay of a few 1696:Fuel behavior and post-irradiation examination 1631:Used nuclear fuel is a complex mixture of the 86:. Heat is created when nuclear fuel undergoes 6080:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 4630: 3669: 1812:is a term for the shape factor of the holes. 760:is in the form of pin-type fuel elements for 8: 1452:solid solution kernel are being used in the 488:to form an international partnership to see 108:elements that are capable of undergoing and 3182:Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 3002:Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering 1022:(DFR) has a variant DFR/m which works with 691:with N would be diluted with the common N. 6246: 6057: 5989: 5873: 5823: 5816: 5592: 5418: 5405: 5234: 5081: 4944: 4653: 4637: 4623: 4615: 3676: 3662: 3654: 2489:are roughly 6%, meaning every kilogram of 1570:, and the nuclear research reactor at the 575:fuel temperature coefficient of reactivity 469:, and to a lesser extent in Russia at the 3116: 3083: 3009: 2972: 2896: 2860: 2640: 1439:high-temperature engineering test reactor 1410:(PBR). Both of these reactor designs are 64:Close-up of a replica of the core of the 3287:Picture showing handling of a PWR bundle 2600:"Uranium Fuel Cycle | nuclear-power.com" 1870:and determine the thermal conductivity. 1026:liquid metal alloys, e.g. U-Cr or U-Fe. 990:(72-16-12-0.4 mol%). It had a peak 477:fast breeder reactors and reprocessing. 393:has a higher neutron cross section than 303: 299: 295: 291: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 3491:Description of TRISO fuel for "pebbles" 2561: 2456: 1092: 826:produced by using uranium nitrate, the 538:, uranium silicon, uranium molybdenum, 265:This is then converted by heating with 6007:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 4296:Integrated gasification combined cycle 2694:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2687: 2098:from a radioisotope using an array of 1853:using the traditional methods such as 1397:(PyC), followed by a ceramic layer of 1389:materials deposited through fluidized 660:was used (in place of the more common 158:radioisotope thermoelectric generators 6012:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 4340:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator 4015:Quantum chromodynamics binding energy 2874: 2872: 2088:radioisotope thermoelectric generator 2082:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator 2061:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator 7: 6436: 4573: 3617:"General Atomics TRIGA fuel website" 3319:"Picture of a "canned" BWR assembly" 2055:radioisotope piezoelectric generator 1776:is the bulk density of the fuel and 1726:and burn-up. The burn-up results in 1682:Oxide fuel under accident conditions 6017:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 4597: 4482:World energy supply and consumption 3133:"Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste" 1760:International Nuclear Safety Center 4977:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 3642:Advanced fusion fuels presentation 3520:Conceptual Design of QUADRISO Fuel 2849:Nuclear Engineering and Technology 2580:(4th ed.). pp. 338–341. 1851:measuring the thermal conductivity 1783:is the theoretical density of the 1599:in Japan, in particular regarding 1597:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster 385:which in turn rapidly decays into 27:Material fuelling nuclear reactors 25: 5000:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 4899:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 2415:Global Nuclear Energy Partnership 2198:(RHU) typically provides about 1 998:Aqueous solutions of uranyl salts 953:, which behaves similar to other 872:A liquid core is able to release 482:Global Nuclear Energy Partnership 207:solid. It can be made by heating 101:Most nuclear fuels contain heavy 6435: 6424: 6423: 6411: 6100:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 4596: 4584: 4572: 4561: 4560: 3337:Physical description of LWR fuel 3269:"Picture of a PWR fuel assembly" 2394: 2380: 2366: 1746:due to fission products such as 1257:higher than in natural uranium. 1122: 1110: 1095: 176:) is usually based on the metal 5189:Historical stockpiles and tests 3434:Nuclear Science and Engineering 3179:K. Shinzato and T. Baba (2001) 2795:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2011.12.024 2722:from the original on 2016-04-15 2677:from the original on 2016-10-21 1742:, the formation of fission gas 968:liquid fluoride thorium reactor 556:Experimental Breeder Reactor II 495:nonproliferation considerations 90:. Nuclear fuel has the highest 6090:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 4972:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 3370:"CANDU Fuel-Management Course" 3232:by Argonne National Laboratory 2742:"Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors" 2629:Journal of Nuclear Engineering 2184:Radioisotope heater unit (RHU) 1651:; often the fuel will contain 1513:RBMK reactor fuel was used in 1416:very-high-temperature reactors 1307:(i.e. unenriched) as fuel and 1153:Pressurized water reactor fuel 867:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment 620:Los Alamos National Laboratory 1: 6418:Nuclear technology portal 3454:10.1080/00295639.2019.1672511 3425:10.1016/j.anucene.2021.108551 2974:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2023.154487 2934:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2013.12.005 2299:Second-generation fusion fuel 2150:U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 1412:high temperature gas reactors 1212:Canada deuterium uranium fuel 1207:Canada deuterium uranium fuel 1103:Nuclear Regulatory Commission 1059:-resistant material with low 486:George W. Bush administration 6280:Field-reversed configuration 5890:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 3293:"Mitsubishi nuclear fuel Co" 2953:Journal of Nuclear Materials 2914:Journal of Nuclear Materials 2746:Forum on Physics and Society 2317:Third-generation fusion fuel 2263:First-generation fusion fuel 2051:optoelectric nuclear battery 2041:. These designs include the 1963:is the thickness of the disc 1702:Post Irradiation Examination 1502:RBMK reactor fuel rod holder 1362:Tristructural-isotropic fuel 1075:in modern constructions, or 1004:aqueous homogeneous