Class action - Knowledge (XXG)

919: 1634:. Citing its deference to freedom to contract principles, the Epic Systems opinion opened the door dramatically to the use of these waivers as a condition of employment, consumer purchases and the like. Some commentators in opposition to the ruling see it as a "death knell" to many employment and consumer class actions, and have increasingly pushed for legislation to circumvent it in hopes of reviving otherwise-underrepresented parties' ability to litigate on a group basis. Supporters (mostly pro-business) of the high court's ruling argue its holding is consistent with private contract principles. Many of those supporters had long-since argued that class action procedures were generally inconsistent with due process mandates and unnecessarily promoted litigation of otherwise small claims—thus heralding the ruling's anti-litigation effect. 2451:. Class action is regulated by art. 140 bis of the Italian consumers' code and has been in force since 1 July 2009. On May 19, 2021, the reform of the Italian legal framework on class actions finally entered into force. The new rules, designed by Law n. 31 and published on April 18, 2019, (Law n. 31/2019), were initially intended to become effective on April 19, 2020, but had been delayed twice. The new rules on class actions are now included in the Italian Civil Procedure Code (ICPC). Overall, the new class action appears to be a viable instrument which, through a system of economic incentives, could overcome the rational apathy of small-claims holders and ensure redress. 1851:" (which usually allow the plaintiffs to receive a small benefit such as a small check or a coupon for future services or products with the defendant company) are a way for a defendant to forestall major liability by precluding many people from litigating their claims separately, to recover reasonable compensation for the damages. However, existing law requires judicial approval of all class-action settlements, and in most cases, class members are given a chance to opt out of class settlement, though class members, despite opt-out notices, may be unaware of their right to opt-out because they did not receive the notice, did not read it or did not understand it. 2476:

right during the opt-out period set by the Court, usually 3 to 6 months. Settlements involving injured parties from outside The Netherlands can also be declared binding by the Court. Since US courts are reluctant to take up class actions brought on behalf of injured parties not residing in the US who have suffered damages due to acts or omissions committed outside the US, combinations of US class actions and Dutch collective actions may come to a settlement that covers plaintiffs worldwide. An example of this is the Royal Dutch Shell Oil Reserves Settlement that was declared binding upon both US and non-US plaintiffs.

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interest in the subject matter of a proceeding". The presence and expansion of litigation funders have been playing a significant role in the emergence of class actions in New Zealand. For example, the "Fair Play on Fees" proceedings in relation to penalty fees charged by banks were funded by Litigation Lending Services (LLS), a company specializing in the funding and management of litigation in Australia and New Zealand. It was the biggest class-action suit in New Zealand history.

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ineffective. Within ten years, the Supreme Court interpreted Rule 48 in such a way so that it could apply to absent parties under certain circumstances, but only by ignoring the plain meaning of the rule. In the rules published in 1912, Equity Rule 48 was replaced with Equity Rule 38 as part of a major restructuring of the Equity Rules, and when federal courts merged their legal and equitable procedural systems in 1938, Equity Rule 38 became Rule 23 of the

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actions tra efficientismo processuale, aumento di competitività e risparmio di spesa: l’esame di un contenzioso seriale concreto (le S.U. sul rapporto tra indennità di amministrazione e tredicesima), in Corr. Giur. 2006, 535; FAVA P., Indennità di amministrazione e tredicesima: il "no secco" delle Sezioni Unite. Un caso pratico per valutare le potenzialità delle azioni rappresentative (class actions) nel contenzioso seriale italiano, Rass. Avv. Stato 2005]

1725: – must compensate those individuals for their injuries. For example, thousands of shareholders of a public company may have losses too small to justify separate lawsuits, but a class action can be brought efficiently on behalf of all shareholders. Perhaps even more important than compensation is that class treatment of claims may be the only way to impose the costs of wrongdoing on the wrongdoer, thus deterring future wrongdoing. 890:

countries, class actions are most common where the allegations usually involve at least 40 people who the same defendant has injured in the same way. Instead of each damaged person bringing one's own lawsuit, the class action allows all the claims of all class members—whether they know they have been damaged or not—to be resolved in a single proceeding through the efforts of the representative plaintiff(s) and appointed class counsel.

