46:
33:
403:
Chromoblastomycosis results in subcutaneous, crusty lesions that can spread over large areas on different parts of the body such as the legs, arms and face. If not treated, the lesions continue to increase in size over the body, but do not usually pose a risk of mortality. As the lesions grow, they
425:
causes only a minor subset of chromoblastomycosis cases, most notably in drier locations such as
Madagascar, Australia and northwestern Venezuela, which are rife with plants inhabited by the fungus. Many cases of chromoblastomycosis cases target males over the age of thirty because they are
387:
individuals. It is one of the most common agents of chromoblastomycosis. The fungus changes states once it invades the animal host from the mycelial state to muriform cells that spread outward radially. This dimorphism has been suggested to increase the tolerance of
359:
is in the mycelial or muriform state. The fungus transforms to muriform cells under conditions of temperature between 25 °C to 37 °C, 0.1 mM Ca, and a pH of 2.5. It produces multiple conidia in long, straight chains that bud off the
420:
Chromoblastomycosis is found worldwide, most prominently in tropical and sub-tropical regions such as Mexico, Madagascar, Brazil, China, and
Malaysia but some cases have been reported in the United States and Europe.
860:
de Hoog, G. S.; Guého, E.; Masclaux, F.; Gerrits van den Ende, A.H.G; Kwon-Chung, K.J.; McGinnis, M.R. (1995). "Nutritional physiology and taxonomy of human-pathogenic
Cladosporium-Xylohypha species".
1301:
de Hoog, G. S.; Queiroz-Telles, F.; Haase, G.; Fernandez-Zeppenfeldt, G.; Angelis, D. Attili; Gerrits van den Ende, A. H. G.; Matos, T.; Peltroche-Llacsahuanga, H.; Pizzirani-Kleiner, A. A. (2000).
426:
predominant in the agricultural industry in rural areas, where deforestation must be carried out to provide agricultural land and they directly work with the plants that are commonly colonized by
331:
that changes states from a mycelial form to a muriform, yeast-like state once it invades its host. Muriform cells are golden-brown in colour due to melanin deposition and have thick cell walls.
271:
fence posts (which are often used in farming to protect crops), soil and dead cactus spines where it derives its nutrition from carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins in the plant tissue.
227:
infection that occurs in sub-tropical areas such as
Madagascar, Australia and northwestern Venezuela. Transmission occurs through traumatic implantation of plant material colonized by
470:
tests from a skin biopsy can identify muriform cells that are commonly found in chromoblastomycosis. Identifying the specific agent that caused chromoblastomycosis can be done by
298:
that are distinguishable due to the presence of two lightly pigmented scars. Conidia vary in length (1.5-3.0 × 2.0-7.5 μm). Its long conidiophores are similar to the genus
745:
de Hoog, G. S.; Nishikaku, A.S.; Fernandez-Zeppenfeldt, G.; Padín-González, C.; Burger, E. Attili; Badali, H.; Richard-Yegres, N.; Gerrits van den Ende, A.H.G. (2007).
1599:
1470:
446:
areas of the body. Field workers who work without foot protection or clothing covering legs and arms are at greater risk for inoculation by material colonized by
1655:
1496:
251:
typically arise following traumatic inoculation of material colonized by the fungus. Most infections are reported from dry rural agricultural areas regions.
1586:
1457:
517:
infection, but it may have negative consequences for eradicating the fungus. It is postulated that the presence of melanin in black yeasts like
1014:
Queiroz-Telles, Flavio; Esterre, Phillippe; Perez-Blanco, Maigualida; Vitale, Roxana G.; Salgado, Claudio Guedes; Bonifaz, Alexandro (2009).
259:, occurring mainly on decaying plant material such as wood where it produces enzymes that allow it to utilize lignin as a nutrient source.
974:
Davey, Marie L.; Currah, Randolph S. (2007). "A new species of
Cladophialophora (hyphomycetes) from boreal and montane bryophytes".
841:
803:
693:
Seyedmousavi, Seyedmojtaba; Netea, Mihai G.; Mouton, Johan W.; Melchers, Willem J. G.; Verweij, Paul E.; Hoog, G. Sybren de (2014).