reactors 756:Much of what is known about 6237:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 5184:States with nuclear weapons 3479:GT-MHR fuel compact process 3399:Candu Fuel Rods and Bundles 3354:CANDU Fuel pictures and FAQ 2578:Chemical Process Industries 2312:(14.68 MeV) + He (3.67 MeV) 2276:(14.07 MeV) + He (3.52 MeV) 2179:Photo of a disassembled RHU 1492:Argonne National Laboratory 484:was a U.S. proposal in the 471:Mining and Chemical Combine 6500: 6075:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 5199:Tests in the United States 3230:Plutonium Fuel Fabrication 3011:10.1007/s13369-023-07905-7 2320: 2285:(2.45 MeV) + He (0.82 MeV) 2232: 2187: 2079: 2043:direct charging generators 1979: 1722:is low; it is affected by 1699: 1685: 1624: 1281: 1236:Atucha nuclear power plant 1182:Boiling water reactor fuel 1033: 762:liquid metal fast reactors 420: 389:. The small percentage of 112:. The three most relevant 110:sustaining nuclear fission 29: 6405: 6260: 6200:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 6095:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 6060: 5902:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 5432: 5417: 5404: 4652: 4556: 4286:Fossil fuel power station 3948:Electric potential energy 3893:Thermodynamic temperature 3873:Thermodynamic free energy 3868:Thermodynamic equilibrium 3691: 2862:10.1016/j.net.2015.11.011 2374:Nuclear technology portal 2294:(3.02 MeV) + H (1.01 MeV) 2235:Fusion power § Fuels 2094:which converts heat into 1568:Idaho National Laboratory 1551:Idaho National Laboratory 1391:chemical vapor deposition 1158:Pressurized water reactor 1006:(AHRs) use a solution of 587:U.S. Department of Energy 540:uranium zirconium hydride 473:, India and Japan. China 82:to produce heat to power 6105:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 5721:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 5057:Electron-beam processing 4357:Concentrated solar power 3413:Annals of Nuclear Energy 2196:radioisotope heater unit 2190:Radioisotope heater unit 1971:Radioisotope decay fuels 1593:loss-of-coolant accident 1474:In QUADRISO particles a 1420:Generation IV initiative 1061:absorption cross section 140:that is controlled in a 6220:Organic nuclear reactor 5392:Nuclear power phase-out 5315:Nuclear decommissioning 5255:Reactor-grade plutonium 5005:Targeted alpha-particle 4884:Accidents and incidents 3898:Volume (thermodynamics) 3878:Thermodynamic potential 3781:Mass–energy equivalence 2402:Renewable energy portal 2243:reactors. They include 1730:being dissolved in the 1587:Accident tolerant fuels 1476:burnable neutron poison 1014:Liquid metals or alloys 889:is the strongest known 804:as well as radioactive 780:gas-cooled fast reactor 626:Non-oxide ceramic fuels 307:. This is then heated ( 284:to form a solid called 144:, or uncontrolled in a 18:Cladding (nuclear fuel) 3853:Quantum thermodynamics 3843:Laws of thermodynamics 3724:Conservation of energy 3469:TRISO fuel descripción 3359:Basics on CANDU design 3200:"Nuclear Fusion Power" 2465:fission product yields 2180: 2077: 1865:, it is common to use 1558: 1505: 1471: 1371: 1319:with small amounts of 1274: 1261:Less-common fuel forms 1203: 1188:boiling water reactors 1176:hydrogen embrittlement 1149: 776:Generation IV reactors 725:produced by producing 704:fractionally distilled 273:. It can be made from 192: 80:nuclear power stations 72: 70:Institut Laue-Langevin 57: 42: 5382:Anti-nuclear movement 3970:Interatomic potential 3761:Energy transformation 2225:contains 35 devices. 2178: 2068: 1645:transplutonium metals 1564:Advanced Test Reactor 1547:Advanced Test Reactor 1541: 1500: 1467: 1369: 1272: 1201: 1137: 1030:Common physical forms 992:operating temperature 712:use it as a moderator 664:), a large amount of 552:fast breeder reactors 467:Marcoule Nuclear Site 365:While exposed to the 190: 63: 48: 40: 6469:Nuclear reprocessing 6290:Reversed field pinch 6085:Traveling-wave (TWR) 5569:Supercritical (SCWR) 5067:Gemstone irradiation 4418:Efficient energy use 4391:Airborne wind energy 4369:Solar thermal energy 4276:Electricity delivery 3888:Thermodynamic system 3833:Irreversible process 3250:"NEI fuel schematic" 2351:+ B → 3 He (8.7 MeV) 2092:electrical generator 1976:Radioisotope battery 1897:thermal conductivity 1867:Laser Flash Analysis 1716:thermal conductivity 1517:-designed and built 1352:nuclear reprocessing 912:molten-salt reactors 869:from 1965 to 1969. 727:carbon tetrafluoride 708:uranium hexafluoride 600:fast-neutron reactor 548:light-water reactors 463:Sellafield MOX Plant 448:light water reactors 381:rapidly decays into 362:of a metal surface. 348:thermal conductivity 278:uranium hexafluoride 78:is material used in 41:Nuclear fuel process 5455:Aqueous homogeneous 5250:Reprocessed uranium 4923:Safety and security 4440:Energy conservation 4362:Photovoltaic system 4335:Nuclear power plant 4020:Quantum fluctuation 3883:Thermodynamic state 3858:Thermal equilibrium 3446:2020NSE...194..163A 2965:2023JNuM..58254487A 2926:2014JNuM..448..374Z 2740:Hargraves, Robert. 2524:isotopes of caesium 2440:Reprocessed uranium 1926:thermal diffusivity 1601:light-water reactor 1555:Cherenkov radiation 1313:reinforced concrete 1040:Uranium dioxide (UO 972:stable salt reactor 693:Fluoride volatility 160:and other types of 130:slow-moving neutron 6474:Nuclear technology 6369:Dense plasma focus 5284:Actinide chemistry 4749:Isotope separation 4646:Nuclear technology 4477:Sustainable energy 4455:Energy development 4445:Energy consumption 4281:Energy engineering 3647:2016-04-15 at the 3506:2016-04-15 at the 3484:2006-03-06 at the 3118:10.3390/en15218008 3085:10.3390/en15145204 2898:10.3390/en15103772 2642:10.3390/jne3040022 2435:Nuclear fuel cycle 2181: 2090:(RTG) is a simple 2078: 2076:RTGs before launch 2030:have been tested. 