809: 1973:) have brought claims on behalf of hundreds or even thousands of consumers. In these cases, the individual consumers assigned their claims to one entity, who has then brought an ordinary (two-party) lawsuit over the assigned claims. The monetary benefits were redistributed among the class. This technique, labeled as "class action Austrian style," allows for a significant reduction of overall costs. The 2471:) (section 3:305a Dutch Civil Code). All types of actions are permitted. This includes a claim for monetary damages, provided the event occurred after 15 November 2016 (pursuant to new legislation which entered into force 1 January 2020). Most class actions over the past decade have been in the field of securities fraud and financial services. The acting association or foundation may come to a 1916:

scrutiny, and notice. There may not be a way to uniformly settle all of the many claims brought via a mass action. Some states permit plaintiff's counsel to settle for all the mass action plaintiffs according to a majority vote, for example. Other states, such as New Jersey, require each plaintiff to approve the settlement of that plaintiff's own individual claims.

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litigation they are entitled to do so, only to the extent that they give timely notice to the class counsel or the court that they are opting out. Second, if there is a settlement proposal, the court will usually direct the class counsel to send a settlement notice to all the members of the certified class, informing them of the details of the proposed settlement.

2145:) is a legal act that may permit plaintiffs that are in the same legal community with respect to the dispute, or are entitled by the same factual or legal reason. These are not typically regarded as class action suits, as each individual plaintiff is entitled to compensation for their individual, incurred damages and not as a result of being a member of a class. 1887:

some groups (such as former customers) much greater benefits than others. In one paper presented at an ABA conference on class actions in 2007, authors commented that "competing cases can also provide opportunities for collusive settlement discussions and reverse auctions by defendants anxious to resolve their new exposure at the most economic cost".

1814:, 84 F.3d 734 (5th Cir. 1996) (rejecting nationwide class action against tobacco companies). Mass torts also involve high individual damage awards; thus, the absence of class treatment will not impede the ability of individual claimants to seek justice. Other cases, however, may be more conducive to class treatment. 2196:) is an attempt to enable model cases to be brought by a large number of potentially affected parties in the event of disputes, limited to the investment market. In contrast to the US class actions, each affected party must file a lawsuit in its own name in order to participate in the model proceedings. 1992:, the Justice Ministry opened the discussion with a conference held in Vienna in June 2005. With the aid of a group of experts from many fields, the Justice Ministry began drafting the new law in September 2005. With the individual positions varying greatly, a political consensus could not be reached. 2719:

For the case to proceed as a class action and bind absent class members, the court must certify the class under Rule 23 on a motion from the party wishing to proceed on a class basis. For a class to be certified, the moving party must meet all of the criteria listed under Rule 23(a), and at least one

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Italy has class action legislation. Consumer associations can file claims on behalf of groups of consumers to obtain judicial orders against corporations that cause injury or damage to consumers. These types of claims are increasing, and Italian courts have allowed them against banks that continue to

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expressly or by judicial opinion has been read to allow for what are informally known as national "opt-out" class actions, whereby residents of other provinces may be included in the class definition and potentially be bound by the court's judgment on common issues unless they opt-out in a prescribed

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There are several criticisms of class actions. The preamble to the Class Action Fairness Act stated that some abusive class actions have harmed class members possessing legitimate claims and defendants acting responsibly; have adversely affected interstate commerce; and have undermined public respect

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that the Federal Arbitration Act of 1925 preempts state laws that prohibit contracts from disallowing class-action lawsuits, which will make it more difficult for consumers to file class-action lawsuits. The dissent pointed to a saving clause in the federal act which allowed states to determine how a

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By 1850, Parliament had enacted several statutes on a case-by-case basis to deal with issues regularly faced by certain types of organizations, like joint-stock companies, and with the impetus for most types of group litigation removed, it went into a steep decline in English jurisprudence from which

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provide for four separate types of class actions. As a result, there are two separate treatises devoted solely to the complex topic of California class actions. As of March 2024, only Virginia and Massachusetts do not provide for any class actions. Others, such as New York, limit the types of claims

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of the 1933 Act in a class action, a plaintiff must be able to prove that he can "trace" his shares to the registration statement in question, as to which there is alleged a material misstatement or omission. In the absence of an ability to actually trace his shares, such as when securities issued