666:
604:
1650:
282:
is part of a group of melanized fungi, also known as "black yeasts" because its mycelial form has a dark green colour and its
45:
442:, such as decaying cacti and wood. Scratching at the lesions worsens the infection by spreading the fungus over larger and
1154:
Bonifaz, Alexandro; Paredes-Solís, Vanessa; Saúl, Amado (2004). "Treating chromoblastomycosis with systemic antifungals".
392:
to extreme conditions, such as the high temperature and acidity in the human body. Muriform cells increase cell number by
383:
in individuals with a normal functioning immune system, unlike many other pathogenic fungi that can only cause disease in
747:"Molecular analysis and pathogenicity of the Cladophialophora carrionii complex, with the description of a novel species"
564:
is sensitive to commonly used antifungals so cure rates are higher than seen in chromoblastomycosis infections caused by
939:
Honbo, S.; Padhye, A.A.; Ajello, L. (1984). "The relationship of
Cladosporium carrionii to Cladophialophora ajelloi".
493:
During infection, the immune system of the host attempts to eliminate the fungus via engulfment and degradation by
1501:
471:
404:
can take on multiple forms that resemble nodes, tumours (resemble cauliflowers), and plaques. Infection causes
211:
that is associated with decaying plant material like cacti and wood. It is one of the most frequent species of
458:
may penetrate deeper into muscle and bone layers if the patient is immunosuppressed. Even if an individual is
186:
1665:
1660:
1342:
Esterre, Philippe; Queiroz-Telles, Flavio (2006). "Management of chromoblastomycosis: novel perspectives".
890:
Badali, H.; Gueidan, C.; Najafzadeh, M.J.; Bonifaz, A.; Gerrits van den Ende, A.H.G; de Hoog, G.S. (2008).
438:
Chromoblastomycosis infection occurs by subcutaneous puncture by a thorn or splinter that is infected with
1386:
552:. More serious cases must be treated for a prolonged period of time (6 to 12 months) with the antifungals
506:
256:
343:
is sensitive to temperatures above 37 °C. It can be distinguished in culture by the presence of its
140:
1627:
1578:
1511:
1449:
1431:
502:
475:
466:, since its presence may increase an individual's susceptibility to contracting chromoblastomycosis.
487:
380:
224:
220:
107:
486:
grows quite slowly in culture, so significant results cannot be obtained until after 4–6 weeks of
1367:
1231:
1179:
566:
162:
40:
1604:
1475:
1560:
1519:
1418:
1359:
1324:
1283:
1223:
1171:
1131:
1091:
1037:
991:
956:
921:
837:
799:
776:
724:
662:
600:
355:. Altering temperatures or micronutrient levels such as calcium and phosphate affects whether
1524:
1351:
1314:
1273:
1265:
1213:
1163:
1123:
1081:
1071:
1027:
983:
948:
911:
903:
869:
766:
758:
714:
706:
459:
384:
325:
175:
117:
32:
695:"Black Yeasts and Their Filamentous Relatives: Principles of Pathogenesis and Host Defense"
560:. Antifungals have a wide range of effectiveness, curing between 15-80% of cases. However,
570:. Treatments less effective if the infection is chronic, resulting in high relapse rates.
545:
97:
364:, with the youngest conidia farthest from the hyphae. There is no sexual state known for
239:
state to a muriform state to better tolerate the extreme conditions in the host's body.
1573:
1444:
1355:
1278:
1253:
1127:
1086:
1059:
916:
891:
771:
746:
719:
694:
474:
assays or culturing the fungus by growing it on an agar plate and observing the colony
287:
87:
1016:"Chromoblastomycosis: an overview of clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment"
1644:
1252:
Krzyściak, Paweł M.; Pindycka-Piaszczyńska, Małgorzata; Piaszczyński, Michał (2014).