1627:Spent nuclear fuel 1621:Spent nuclear fuel 1578:Sodium-bonded fuel 1559: 1506: 1472: 1408:pebble-bed reactor 1372: 1337:thermal efficiency 1275: 1253:content about 0.1 1225:neutron absorption 1204: 1192:density variations 1150: 1036:Active fuel length 1020:dual fluid reactor 687:that the nitrogen 531:Clementine reactor 490:spent nuclear fuel 450:which predominate 360:galvanic corrosion 286:ammonium diuranate 193: 96:nuclear fuel cycle 73: 58: 49:A graph comparing 43: 6479:Nuclear chemistry 6451: 6450: 6401: 6400: 6397: 6396: 6348:Magnetized-target 6245: 6244: 6208: 6207: 6039: 6038: 6035: 6034: 5979: 5978: 5863: 5862: 5795: 5794: 5400: 5399: 5355: 5354: 5224: 5223: 5211:Weapon-free zones 5038: 5037: 5030:Radiopharmacology 4612: 4611: 4379:Solar power tower 4025:Quantum potential 3863:Thermal reservoir 3766:Energy transition 2783:Nucl. Eng. Design 2430:Nuclear fuel bank 2323:Aneutronic fusion 2126:plutonium dioxide 1758:According to the 1469:QUADRISO Particle 1437:in China and the 1273:A Magnox fuel rod 1255:percentage points 1139:PWR fuel assembly 746:diamond batteries 742:nuclear batteries 550:and liquid metal 536:uranium zirconium 358:processes to the 280:by reacting with 154:radioactive decay 16:(Redirected from 6491: 6439: 6438: 6427: 6426: 6416: 6415: 6414: 6326: 6285:Levitated dipole 6255: 6247: 6195:Helium gas (GFR) 6058: 6053: 5990: 5874: 5824: 5817: 5812: 5811: 5593: 5589: 5588: 5427: 5419: 5411:Nuclear reactors 5406: 5305:High-level (HLW) 5235: 5082: 5062:Food irradiation 5052:Atomic gardening 4945: 4928:Nuclear meltdown 4754:Nuclear material 4744:Fissile material 4739:Fertile material 4654: 4639: 4632: 4625: 4616: 4600: 4599: 4588: 4576: 4575: 4564: 4563: 4538:Carbon footprint 4472:Renewable energy 4313:Hydroelectricity 4303:Geothermal power 3746:Energy condition 3678: 3671: 3664: 3655: 3631: 3629: 3628: 3619:. Archived from 3583: 3581: 3580: 3574: 3568:. Archived from 3567: 3553: 3551: 3550: 3544: 3538:. Archived from 3537: 3465: 3428: 3390: 3388: 3387: 3381: 3375:. Archived from 3374: 3333: 3331: 3330: 3321:. Archived from 3307: 3305: 3304: 3295:. Archived from 3283: 3281: 3280: 3271:. Archived from 3264: 3262: 3261: 3252:. Archived from 3233: 3215: 3214: 3212: 3211: 3196: 3190: 3177: 3171: 3166: 3160: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3145: 3144: 3129: 3123: 3122: 3120: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3087: 3063: 3057: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3045: 3044: 3038:www.oecd-nea.org 3030: 3024: 3023: 3013: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2976: 2944: 2938: 2937: 2920:(1–3): 374–379. 2909: 2903: 2902: 2900: 2876: 2867: 2866: 2864: 2840: 2834: 2829: 2823: 2822: 2820: 2819: 2805: 2799: 2798: 2778: 2772: 2771: 2764: 2758: 2757: 2755: 2753: 2737: 2731: 2730: 2728: 2727: 2721: 2714: 2706: 2700: 2699: 2693: 2685: 2683: 2682: 2676: 2669: 2661: 2655: 2654: 2644: 2620: 2614: 2613: 2611: 2610: 2596: 2590: 2589: 2570:R. Norris Shreve 2566: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2544: 2536: 2534: 2533: 2521: 2519: 2518: 2510: 2508: 2507: 2499: 2497: 2496: 2488: 2486: 2485: 2477: 2475: 2474: 2461: 2410:Fissile material 2404: 2399: 2398: 2390: 2385: 2384: 2376: 2371: 2370: 2369: 2336:+ He (12.86 MeV) 2171: 2169: 2168: 2161: 2160: 2147: 2145: 2144: 2137: 2136: 2123: 2121: 2120: 2113: 2112: 2014:have been used. 1728:fission products 1669:fission products 1633:fission products 1395:pyrolytic carbon 1381:fuel (sometimes 1252: 1250: 1249: 1126: 1114: 1099: 1065:thermal neutrons 952: 949: 948: 939: 937: 936: 928: 926: 925: 905: 902: 901: 888: 885: 884: 850:Nuclear graphite 847: 845: 844: 836: 834: 833: 825: 823: 822: 814: 812: 811: 803: 801: 800: 792: 790: 789: 739: 737: 736: 724: 722: 721: 610:Molten plutonium 520: 516: 508: 504: 499:research reactor 475:plans to develop 444:depleted uranium 434:, is a blend of 412: 408: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 322: 321: 320: 306: 261: 222: 221: 220: 162:atomic batteries 114:fissile isotopes 66:research reactor 21: 6499: 6498: 6494: 6493: 6492: 6490: 6489: 6488: 6454: 6453: 6452: 6447: 6412: 6410: 6393: 6357: 6324: 6309: 6266: 6256: 6251: 6241: 6204: 6109: 6054: 6047: 6046: 6031: 5975: 5906: 5881: 5859: 5831: 5813: 5806: 5805: 5804: 5791: 5757: 5748: 5730: 5695: 5686: 5600: 5583: 5582: 5581: 5573: 5487:Natural fission 5441: 5440: 5428: 5423: 5413: 5396: 5372:Nuclear weapons 5351: 5310:Low-level (LLW) 5288: 5220: 5172: 5071: 5034: 4981: 4934: 4855: 4787: 4710: 4648: 4643: 4613: 4608: 4552: 4548:Waste-to-energy 4526: 4462:Energy security 4408: 4402: 4258: 4250: 4229:Natural uranium 4163: 4144:Mechanical wave 4075:Energy carriers 4069: 3909: 3838:Isolated system 3716: 3710: 3687: 3682: 3649:Wayback Machine 3638: 3626: 3624: 3615: 3612: 3590: 3588:Plate type fuel 3578: 3576: 3572: 3565: 3561: 3548: 3546: 3542: 3535: 3531: 3528: 3516: 3508:Wayback Machine 3486:Wayback Machine 3431: 3410: 3407: 3385: 3383: 3379: 3372: 3368: 3350: 3328: 3326: 3317: 3314: 3302: 3300: 3291: 3278: 3276: 3267: 3259: 3257: 3248: 3245: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3218: 3209: 3207: 3198: 3197: 3193: 3178: 3174: 3167: 3163: 3155: 3151: 3142: 3140: 3131: 3130: 3126: 3098: 3097: 3093: 3065: 3064: 3060: 3055: 3051: 3042: 3040: 3032: 3031: 3027: 2995: 2994: 2990: 2946: 2945: 2941: 2911: 2910: 2906: 2878: 2877: 2870: 2842: 2841: 2837: 2830: 2826: 2817: 2815: 2807: 2806: 2802: 2780: 2779: 2775: 2766: 2765: 2761: 2751: 2749: 2739: 2738: 2734: 2725: 2723: 2719: 2712: 2708: 2707: 2703: 2686: 2680: 2678: 2674: 2667: 2665:"Archived copy" 2663: 2662: 2658: 2622: 2621: 2617: 2608: 2606: 2598: 2597: 2593: 2568: 2567: 2563: 2558: 2553: 2552: 2543: 2541: 2540: 2539: 2538: 2532: 2530: 2529: 2528: 2527: 2517: 2515: 2514: 2513: 2512: 2506: 2504: 2503: 2502: 2501: 2495: 2493: 2492: 2491: 2490: 2484: 2482: 2481: 2480: 2479: 2473: 2471: 2470: 2469: 2468: 2462: 2458: 2453: 2400: 2393: 2386: 2379: 2372: 2367: 2365: 2362: 2325: 2319: 2301: 2265: 2251:(H) as well as 2237: 2231: 2215:Cassini–Huygens 2192: 2186: 2167: 2165: 2164: 2163: 2159: 2157: 2156: 2155: 2153: 2143: 2141: 2140: 2139: 2135: 2133: 2132: 2131: 2129: 2119: 2117: 2116: 2115: 2111: 2109: 2108: 2107: 2105: 2084: 2063: 1984: 1978: 1973: 1955: 1937: 1916: 1885: 1832: 1823: 1807: 1798: 1785:uranium dioxide 1782: 1720:uranium dioxide 1704: 1698: 1690: 1684: 1676:crystal lattice 1673:uranium dioxide 1659:metals such as 1629: 1623: 1589: 1580: 1536: 1534:Plate-type fuel 1527: 1511: 1462: 1446: 1379: 1364: 1356:remote handling 1344:spent fuel pool 1339:, of the plant. 