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The class representative must be able to represent the interests of all the members of the class, by being typical of the class members and not having conflicts with them. He or she is responsible for hiring the attorney, filing the lawsuit, consulting on the case, and agreeing to any settlement. In

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Spanish law allows nominated consumer associations to take action to protect the interests of consumers. A number of groups already have the power to bring collective or class actions: certain consumer associations, bodies legally constituted to defend the "collective interest" and groups of injured

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with the defendant. The settlement may also include – and usually primarily consists of – monetary compensation of damages. Such settlement can be declared binding for all injured parties by the Amsterdam Court of Appeal (section 7:907 Dutch Civil Code). The injured parties have an opt-out

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Judicial opinions have indicated that provincial legislative national opt-out powers should not be exercised to interfere with the ability of another province to certify a parallel class action for residents of other provinces. The first court to certify will generally exclude residents of provinces

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Because mass actions operate outside the detailed procedures laid out for class actions, they can pose special difficulties for both plaintiffs, defendants, and the court. For example, settlement of class actions follows a predictable path of negotiation with class counsel and representatives, court

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As of 2010, there was no publicly maintained list of nonsecurities class-action settlements, although a securities class-action database exists in the Stanford Law School Securities Class Action Clearinghouse and several for-profit companies maintain lists of the securities settlements. One study of

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In 2017, the US Supreme Court issued its opinion in Bristol-Meyer Squibb Co. v. Superior Court of California, 137 S. Ct. 1773 (2017), holding that over five hundred plaintiffs from other states cannot bring a consolidated mass action against the pharmaceutical giant in the State of California. This

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requires in most cases that notice describing the class action be sent, published, or broadcast to class members. As part of this notice procedure, there may have to be several notices, first a notice allowing class members to opt out of the class, i.e. if individuals wish to proceed with their own

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refers to the number of people in the class. To be certified, the class has to have enough members that simply adding each of them as a named party to the lawsuit would be impractical. There is no bright-line rule to determine numerosity, but classes with hundreds of members are generally deemed to

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to appropriate all the claims of the victims and proceeded to litigate on their behalf, first in the New York courts and later, in the Indian courts. Ultimately, the matter was settled between the Union of India and Union Carbide (in a settlement overseen by the Supreme Court of India) for a sum of

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In a class action, the plaintiff seeks court approval to litigate on behalf of a group of similarly situated persons. Not every plaintiff looks for or could obtain such approval. As a procedural alternative, plaintiff's counsel may attempt to sign up every similarly situated person that counsel can

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Class members often receive little or no benefit from class actions. Examples cited for this include large fees for the attorneys, while leaving class members with coupons or other awards of little or no value; unjustified awards are made to certain plaintiffs at the expense of other class members;

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In a typical class action, a plaintiff sues a defendant or a number of defendants on behalf of a group, or class, of absent parties. This differs from a traditional lawsuit, where one party sues another party, and all of the parties are present in court. Although standards differ between states and

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FAVA P., L'importabilità delle class actions in Italia, in Contratto e Impresa 1/2004 FAVA P., Class actions all'italiana: "Paese che vai, usanza che trovi" (l’esperienza dei principali ordinamenti giuridici stranieri e le proposte A.A.C.C. n. 3838 e n. 3839), in Corr. Giur. 3/2004; FAVA P., Class

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can be used then to pursue damages in the same procedure or in individual ones in different jurisdictions. If the latter is the case, the liability cannot be discussed, but only the damages. There under the Chilean procedural rules, one particular case works as an opt-out class action for damages.