1235:
1218:
1201:
510:
1183:
1076:
1371:
553:
549:
405:
300:
1565:
1423:
1551:
1409:
987:
450:. Immunocompromised individuals are also at risk, because the ability to produce
1114:
López Martínez, Rubén; Tovar, Luis Javier Méndez (2007). "Chromoblastomycosis".
794:
Misra, J. K.; Tewari, Jalpa P.; Deshmukh, Sunil Kumar; Vágvölgyi, Csaba (2014).
557:
541:
1319:
1302:
1032:
1015:
952:
873:
537:
498:
494:
268:
77:
1167:
529:
produced in macrophages that normally function to break down targeted cells.
1269:
522:
467:
409:
57:
1363:
1328:
1287:
1227:
1175:
1135:
1095:
1041:
995:
925:
907:
780:
762:
728:
454:
against fungal proteins is critical in minimizing fungal pathogenicity and
960:
1612:
1545:
1483:
1403:
710:
451:
328:
317:
283:
236:
1591:
1462:
533:
463:
397:
352:
304:, which comes from the Latin word "clado", meaning branched. The genus
204:
548:
onto lesions can be effective if combined with antifungal therapy and
1617:
1488:
832:
Campbell, Colin K.; Johnson, Elizabeth M.; Warnock, David W. (2013).
526:
443:
393:
344:
67:
1380:
479:
361:
295:
1436:
348:
264:
1384:
521:
contributes to pathogenicity because it strengthens the fungal
312:
because in addition to chains of conidia, members of the genus
1202:"Chromoblastomycosis: clinical presentation and management"
657:
Reiss, Errol; Shadomy, H. Jean; Lyon, G. Marshall (2011).
941:
Sabouraudia: Journal of
Medical and Veterinary Mycology
1064:
Revista do
Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo
532:
Minor cases of chromoblastomycosis can be resolved by
286:
have brown pigment. Colonies grow at a modest rate on
1109:
1107:
1105:
1053:
1051:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1535:
1393:
1060:"Chromoblastomycosis: A Neglected Tropical Disease"
834:Identification of Pathogenic Fungi, Second Edition
688:
686:
684:
682:
680:
678:
513:(IL-6), the type of IL specifically produced with
156:(Trejos) de Hoog, Kwon-Chung & McGinnis (1995)
1303:"Black fungi: clinical and pathogenic approaches"
1247:
1245:
462:, they may be at risk if they carry the HLA-A29
836:. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1149:
1147:
1145:
827:
825:
823:
821:
819:
817:
815:
509:also plays a role by activating cells such as
597:Molecular Detection of Human Fungal Pathogens
8:
1195:
1193:
892:"Biodiversity of the genus Cladophialophora"
885:
883:
862:Journal of Medical & Veterinary Mycology
855:
853:
740:
738:
652:
650:
648:
646:
644:
642:
640:
638:
636:
396:formation within the hyphae, rather than by
661:. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
634:
632:
630:
628:
626:
624:
622:
620:
618:
616:
1381:
31:
20:
1318:
1277:
1217:
1085:
1075:
1031:
915:
770:
718:
590:
588:
586:
584:
582:
408:of the leg or foot tissue, resulting in
1258:Advances in Dermatology and Allergology
578:
235:infects its host, it transforms from a
231:, mainly infecting rural workers. When
1344:Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases
1206:Clinical and Experimental Dermatology
7:
1656:Mycosis-related cutaneous conditions
1628:7385d62c-d823-460f-b0dd-2c523f849a29
1512:4518b890-566a-4f89-9401-96c5f10cf968
1356:10.1097/01.qco.0000216625.28692.67
1128:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2006.05.007
14:
1156:Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy
1219:10.1111/j.1365-2230.2009.03415.x
44:
1077:10.1590/S0036-46652015000700009
1058:Queiroz-Telles, Flavio (2015).
796:Fungi From Different Substrates
339:Like many other black yeasts,
1:
699:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
351:and its inability to liquefy
215:implicated in human disease.