1305:natural uranium 1303:reactors using 1286: 1280: 1263: 1248: 1246: 1245: 1244: 1243: 1217: 1209: 1184: 1166:heat conduction 1164:gas to improve 1155: 1130: 1127: 1118: 1115: 1106: 1100: 1081:Magnox reactors 1046:zirconium alloy 1043: 1038: 1032: 1016: 1000: 989: 985: 981: 963: 947: 945: 944: 943: 941: 935: 933: 932: 931: 930: 924: 922: 921: 920: 919: 916:fuel efficiency 908:fission product 900: 898: 897: 896: 894: 883: 881: 880: 879: 877: 858: 843: 841: 840: 839: 838: 832: 830: 829: 828: 827: 821: 819: 818: 817: 816: 810: 808: 807: 806: 805: 799: 797: 796: 795: 794: 788: 786: 785: 784: 783: 772: 758:uranium carbide 754: 752:Uranium carbide 735: 733: 732: 731: 730: 720: 718: 717: 716: 715: 655: 646:Uranium nitride 643: 641:Uranium nitride 628: 612: 604:minor actinides 596: 571:General Atomics 564: 527: 518: 514: 506: 502: 425: 419: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 356:electrochemical 338: 334: 330: 326: 319: 316: 315: 314: 312: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 272: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 219: 216: 215: 214: 212: 201:Uranium dioxide 198: 196:Uranium dioxide 170: 142:nuclear reactor 88:nuclear fission 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6497: 6495: 6487: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6456: 6455: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6445: 6433: 6421: 6406: 6403: 6402: 6399: 6398: 6395: 6394: 6392: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6379:Muon-catalyzed 6376: 6371: 6365: 6363: 6359: 6358: 6356: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6339: 6338: 6328: 6319: 6317: 6311: 6310: 6308: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6276: 6274: 6268: 6267: 6261: 6258: 6257: 6250: 6243: 6242: 6240: 6239: 6234: 6233: 6232: 6227: 6216: 6214: 6210: 6209: 6206: 6205: 6203: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6186: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6119: 6117: 6111: 6110: 6108: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6070:Integral (IFR) 6067: 6061: 6055: 6044: 6041: 6040: 6037: 6036: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5998: 5996: 5987: 5981: 5980: 5977: 5976: 5974: 5973: 5972: 5971: 5966: 5965: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5934: 5929: 5928: 5927: 5916: 5914: 5908: 5907: 5905: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5885: 5883: 5879: 5871: 5865: 5864: 5861: 5860: 5858: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5836: 5834: 5829: 5821: 5814: 5800: 5797: 5796: 5793: 5792: 5790: 5789: 5788: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5761: 5759: 5755: 5750: 5749: 5747: 5746: 5740: 5738: 5732: 5731: 5729: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5717: 5716: 5711: 5700: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5687: 5685: 5684: 5683: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5661: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5640: 5635: 5634: 5633: 5628: 5625: 5622: 5619: 5605: 5603: 5598: 5590: 5575: 5574: 5572: 5571: 5566: 5565: 5564: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5550: 5549: 5544: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5489: 5484: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5457: 5451: 5449: 5443: 5442: 5434: 5433: 5430: 5429: 5422: 5415: 5414: 5409: 5402: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5395: 5394: 5389: 5387:Uranium mining 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5363: 5361: 5357: 5356: 5353: 5352: 5350: 5349: 5344: 5343: 5342: 5337: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5296: 5294: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5286: 5281: 5280: 5279: 5269: 5264: 5263: 5262: 5260:Minor actinide 5257: 5252: 5241: 5239: 5232: 5226: 5225: 5222: 5221: 5219: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5202: 5201: 5196: 5186: 5180: 5178: 5174: 5173: 5171: 5170: 5169: 5168: 5158: 5153: 5152: 5151: 5146: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5125: 5124: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5088: 5086: 5079: 5073: 5072: 5070: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5048: 5046: 5040: 5039: 5036: 5035: 5033: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4991: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4957:Autoradiograph 4953: 4951: 4942: 4936: 4935: 4933: 4932: 4931: 4930: 4920: 4919: 4918: 4908: 4907: 4906: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4865: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4854: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4797: 4795: 4789: 4788: 4786: 4785: 4784: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4772: 4771: 4766: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4720: 4718: 4712: 4711: 4709: 4708: 4707: 4706: 4701: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4679:Atomic nucleus 4676: 4671: 4666: 4660: 4658: 4650: 4649: 4644: 4642: 4641: 4634: 4627: 4619: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4606: 4594: 4582: 4570: 4557: 4554: 4553: 4551: 4550: 4545: 4543:Jevons paradox 4540: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4527: 4525: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4467:Energy storage 4464: 4459: 4458: 4457: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4436: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4414: 4412: 4404: 4403: 4401: 4400: 4399: 4398: 4393: 4383: 4382: 4381: 4376: 4366: 4365: 4364: 4359: 4349: 4344: 4343: 4342: 4337: 4327: 4326: 4325: 4320: 4315: 4305: 4300: 4299: 4298: 4293: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4271:Electric power 4268: 4262: 4260: 4252: 4251: 4249: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4232: 4231: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4200: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4179: 4173: 4171: 4169:Primary energy 4165: 4164: 4162: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4140: 4139: 4129: 4128: 4127: 4117: 4116: 4115: 4110: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4079: 4077: 4071: 4070: 4068: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3966: 3965: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3929: 3928: 3917: 3915: 3911: 3910: 3908: 3907: 3906: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3803:Entropic force 3800: 3793:Thermodynamics 3790: 3785: 3784: 3783: 3778: 3768: 3763: 3758: 3753: 3748: 3743: 3742: 3741: 3731: 3726: 3720: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3709: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3692: 3689: 3688: 3683: 3681: 3680: 3673: 3666: 3658: 3652: 3651: 3637: 3634: 3633: 3632: 3611: 3608: 3607: 3606: 3604:ATR plate fuel 3601: 3596: 3589: 3586: 3585: 3584: 3559: 3554: 3527: 3524: 3523: 3522: 3515: 3512: 3511: 3510: 3498: 3493: 3488: 3476: 3471: 3466: 3440:(2): 163–167. 