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Class action cases present significant ethical challenges. Defendants can hold reverse auctions and any of several parties can engage in collusive settlement discussions. Subclasses may have interests that diverge greatly from the class but may be treated the same. Proposed settlements could offer

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and 28 U.S.C.A. § 1332(d). Cases in federal courts are only allowed to proceed as class actions if the court has jurisdiction to hear the case, and if the case meets the criteria set out in Rule 23. In the vast majority of federal class actions, the class is acting as the plaintiff. However,

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Recent changes to Spanish civil procedure rules include the introduction of a quasi-class action right for certain consumer associations to claim damages on behalf of unidentified classes of consumers. The rules require consumer associations to represent an adequate number of affected parties who

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Likewise, class actions appeared slowly in the New Zealand legal system. However, a group can bring litigation through the action of a representative under the High Court Rules which provide that one or a multitude of persons may sue on behalf of, or for the benefit of, all persons "with the same

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Where the parties on either side are very numerous, and cannot, without manifest inconvenience and oppressive delays in the suit, be all brought before it, the court in its discretion may dispense with making all of them parties, and may proceed in the suit, having sufficient parties before it to

1903:. All parishioners of the Archdiocese's churches were cited as a defendant class. This was done to include their assets (local churches) in any settlement. Where both the plaintiffs and the defendants have been organized into court-approved classes, the action is called a bilateral class action. 1777:

Finally, a class action avoids the situation where different court rulings could create "incompatible standards" of conduct for the defendant to follow. See Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b)(1)(A). For example, a court might certify a case for class treatment where a number of individual bond-holders sue to

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In 2020, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals found incentive awards are impermissible. Incentive awards are a relatively modest payment made to class representatives as part of a class settlement. The ruling was a response to an objector who claimed Rule 23 required that the fee petition be filed

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in limited circumstances (under Part 19.6). These have not been much used, with only two reported cases at the court of first instance in the first ten years after the Civil Procedure Rules took effect. However, a sectoral mechanism was adopted by the Consumer Rights Act 2015, taking effect on

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Class actions are generally not permitted in Germany, as German law does not recognize the concept of a targeted class being affected by certain actions. This requires each plaintiff to individually prove that they were affected by an action, and present their individual damages, and prove the

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The Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 addresses these concerns. An independent expert may scrutinize coupon settlements before judicial approval in order to ensure that the settlement will be of value to the class members (28 U.S.C.A. 1712(d)). Further, if the action provides for settlement in

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A major revision of the FRCP in 1966 radically transformed Rule 23, made the opt-out class action the standard option, and gave birth to the modern class action. Entire treatises have been written since to summarize the huge mass of law that sprang up from the 1966 revision of Rule 23. Just as

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The Advisory Committee that drafted the new Rule 23 in the mid-1960s was influenced by two major developments. First was the suggestion of Harry Kalven Jr. and Maurice Rosenfield in 1941 that class-action litigation by individual shareholders on behalf of all shareholders of a company could

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This allowed for representative suits in situations where there were too many individual parties (which now forms the first requirement for class-action litigation – numerosity). However, this rule did not allow such suits to bind similarly situated absent parties, which rendered the rule

2711:(MDL). It is also possible to bring class actions under state law, and in some cases the court may extend its jurisdiction to all the members of the class, including out of state (or even internationally) as the key element is the jurisdiction that the court has over the defendant. 2348:

The Supreme Court has observed that the PIL has tended to become a means to gain publicity or obtain relief contrary to constitutionally valid legislation and policy. Observers point out that many High Courts and certain Supreme Court judges are reluctant to entertain PILs filed by

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Class-action lawsuits are an important and valuable part of the legal system when they permit the fair and efficient resolution of legitimate claims of numerous parties by allowing the claims to be aggregated into a single action against a defendant that has allegedly caused harm.

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Registered Consumer Protection Associations can file – if they represent at least 10 individuals – for a (general) judicial finding whether the factual and legal requirements for of claims or legal relationships are met or not. These individuals have to register in order to

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where one of the parties is a group of people who are represented collectively by a member or members of that group. The class action originated in the United States and is still predominantly an American phenomenon, but Canada, as well as several European countries with

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This is the case when defendants can identify and compensate consumers directly, i.e. because it is their banking institution. In such cases, the judge can skip the compensatory stage and order redress directly. Since 2005 more than 100 cases have been filed, mostly by

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Following the change of majority in France in 2012, the new government proposed introducing class actions into French law. The project of "loi Hamon" of May 2013 aimed to limit the class action to consumer and competition disputes. The law was passed on March 1, 2014.