988:10.1016/j.mycres.2006.10.004
659:Fundamental Medical Mycology
294:are unicellular oval-shaped
540:medications. Cold therapy (
379:can cause a disease called
1682:
1395:Cladophialophora carrionii
482:characteristics. However,
434:Pathogenesis and treatment
423:Cladophialophora carrionii
377:Cladophialophora carrionii
322:Cladophialophora carrionii
280:Cladophialophora carrionii
261:Cladophialophora carrionii
253:Cladophialophora carrionii
217:Cladophialophora carrionii
200:Cladophialophora carrionii
150:Cladophialophora carrionii
25:Cladophialophora carrionii
1320:10.1080/mmy.38.s1.243.250
1033:10.1080/13693780802538001
953:10.1080/00362178485380341
874:10.1080/02681219580000661
168:
161:
146:
139:
41:Scientific classification
39:
30:
23:
1168:10.1517/14656566.5.2.247
501:, which function in the
219:is a causative agent of
183:Cladophialophora ajelloi
1651:Fungi described in 1954
1270:10.5114/pdia.2014.40949
525:and can neutralize the
335:Growth and reproduction
288:Sabouraud dextrose agar
172:Cladosporium carrionii
1537:Cladosporium carrionii
1116:Clinics in Dermatology
908:10.3114/sim.2008.61.18
763:10.3114/sim.2007.58.08
507:adaptive immune system
308:is distinguished from
1254:"Chromoblastomycosis"
595:Liu, Dongyou (2011).
976:Mycological Research
711:10.1128/CMR.00093-13
503:innate immune system
207:fungus in the genus
1070:(Suppl 19): 46–50.
896:Studies in Mycology
751:Studies in Mycology
544:) by applying cool
381:chromoblastomycosis
347:enzyme hydrolyzing
243:Habitat and ecology
221:chromoblastomycosis
108:Herpotrichiellaceae
1200:Ameen, M. (2009).
567:Fonsecaea pedrosoi
1638:
1637:
1520:Open Tree of Life
1387:Taxon identifiers
1313:(sup1): 243–250.
385:immunocompromised
372:Disease in humans
290:. The conidia of
263:is also found in
196:
195:
190:
179:
132:C. carrionii
16:Species of fungus
1673:
1631:
1630:
1621:
1620:
1608:
1607:
1595:
1594:
1582:
1581:
1569:
1568:
1556:
1555:
1554:
1528:
1527:
1515:
1514:
1505:
1504:
1492:
1491:
1479:
1478:
1466:
1465:
1453:
1452:
1440:
1439:
1427:
1426:
1414:
1413:
1412:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1339:
1333:
1332:
1322:
1307:Medical Mycology
1298:
1292:
1291:
1281:
1249:
1240:
1239:
1221:
1197:
1188:
1187:
1151:
1140:
1139:
1111:
1100:
1099:
1089:
1079:
1055:
1046:
1045:
1035:
1020:Medical Mycology
1011:
1000:
999:
982:(Pt 1): 106–16.
971:
965:
964:
936:
930:
929:
919:
887:
878:
877:
857:
848:
847:
829:
810:
809:
791:
785:
784:
774:
742:
733:
732:
722:
690:
673:
672:
654:
611:
610:
592:
314:Cladophialophora
306:Cladophialophora
213:Cladophialophora
209:Cladophialophora
185:
174:
152:
119:Cladophialophora
49:
48:
35:
21:
1681:
1680:
1676:
1675:
1674:
1672:
1671:
1670:
1641:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1626:
1624:
1616:
1611:
1603:
1598:
1590:
1585:
1577:
1572:
1564:
1559:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1531:
1523:
1518:
1510:
1508:
1500:
1495:
1487:
1482:
1474:
1469:
1461:
1456:
1448:
1443:
1435:
1430:
1422:
1417:
1408:
1407:
1402:
1389:
1379:
1341:
1340:
1336:
1300:
1299:
1295:
1251:
1250:
1243:
1199:
1198:
1191:
1153:
1152:
1143:
1113:
1112:
1103:
1057:
1056:
1049:
1013:
1012:
1003:
973:
972:
968:
938:
937:
933:
889:
888:
881:
859:
858:
851:
844:
831:
830:
813:
806:
793:
792:
788:
744:
743:
736:
692:
691:
676:
669:
656:
655:
614:
607:
594:
593:
580:
576:
546:liquid nitrogen
460:immunocompetent
436:
418:
374:
337:
277:
245:
157:
154:
148:
135:
98:Chaetothyriales
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1679:
1677:
1669:
1668:
1666:Fungus species
1663:
1661:Eurotiomycetes
1658:
1653:
1643:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1632:
1622:
1609:
1596:
1583:
1570:
1557:
1541:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1530:
1529:
1516:
1506:
1493:
1480:
1467:
1454:
1441:
1428:
1415:
1399:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1385:
1378:
1377:
1350:(2): 148–152.