3429: 3406: 3403: 3402: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3366: 3361: 3356: 3349: 3346: 3345: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3313: 3310: 3309: 3308: 3289: 3284: 3265: 3244: 3241: 3240: 3239: 3223: 3222:External links 3220: 3217: 3216: 3191: 3172: 3161: 3149: 3124: 3091: 3058: 3049: 3025: 2988: 2939: 2904: 2868: 2835: 2824: 2800: 2773: 2759: 2732: 2701: 2656: 2635:(4): 352–363. 2615: 2591: 2560: 2559: 2557: 2554: 2551: 2550: 2542: 2531: 2516: 2505: 2494: 2483: 2472: 2455: 2454: 2452: 2449: 2448: 2447: 2445:Uranium market 2442: 2437: 2432: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2406: 2405: 2391: 2377: 2361: 2358: 2353: 2352: 2338: 2337: 2321:Main article: 2318: 2315: 2314: 2313: 2300: 2297: 2296: 2295: 2287: 2286: 2278: 2277: 2264: 2261: 2233:Main article: 2230: 2227: 2188:Main article: 2185: 2182: 2166: 2158: 2142: 2134: 2118: 2110: 2080:Main article: 2069:Inspection of 2062: 2059: 2039:beta particles 2024:promethium-147 1996:bremsstrahlung 1988:atomic battery 1982:Atomic battery 1980:Main article: 1977: 1974: 1972: 1969: 1965: 1964: 1957: 1956: 1953: 1935: 1929: 1928: 1920: 1912: 1907: 1899: 1890: 1889: 1881: 1859:Forbes' method 1847: 1846: 1828: 1819: 1803: 1794: 1780: 1700:Main article: 1697: 1694: 1686:Main article: 1683: 1680: 1657:platinum group 1625:Main article: 1622: 1619: 1588: 1585: 1579: 1576: 1535: 1532: 1526: 1523: 1510: 1507: 1480:europium oxide 1461: 1458: 1444: 1427:Dragon reactor 1377: 1363: 1360: 1348: 1347: 1340: 1293:carbon dioxide 1282:Main article: 1279: 1276: 1262: 1259: 1247: 1215: 1208: 1205: 1183: 1180: 1154: 1151: 1132: 1131: 1128: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1109: 1107: 1101: 1094: 1041: 1031: 1028: 1015: 1012: 1008:uranyl sulfate 999: 996: 987: 983: 979: 962: 959: 946: 934: 923: 899: 891:neutron poison 882: 857: 854: 842: 831: 820: 809: 798: 787: 770: 753: 750: 734: 719: 681:pyroprocessing 653: 642: 639: 627: 624: 611: 608: 595: 592: 583:neutron source 563: 560: 526: 523: 421:Main article: 418: 415: 336: 332: 328: 324: 317: 270: 263: 262: 217: 209:uranyl nitrate 205:semiconducting 197: 194: 169: 166: 146:nuclear weapon 138:chain reaction 92:energy density 55:binding energy 51:nucleon number 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6496: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6464:Nuclear fuels 6462: 6461: 6459: 6444: 6443: 6434: 6432: 6431: 6422: 6420: 6419: 6408: 6407: 6404: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6366: 6364: 6360: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6337: 6336:electrostatic 6334: 6333: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6321: 6320: 6318: 6316: 6312: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6277: 6275: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6259: 6254: 6248: 6238: 6235: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6222: 6221: 6218: 6217: 6215: 6211: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6125: 6124: 6121: 6120: 6118: 6116: 6115:Generation IV 6112: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6065:Breeder (FBR) 6063: 6062: 6059: 6056: 6051: 6042: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5999: 5997: 5995: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5982: 5970: 5967: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5944: 5943: 5940: 5939: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5926: 5923: 5922: 5921: 5918: 5917: 5915: 5913: 5909: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5891: 5887: 5886: 5884: 5882: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5866: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5837: 5835: 5833: 5825: 5822: 5818: 5815: 5810: 5803: 5798: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5767: 5766: 5763: 5762: 5760: 5758: 5751: 5745: 5742: 5741: 5739: 5737: 5733: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5706: 5705: 5702: 5701: 5699: 5697: 5689: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5645: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5632: 5629: 5626: 5623: 5620: 5617: 5616: 5615: 5612: 5611: 5610: 5607: 5606: 5604: 5602: 5594: 5591: 5587: 5580: 5576: 5570: 5567: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5539: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5494: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5462: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5452: 5450: 5448: 5444: 5439: 5438: 5431: 5426: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5367:Nuclear power 5365: 5364: 5362: 5358: 5348: 5347:Transmutation 5345: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5297: 5295: 5291: 5285: 5282: 5278: 5275: 5274: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5247: 5246: 5243: 5242: 5240: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5227: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5191: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5175: 5167: 5164: 5163: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5144:high-altitude 5142: 5141: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5134:Proliferation 5132: 5130: 5127: 5123: 5120: 5119: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5089: 5087: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5074: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5049: 5047: 5045: 5041: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5020:Brachytherapy 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4992: 4990: 4988: 4984: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4954: 4952: 4950: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4937: 4929: 4926: 4925: 4924: 4921: 4917: 4914: 4913: 4912: 4909: 4905: 4902: 4901: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4858: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4816:Cross section 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4790: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4761: 4760: 4757: 4756: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4721: 4719: 4717: 4713: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4661: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4640: 4635: 4633: 4628: 4626: 4621: 4620: 4617: 4605: 4604: 4595: 4593: 