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Chile approved class actions in 2004. The Chilean model is technically an opt-out issue class action, followed by a compensatory stage which can be collective or individual. This means that the class action is designed to declare the defendant generally liable with

2345:; the monitoring of forest use by the High Courts and the Supreme Court to ensure that there is no unjustified loss of forest cover; and the directions mandating the disclosure of assets of electoral candidates for the Houses of Parliament and State Assembly. 1809:

are ordinarily "not appropriate" for class treatment. Class treatment may not improve the efficiency of a mass tort because the claims frequently involve individualized issues of law and fact that will have to be re-tried on an individual basis. See

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First, aggregation can increase the efficiency of the legal process, and lower the costs of litigation. In cases with common questions of law and fact, aggregation of claims into a class action may avoid the necessity of repeating "days of the same

2180:§), the court decision concerning the dismissal or direction of a binding arrangement of an adequate compensation is effective for and against all shareholders, including those who have already agreed to a previous settlement in this matter. 2434:

passed a class-action law in Finanziaria 2008, a financial document for the economy management of the government. From 10 December 2007, in order of Italian legislation system, the law is before the House and has to be passed also by the

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federal settlements required the researcher to manually search databases of lawsuits for the relevant records, although state class actions were not included due to the difficulty in gathering the information. Another source of data is

2443:, to become an effective law. In 2004, the Italian parliament considered the introduction of a type of class action, specifically in the area of consumer law. No such law has been enacted, but scholars demonstrated that class actions ( 1582:

Businesses targeted by class actions for inflicting massive aggregate harm have sought ways to avoid class actions altogether. In the 1990s, the US Supreme Court issued several decisions that strengthened the "federal policy favoring

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Class Actions Seven Years After the Class Action Fairness Act: Hearing before the Subcommittee on the Constitution of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, Second Session, June 1,

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Public interest litigation has now broadened in scope to cover larger and larger groups of citizens who may be affected by government inaction. Examples of this trend include the conversion of all public transport in the city of

2385:). A representative action is "where one claimant or defendant, with the same interest as a group of claimants or defendants in an action, institutes or defends proceedings on behalf of that group of claimants or defendants." 2668:

of 1995 and those concerning internal corporate governance issues (the latter typically being brought as shareholder derivative actions in the state courts of Delaware, the state of incorporation of most large corporations).

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find as a client. Plaintiff's counsel can then join the claims of all of these persons in one complaint, a so-called "mass action", hoping to have the same efficiencies and economic leverage as if a class had been certified.

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Rejecting arguments that they violated employees' rights to collective bargaining, and that modestly-valued consumer claims would be more efficiently litigated within the parameters of one lawsuit, the U.S. Supreme Court, in

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The New Federal Equity Rules Promulgated by the United States Supreme Court at the October Term, 1912: Together with the Cognate Statutory Provisions and Former Equity Rules; with an Introduction, Annotations and Forms, p.

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requirements to permit the filing of suits on behalf of rights of deprived sections of society by public-minded individuals or bodies. Although not strictly "class action litigation" as it is understood in American law,

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have suffered the same harm. Also, any judgment made by the Spanish court will list the individual beneficiaries or, if that is not possible, conditions that need to be fulfilled for a party to benefit from a judgment.

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October 1, 2015. Under the provisions therein, opt-in or opt-out collective procedures may be certified for breaches of competition law. This is currently the closest mechanism to a class action in England and Wales.

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coupons, "the portion of any attorney's fee award to class counsel that is attributable to the award of the coupons shall be based on the value to class members of the coupons that are redeemed". 28 U.S.C.A. 1712(a).

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is the named party in a class-action lawsuit. Although the class representative is named as a party to the litigation, the court must approve the class representative when it certifies the lawsuit as a class action.

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Typically, federal courts are thought to be more favorable for defendants, and state courts more favorable for plaintiffs. Many class actions are filed initially in state court. The defendant will frequently try to

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their claims. Since these Adjudications are more of a general nature, each individual must assert their claims in their own court proceedings. The competent court is bound by the Model Declaratory Action decision.

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at multiple times are held by the Depository Trust Company in a fungible bulk and physical tracing of particular shares may be impossible, the plaintiff may be barred from pursuing his claim for lack of standing.

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represent all the adverse interests of the plaintiffs and the defendants in the suit properly before it. But in such cases, the decree shall be without prejudice to the rights and claims of all the absent parties.