1334:
1293:
1264:(5): 310–321.
1241:
1212:(8): 849–854.
1189:
1162:(2): 247–254.
1141:
1122:(2): 188–194.
1101:
1047:
1001:
966:
931:
879:
849:
842:
811:
804:
786:
734:
705:(3): 527–542.
674:
667:
612:
605:
577:
575:
572:
435:
432:
417:
414:
373:
370:
336:
333:
276:
273:
247:Infections by
244:
241:
194:
193:
192:
191:
180:
166:
165:
159:
158:
155:
144:
143:
137:
136:
129:
127:
123:
122:
115:
111:
110:
105:
101:
100:
95:
91:
90:
88:Eurotiomycetes
85:
81:
80:
75:
71:
70:
65:
61:
60:
55:
51:
50:
37:
36:
28:
27:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1678:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
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1629:
1623:
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1526:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1507:
1503:
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1477:
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1468:
1464:
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1388:
1383:
1373:
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1338:
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1233:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1215:
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1207:
1203:
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1185:
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1169:
1165:
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1157:
1150:
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1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
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1088:
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1078:
1073:
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1034:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1010:
1008:
1006:
1002:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
970:
967:
962:
958:
954:
950:
947:(3): 209–18.
946:
942:
935:
932:
927:
923:
918:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
886:
884:
880:
875:
871:
868:(5): 339–47.
867:
863:
856:
854:
850:
845:
843:9781118520055
839:
835:
828:
826:
824:
822:
820:
818:
816:
812:
807:
805:9781482209600
801:
798:. CRC Press.
797:
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668:9781118101773
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608:
606:9781439812402
602:
599:. CRC Press.
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511:interleukin-6
508:
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491:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
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453:
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445:
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433:
431:
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424:
415:
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407:
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386:
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378:
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354:
350:
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334:
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327:
323:
319:
316:also produce
315:
311:
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297:
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281:
274:
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206:
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201:
188:
184:
181:
177:
173:
170:
169:
167:
164:
160:
153:
151:
145:
142:
141:Binomial name
138:
134:
133:
128:
125:
124:
121:
120:
116:
113:
112:
109:
106:
103:
102:
99:
96:
93:
92:
89:
86:
83:
82:
79:
76:
73:
72:
69:
66:
63:
62:
59:
56:
53:
52:
47:
42:
38:
34:
29:
26:
22:
19:
1536:
1394:
1347:
1343:
1337:
1310:
1306:
1296:
1261:
1257:
1209:
1205:
1159:
1155:
1119:
1115:
1067:
1063:
1023:
1019:
979:
975:
969:
944:
940:
934:
899:
895:
865:
861:
833:
795:
789:
754:
750:
702:
698:
658:
596:
565:
562:C. carrionii
561:
554:itraconazole
550:chemotherapy
531:
519:C. carrionii
518:
515:C. carrionii
514:
492:
484:C. carrionii
483:
456:C. carrionii
455:
448:C. carrionii
447:
440:C. carrionii
439:
437:
428:C. carrionii
427:
422:
419:
416:Epidemiology
406:inflammation
402:
390:C. carrionii
389:
376:
375:
366:C. carrionii
365:
357:C. carrionii
356:
341:C. carrionii
340:
338:
321:
313:
310:Cladosporium
309:
305:
301:Cladosporium
299:
292:C. carrionii
291:
279:
278:
260:
257:saprotrophic
252:
249:C. carrionii
248:
246:
233:C. carrionii
232:
229:C. carrionii
228:
225:subcutaneous
216:
212:
208:
199:
198:
197:
182:
171:
149:
147:
131:
130:
118:
24:
18:
1026:(1): 3–15.