4592: 4587: 4583: 4581: 4580: 4571: 4569: 4568: 4559: 4558: 4555: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4535: 4533: 4529: 4523: 4522:United States 4520: 4518: 4517:South America 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4456: 4453: 4452: 4451: 4450:Energy policy 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4420: 4419: 4416: 4415: 4413: 4411: 4405: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4388: 4387: 4384: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4374:Solar furnace 4372: 4371: 4370: 4367: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4354: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4332: 4331: 4330:Nuclear power 4328: 4324: 4321: 4319: 4316: 4314: 4311: 4310: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4288: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4256:Energy system 4253: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4230: 4227: 4226: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4209:Gravitational 4207: 4205: 4202: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4184: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4174: 4172: 4170: 4166: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4138: 4137:Hydrogen fuel 4135: 4134: 4133: 4130: 4126: 4123: 4122: 4121: 4118: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4106: 4105: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4080: 4078: 4076: 4072: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3964: 3961: 3960: 3959: 3958:Gravitational 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3927: 3924: 3923: 3922: 3919: 3918: 3916: 3912: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3828:Heat transfer 3826: 3824: 3823:Heat capacity 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3795: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3782: 3779: 3777: 3776:Negative mass 3774: 3773: 3772: 3769: 3767: 3764: 3762: 3759: 3757: 3756:Energy system 3754: 3752: 3749: 3747: 3744: 3740: 3737: 3736: 3735: 3732: 3730: 3727: 3725: 3722: 3721: 3719: 3713: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3693: 3690: 3686: 3679: 3674: 3672: 3667: 3665: 3660: 3659: 3656: 3650: 3646: 3643: 3640: 3639: 3635: 3623:on 2005-12-23 3622: 3618: 3614: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3595: 3592: 3591: 3587: 3575:on 2006-03-19 3571: 3564: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3545:on 2005-12-30 3541: 3534: 3530: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3518: 3517: 3514:QUADRISO fuel 3513: 3509: 3505: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3492: 3489: 3487: 3483: 3480: 3477: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3382:on 2006-03-15 3378: 3371: 3367: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3325:on 2006-08-28 3324: 3320: 3316: 3315: 3311: 3299:on 2012-02-24 3298: 3294: 3290: 3288: 3285: 3275:on 2015-04-23 3274: 3270: 3266: 3256:on 2004-10-22 3255: 3251: 3247: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3231: 3226: 3225: 3221: 3206:on 2012-12-25 3205: 3201: 3195: 3192: 3189: 3187: 3183: 3176: 3173: 3170: 3165: 3162: 3158: 3153: 3150: 3138: 3134: 3128: 3125: 3119: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3095: 3092: 3086: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3062: 3059: 3053: 3050: 3039: 3035: 3029: 3026: 3021: 3017: 3012: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2992: 2989: 2984: 2980: 2975: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2943: 2940: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2908: 2905: 2899: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2875: 2873: 2869: 2863: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2839: 2836: 2833: 2828: 2825: 2814: 2810: 2804: 2801: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2777: 2774: 2769: 2763: 2760: 2748:. APS Physics 2747: 2743: 2736: 2733: 2718: 2711: 2705: 2702: 2697: 2691: 2673: 2666: 2660: 2657: 2652: 2648: 2643: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2619: 2616: 2605: 2604:Nuclear Power 2601: 2595: 2592: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2565: 2562: 2555: 2537:(stable) and 2525: 2466: 2460: 2457: 2450: 2446: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2431: 2428: 2426: 2423: 2421: 2418: 2416: 2413: 2411: 2408: 2407: 2403: 2397: 2392: 2389: 2388:Energy portal 2383: 2378: 2375: 2364: 2359: 2357: 2350: 2347: 2346: 2345: 2343: 2335: 2331: 2330: 2329: 2324: 2316: 2311: 2307: 2306: 2305: 2298: 2293: 2289: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2270: 2269: 2262: 2260: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2236: 2228: 2226: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2191: 2183: 2177: 2173: 2170: 2151: 2146: 2127: 2122: 2103: 2101: 2100:thermocouples 2097: 2093: 2089: 2083: 2075: 2073: 2067: 2060: 2058: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2031: 2029: 2028:technetium-99 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 2000:plutonium-238 1997: 1993: 1992:radioisotopes 1989: 1983: 1975: 1970: 1968: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1941: 1940: 1939: 1934: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1919: 1918:heat capacity 1915: 1911: 1908: 1906: 1903: 1900: 1898: 1895: 1892: 1891: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1873: 1872: 1871: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1818: 1815: 1814: 1813: 1811: 1806: 1802: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1786: 1779: 1775: 1770: 1768: 1763: 1761: 1756: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1712: 1708: 1703: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1653:nanoparticles 1650: 1649:heterogeneous 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1628: 1620: 1618: 1616: 1615:radionuclides 1612: 1607: 1604: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1586: 1584: 1577: 1575: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1533: 1531: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1516: 1508: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1470: 1466: 1460:QUADRISO fuel 1459: 1457: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1423: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1368: 1361: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1345: 1341: 1338: 1334: 1333: 1332: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1285: 1277: 1271: 1267: 1260: 1258: 1256: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1213: 1206: 1200: 1196: 1193: 1189: 1181: 1179: 1177: 1172: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1152: 1147: 1146: 1140: 1136: 1125: 1120: 1113: 1108: 1104: 1098: 1093: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1053: 1051: 1047: 1037: 1029: 1027: 1025: 1021: 1013: 1011: 1009: 1005: 997: 995: 993: 975: 973: 969: 960: 958: 956: 955:alkali metals 951: 917: 913: 909: 904: 892: 887: 875: 870: 868: 862: 855: 853: 851: 815:. Unlike the 781: 777: 766: 763: 759: 751: 749: 747: 743: 728: 713: 709: 705: 700: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 673: 671: 667: 663: 659: 651: 647: 640: 638: 636: 632: 625: 623: 621: 617: 609: 607: 605: 601: 594:Actinide fuel 593: 591: 588: 584: 580: 576: 572: 568: 561: 559: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 532: 524: 522: 512: 500: 496: 491: 487: 483: 478: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 459:transmutation 455: 454:generation. 453: 452:nuclear power 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 424: 416: 414: 368: 363: 361: 357: 353: 349: 344: 342: 310: 287: 283: 279: 276: 268: 226: 225: 224: 210: 206: 202: 195: 189: 185: 183: 182:melting point 179: 175: 167: 165: 163: 159: 155: 151: 150:plutonium-238 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 126:plutonium-239 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 104: 99: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 71: 67: 62: 56: 52: 47: 39: 33: 19: 6440: 6428: 6409: 6389:Pyroelectric 6343:Laser-driven 6123:Sodium (SFR) 6050:fast-neutron 5889: 5435: 5325:Reprocessing 5206:WMD treaties 5025:Radiosurgery 4995:Fast-neutron 4967:Scintigraphy 4715: 4601: 4589: 4577: 4565: 4347:Oil refinery 4291:Cogeneration 4224:Nuclear fuel 4223: 4030:Quintessence 3818:Free entropy 3751:Energy level 3715:Fundamental 3625:. Retrieved 3621:the original 3577:. Retrieved 3570:the original 3547:. Retrieved 3540:the original 3437: 3433: 3416: 3412: 3384:. Retrieved 3377:the original 3327:. Retrieved 3323:the original 3301:. Retrieved 3297:the original 3277:. Retrieved 3273:the original 3258:. Retrieved 3254:the original 3229: 3208:. Retrieved 3204:the original 3194: 3185: 3181: 3175: 3164: 3152: 3141:. Retrieved 3136: 3127: 3111:(21): 8008. 3108: 3104: 3094: 3078:(14): 5204. 3075: 3071: 3061: 3052: 3041:. Retrieved 3037: 3028: 3001: 2991: 2956: 2952: 2942: 2917: 2913: 2907: 2891:(10): 3772. 2888: 2884: 2852: 2848: 2838: 2827: 2816:. Retrieved 2813:Kairos Power 2812: 2809:"Technology" 2803: 2786: 2782: 2776: 2762: 2750:. Retrieved 2745: 2735: 2724:. Retrieved 2704: 2679:. Retrieved 2659: 2632: 2628: 2618: 2607:. Retrieved 2603: 2594: 2577: 2574:Joseph Brink 2564: 2459: 2354: 2339: 2332:He + He → 2 2326: 2302: 2266: 2241:Fusion power 2238: 2229:Fusion fuels 2208: 2193: 2152:, have used 2104: 2085: 2071: 2047:betavoltaics 2032: 2012:strontium-90 1985: 1966: 1960: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1932: 1930: 1922: 1913: 1909: 1901: 1893: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1863:Searle's bar 1849:Rather than 1848: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1829: 1825: 1820: 1816: 1809: 1804: 1800: 1795: 1791: 1789: 1777: 1773: 1771: 1764: 1757: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1691: 1648: 1630: 1608: 1605: 1590: 1581: 1560: 1542: 1528: 1512: 1501: 1484:erbium oxide 1473: 1468: 1424: 1373: 1349: 1309:Magnox alloy 1287: 1264: 1210: 1185: 1171:control rods 1156: 1144: 1138: 1085:alkali metal 1054: 1049: 1039: 1017: 1001: 976: 964: 961:Molten salts 871: 863: 859: 856:Liquid fuels 778:such as the 767: 755: 701: 674: 644: 629: 613: 597: 565: 528: 479: 456: 431: 427: 426: 367:neutron flux 364: 345: 264: 199: 171: 100: 76:Nuclear fuel 75: 74: 6300:Stellarator 6264:confinement 6158:Superphénix 5985:Molten-salt 5937:VHTR (HTGR) 5714:HW BLWR 250 5680:R4 Marviken 5609:Pressurized 5579:Heavy water 5563:many others 5492:Pressurized 5447:Light water 5149:underground 5107:Disarmament 5015:Tomotherapy 5010:Proton-beam 4874:Power plant 4836:Temperature 4669:Engineering 4603:WikiProject 4423:Agriculture 4352:Solar power 4318:Tidal power 4192:Natural gas 4182:Fossil fuel 4125:Latent heat 4093:Electricity 3636:Fusion fuel 3526:CERMET fuel 3137:www.nrc.gov 2217:orbiter to 2211:outer space 2096:electricity 1837:/1 + ( 1736:lanthanides 1671:within the 1525:CerMet fuel 1278:Magnox fuel 1229:heavy water 685:nitric acid 428:Mixed oxide 203:is a black 122:uranium-235 118:uranium-233 6458:Categories 6325:(acoustic) 5942:PBR (PBMR) 5330:Spent fuel 5320:Repository 5300:Fuel cycle 5267:Activation 5044:Processing 4911:Propulsion 4869:by country 4801:Activation 4386:Wind power 4308:Hydropower 4259:components 4214:Hydropower 4204:Geothermal 4154:Sound wave 4065:Zero-point 3995:Mechanical 3980:Ionization 3953:Electrical 3848:Negentropy 3729:Energetics 3627:2005-12-14 3610:TRIGA fuel 3579:2005-12-14 3549:2005-12-14 3405:TRISO fuel 3386:2005-12-17 3348:CANDU fuel 3329:2005-12-14 3303:2005-12-14 3279:2005-12-14 3260:2005-12-14 3210:2010-01-27 3143:2021-05-10 3043:2019-03-16 2959:: 154487. 2818:2023-09-13 2726:2013-11-11 2681:2016-06-04 2609:2023-11-03 2586:B000OFVCCG 2556:References 2344:reaction: 2074:spacecraft 2053:, and the 2008:curium-244 2004:curium-242 1855:Lees' disk 1841: − 1) 1833:(1 − 1643:, and the 1406:) and the 1067:, usually 1034:See also: 562:TRIGA fuel 554:, such as 525:Metal fuel 311:) to form 269:to form UO 240:· 6 H 168:Oxide fuel 6484:Actinides 6295:Spheromak 5994:Fluorides 5658:IPHWR-700 5653:IPHWR-540 5648:IPHWR-220 5437:Moderator 5117:Explosion 5092:Arms race 4879:Economics 4831:Reflector 4826:Radiation 4821:Generator 4776:Plutonium 4729:Deuterium 4694:Radiation 4664:Chemistry 4497:Australia 4433:Transport 4428:Computing 4396:Wind farm 4323:Wave farm 4197:Petroleum 4177:Bioenergy 4149:Radiation 4088:Capacitor 4010:Potential 3462:209983934 3020:2191-4281 2983:0022-3115 2789:: 60–68. 