902:: 175–191.
757:: 219–234.
558:terbinafine
542:cryosurgery
499:neutrophils
495:macrophages
480:sporulation
1645:Categories
574:References
538:antifungal
488:incubation
476:morphology
452:antibodies
410:granulomas
275:Morphology
269:eucalyptus
78:Ascomycota
74:Division:
1552:Q59487295
1410:Q10454338
1236:205278413
523:cell wall
468:Histology
326:dimorphic
318:phialides
205:melanized
126:Species:
64:Kingdom:
58:Eukaryota
1613:MycoBank
1605:10644182
1574:Fungorum
1546:Wikidata
1484:MycoBank
1476:10918424
1445:Fungorum
1404:Wikidata
1364:16514339
1329:11204152
1288:25395928
1228:19575735
1184:25850842
1176:14996622
1136:17350498
1096:26465369
1042:19085206
996:17169546
926:19287540
781:18491001
729:24982320
329:pathogen
237:mycelial
163:Synonyms
104:Family:
54:Domain:
1592:2598476
1463:2598475
1437:1007281
1372:1445300
1279:4221348
1087:4711190
961:6540481
917:2610306
772:2104744
720:4135901
534:surgery
527:enzymes
464:antigen
398:budding
353:gelatin
284:conidia
267:trees,
187:Borelli
114:Genus:
94:Order:
84:Class:
1625:NZOR:
1618:294912
1579:294912
1525:849118
1509:NZOR:
1489:412794
1450:412794
1370:
1362:
1327:
1286:
1276:
1234:
1226:
1182:
1174:
1134:
1094:
1084:
1040:
994:
959:
924:
914:
840:
802:
779:
769:
727:
717:
665:
603:
505:. The
444:distal
394:septum
362:hyphae
345:urease
296:spores
189:(1980)
178:(1954)
176:Trejos
1600:IRMNG
1502:86049
1471:IRMNG
1368:S2CID
1232:S2CID
1180:S2CID
324:is a
203:is a
68:Fungi
1587:GBIF
1566:VQ29
1497:NCBI
1458:GBIF
1424:VPRW
1360:PMID
1325:PMID
1284:PMID
1224:PMID
1172:PMID
1132:PMID
1092:PMID
1038:PMID
992:PMID
957:PMID
922:PMID
838:ISBN
800:ISBN
777:PMID
725:PMID
663:ISBN
601:ISBN
556:and
497:and
478:and
349:urea
265:pine
223:, a
1561:CoL
1432:EoL
1419:CoL
1352:doi
1315:doi
1274:PMC
1266:doi
1214:doi
1164:doi
1124:doi
1082:PMC
1072:doi
1028:doi
984:doi
980:111
949:doi
912:PMC
904:doi
870:doi
767:PMC
759:doi
715:PMC
707:doi
536:or
472:PCR
255:is
1647::
1615::
1602::
1589::
1576::
1563::
1548::
1522::
1499::
1486::
1473::
1460::
1447::
1434::
1421::
1406::
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1358:.
1348:19
1346:.
1323:.
1311:38
1309:.
1305:.
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1260:.
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1204:.
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1120:25
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1104:^
1090:.
1080:.
1068:57
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1062:.
1050:^
1036:.
1024:47
1022:.
1018:.
1004:^
990:.
978:.
955:.
945:22
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920:.
910:.
900:61
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882:^
866:33
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852:^
814:^
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765:.
755:58
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737:^
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713:.
703:27
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677:^
615:^
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400:.
368:.
320:.
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1354::
1331:.
1317::
1290:.
1268::
1238:.
1216::
1186:.
1166::
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1138:.
1126::
1098:.
1074::
1044:.
1030::
998:.
986::
963:.
951::
928:.
906::
876:.
872::
846:.
808:.
783:.
761::
731:.
709::
671:.
609:.
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