2651:2673-4362 2308:H + He → 2245:deuterium 2020:nickel-63 1945:= 0.1388 1765:The bulk 1740:palladium 1734:(such as 1665:actinides 1661:palladium 1641:plutonium 1566:(ATR) at 1509:RBMK fuel 1387:isotropic 1321:aluminium 1317:magnesium 1301:moderated 1295:–cooled, 1232:moderator 1227:in their 1077:magnesium 1057:corrosion 1050:fuel rods 544:actinides 436:plutonium 397:. As the 352:zirconium 6430:Category 6384:Polywell 6315:Inertial 6272:Magnetic 6027:TMSR-LF1 6022:TMSR-500 6002:Fuji MSR 5962:THTR-300 5802:Graphite 5665:PHWR KWU 5631:ACR-1000 5559:IPWR-900 5542:ACPR1000 5537:HPR-1000 5527:CPR-1000 5502:APR-1400 5293:Disposal 5245:Actinide 5238:Products 5097:Delivery 4940:Medicine 4769:depleted 4764:enriched 4734:Helium-3 4699:ionizing 4567:Category 4132:Hydrogen 4098:Enthalpy 4000:Negative 3990:Magnetic 3975:Internal 3933:Chemical 3798:Enthalpy 3717:concepts 3645:Archived 3504:Archived 3482:Archived 3312:BWR fuel 3243:PWR fuel 3105:Energies 3072:Energies 2885:Energies 2855:: 1–15. 2717:Archived 2690:cite web 2672:Archived 2576:(1977). 2467:of both 2360:See also 2290:H + H → 2281:H + H → 2272:H + H → 2257:hydrogen 2253:helium-3 2247:(H) and 1724:porosity 1543:ATR Core 1431:THTR-300 1297:graphite 1145:Savannah 1143:NS 1069:Zircaloy 1024:eutectic 689:enriched 677:nitrogen 670:reaction 635:swelling 616:tantalum 579:meltdown 432:MOX fuel 423:MOX fuel 409:and 30% 335:. The UO 309:calcined 275:enriched 267:hydrogen 244:O → UO 211:to form 134:neutrons 106:actinide 84:turbines 53:against 6442:Commons 6353:Z-pinch 6323:Bubble 6305:Tokamak 6168:FBR-600 6148:CFR-600 6143:BN-1200 5809:coolant 5736:Organic 5621:CANDU 9 5618:CANDU 6 5586:coolant 5547:ACP1000 5522:CAP1400 5460:Boiling 5425:Fission 5272:Fission 5216:Weapons 5156:Warfare 5139:Testing 5129:History 5122:effects 5077:Weapons 4987:Therapy 4962:RadBall 4949:Imaging 4841:Thermal 4806:Capture 4793:Neutron 4781:Thorium 4759:Uranium 4724:Tritium 4704:braking 4684:Fission 4674:Physics 4657:Science 4579:Commons 4407:Use and 4266:Biomass 4236:Radiant 4083:Battery 4055:Thermal 4050:Surface 4035:Radiant 4005:Phantom 3985:Kinetic 3963:Binding 3943:Elastic 3926:Nuclear 3921:Binding 3808:Entropy 3706:Outline 3696:History 3442:Bibcode 3237:YouTube 3184:, Vol. 2961:Bibcode 2922:Bibcode 2752:14 July 2249:tritium 2213:). The 2072:Cassini 2016:Tritium 1905:density 1767:density 1752:krypton 1744:bubbles 1732:lattice 1637:uranium 1611:cooling 1488:carbide 1329:neutron 1325:uranium 1220:CANFLEX 1088:caesium 978:LiF-BeF 744:called 675:As the 631:Ceramic 440:natural 282:ammonia 174:uranium 103:fissile 68:at the 32:FuelRod 6253:Fusion 6213:Others 6153:Phénix 6138:BN-800 6133:BN-600 6128:BN-350 5957:HTR-PM 5952:HTR-10 5932:UHTREX 5897:Magnox 5892:(UNGG) 5785:Lucens 5780:KS 150 5517:ATMEA1 5497:AP1000 5480:Kerena 5360:Debate 5112:Ethics 5102:Design 5085:Topics 4916:rocket 4894:Fusion 4889:Policy 4851:Fusion 4811:Poison 4689:Fusion 4591:Portal 4512:Mexico 4507:Europe 4502:Canada 4487:Africa 4410:supply 4219:Marine 4108:Fossil 4060:Vacuum 3813:Exergy 3734:Energy 3685:Energy 3460: 3018: 2981: 2649: 2584: 2219:Saturn 2049:, the 2026:, and 1857:, the 1772:Where 1515:Soviet 1454:Xe-100 1435:HTR-10 1404:GT-MHR 1289:Magnox 1284:Magnox 1162:helium 517:, 15% 511:burnup 341:sinter 248:+ 2 NO 6374:Migma 6362:Other 6331:Fusor 6230:Piqua 6225:Arbus 6183:PRISM 5925:MHR-T 5920:GTMHR 5850:EGP-6 5845:AMB-X 5820:Water 5765:HWGCR 5704:HWLWR 5643:IPHWR 5614:CANDU 5475:ESBWR 5230:Waste 5194:Tests 5177:Lists 5161:Yield 4904:MMRTG 4861:Power 4531:Misc. 4241:Solar 4045:Sound 3914:Types 3788:Power 3739:Units 3701:Index 3573:(PDF) 3566:(PDF) 3543:(PDF) 3536:(PDF) 3458:S2CID 3380:(PDF) 3373:(PDF) 2720:(PDF) 2713:(PDF) 2675:(PDF) 2668:(PDF) 2526:like 2451:Notes 2342:boron 2223:Titan 2204:grams 2035:alpha 1861:, or 1748:xenon 1073:steel 906:as a 874:xenon 697:PUREX 598:In a 567:TRIGA 430:, or 323:and U 260:O (g) 256:+ 6 H 252:+ ½ O 178:oxide 6190:Lead 6173:CEFR 6163:PFBR 6045:None 5855:RBMK 5840:AM-1 5770:EL-4 5744:WR-1 5726:AHWR 5670:MZFR 5638:CVTR 5627:AFCR 5554:VVER 5512:APWR 5507:APR+ 5470:ABWR 5340:cask 5335:pool 5277:LLFP 5166:TNTe 4846:Fast 4716:Fuel 4492:Asia 4246:Wind 4187:Coal 4159:Work 4120:Heat 4103:Fuel 4040:Rest 3938:Dark 3903:Work 3771:Mass 3016:ISSN 2979:ISSN 2754:2018 2696:link 2647:ISSN 2582:ASIN 2511:and 2478:and 2463:The 2200:watt 2037:and 2010:and 1750:and 1714:The 1667:and 1545:The 1519:RBMK 1448:and 1063:for 1018:The 1002:The 982:-ThF 650:NASA 480:The 438:and 346:The 124:and 116:are 6262:by 6178:PFR 5969:PMR 5947:AVR 5869:Gas 5807:by 5775:KKN 5709:ATR 5624:EC6 5584:by 5532:EPR 5465:BWR 4113:Oil 3450:doi 3438:194 3421:doi 3417:163 3235:on 3113:doi 3080:doi 3006:doi 2969:doi 2957:582 2930:doi 2918:448 2893:doi 2857:doi 2791:doi 2787:251 2637:doi 1986:An 1954:1/2 1936:1/2 1931:If 1718:of 1655:of 1549:at 1486:or 1482:or 1399:SiC 1240:KWU 1186:In 1071:or 986:-UF 672:. 521:). 442:or 417:MOX 290:(NH 232:(NO 156:in 6460:: 5912:He 5878:CO 5754:CO 5675:R3 3456:. 3448:. 3436:. 3419:. 3415:. 3186:64 3135:. 3109:15 3107:. 3103:. 3076:15 3074:. 3070:. 3036:. 3014:. 3004:. 3000:. 2977:. 2967:. 2955:. 2951:. 2928:. 2916:. 2889:15 2887:. 2883:. 2871:^ 2853:48 2851:. 2847:. 2811:. 2785:. 2744:. 2715:. 2692:}} 2688:{{ 2670:. 2645:. 2631:. 2627:. 2602:. 2572:; 2546:Cs 2535:Cs 2520:Cs 2509:Cs 2487:Cs 2476:Cs 2194:A 2162:Po 2138:Sr 2114:Pu 2102:. 2086:A 2045:, 2022:, 2018:, 2006:, 2002:, 1879:ρC 1877:= 1824:= 1787:. 1781:td 1639:, 1635:, 1574:. 1494:. 1450:UC 1443:UO 1383:UC 1376:UO 950:Cs 938:Xe 927:Xe 886:Xe 748:. 729:. 558:. 519:Pu 515:Pu 503:Pu 411:Pu 399:Pu 391:Pu 387:Pu 383:Np 377:. 313:UO 288:, 228:UO 223:. 213:UO 164:. 120:, 98:. 6052:) 6048:( 5880:2 5832:O 5830:2 5828:H 5756:2 5696:O 5694:2 5692:H 5601:O 5599:2 5597:D 4638:e 4631:t 4624:v 3677:e 3670:t 3663:v 3630:. 3582:. 3552:. 3464:. 3452:: 3444:: 3427:. 3423:: 3389:. 3332:. 3306:. 3282:. 3263:. 3213:. 3146:. 3121:. 3115:: 3088:. 3082:: 3046:. 3022:. 3008:: 2985:. 2971:: 2963:: 2936:. 2932:: 2924:: 2901:. 2895:: 2865:. 2859:: 2821:. 2797:. 2793:: 2770:. 2756:. 2729:. 2698:) 2684:. 2653:. 2639:: 2633:3 2612:. 2588:. 2498:U 2349:p 2334:p 2310:p 2292:p 2283:n 2274:n 1961:L 1951:t 1949:/ 1947:L 1943:α 1933:t 1923:α 1914:p 1910:C 1902:ρ 1894:λ 1887:α 1883:p 1875:λ 1845:) 1843:p 1839:s 1835:p 1830:o 1826:K 1821:f 1817:K 1810:s 1805:o 1801:K 1796:f 1792:K 1778:ρ 1774:ρ 1557:. 1478:( 1445:2 1378:X 1346:. 1299:- 1251:U 1216:2 1042:2 988:4 984:4 980:2 903:I 846:C 835:C 824:C 813:C 802:C 791:C 771:2 769:O 738:C 723:C 666:C 662:N 658:N 654:2 507:U 407:U 403:U 395:U 379:U 375:U 371:U 337:2 333:2 329:8 327:O 325:3 318:3 304:7 302:O 300:2 298:U 296:2 294:) 292:4 271:2 258:2 254:2 250:2 246:2 242:2 238:2 236:) 234:3 230:2 218:2 34:. 20:)

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