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used by laypersons unfamiliar with the critical distinction between the legal terms of art "action" and "suit" (which traditionally refer, respectively, to legal proceedings at common law and in equity). Thus,

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for all class actions with damages exceeding $ 5,000,000 exclusive of interest and costs. The Class Action Fairness Act contains carve-outs for, among other things, shareholder class actions covered by the

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proximately flowing from the failure to report the suspected injuries. Previously, many physicians had remained reluctant to report cases of apparent child abuse, despite existing law that required it.

2748:, there must be a common question of law and fact such that "determination of its truth or falsity will resolve an issue that is central to the validity of each one of the claims in one stroke". The 2164:

A genuine extension of the legal effect of a court decision beyond the parties involved in the proceedings is offered under corporate law. This procedure applies to the review of stock payoffs under

1900: 1709:, 109 F.3d 388, 344 (7th Cir. 1997)). "A class action solves this problem by aggregating the relatively paltry potential recoveries into something worth someone's (usually an attorney's) labor." 2289: 1620:

Companies may insert the phrase "may elect to resolve any claim by individual arbitration" into their consumer and employment contracts to use arbitration and prevent class-action lawsuits.

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Since 1938, many states have adopted rules similar to the FRCP. However, some states, like California, have civil procedure systems, which deviate significantly from the federal rules; the

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Other legislation may provide for representative actions on behalf of a large number of plaintiffs, independent of class action procedures. For instance, under Ontario's Condominium Act, a

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litigation, two provincial courts certified overlapping class actions whereby Canadian residents were class members in two class actions in two provinces. Both decisions are under appeal.

1866:, who published a famous law review article in 1971 calling the class action a form of "legalized blackmail". It has garnered the support of a significant minority of the justices of the 1483: 4549: 3149: 2521:

is alien to European legal thought to allow somebody to exercise rights on the behalf of a large number of people if these do not participate as parties in the action. ... Moreover, the

918: 4232: 3890: 2062:'s governing corporation may launch a lawsuit on behalf of the owners for damage to the condominium's common elements, even though the corporation does not own the common elements. 1738:

that aimed at purposefully changing the behavior of doctors, encouraging them to report suspected child abuse. Otherwise, they would face the threat of civil action for damages in

4467: 1571:. The groups behind these movements, as well as many others in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, all turned to class actions as a means for achieving their goals. For example, a 1978 4190: 4428: 1701:

Second, a class action may overcome "the problem that small recoveries do not provide the incentive for any individual to bring a solo action prosecuting his or her rights".

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in the various states lack significant commonalities. Large class actions brought in federal court frequently are consolidated for pre-trial purposes through the device of

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Under French law, an association can represent the collective interests of consumers; however, each claimant must be individually named in the lawsuit. On January 4, 2005,

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manner and time. Court rulings have determined that this permits a court in one province to include residents of other provinces in the class action on an "opt-out" basis.

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In two major 21st-century cases, the Supreme Court ruled 5–4 against certification of class actions due to differences in each individual members' circumstances: first in

1521:(1820). However, Story did not necessarily endorse class actions, because he "could not conceive of a modern function or a coherent theory for representative litigation." 4531: 3632: 1896: 1325: 3581: 2517:

proposed a new federal code of civil procedure in 2006, replacing the cantonal codes of civil procedure, it rejected the introduction of class actions, arguing that

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the time frame for class member objections to be filed; and payments to the class representative violates doctrine from two US Supreme Court cases from the 1800s.

2373:, there is no such thing as a "class action" per se. Third-party litigation funding is prohibited under Irish law. Instead, there is the 'representative action' ( 2208:) introduced the Model Declaratory Action (§ 606 ZPO) that created the ability to bundle similar claims by many affected parties efficiently into one proceeding. 1805:

depends on the case and is determined by the judge's ruling on a motion for class certification. The Advisory Committee Note to Rule 23, for example, states that

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can be openly or discretely abused. The sums sued for are usually enormous, so that the respondent can be forced to concede, if they do not want to face sudden

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led to the wealthy supporters of the corporate form becoming suspicious of all unincorporated legal entities, which in turn led to the modern concept of the

92: 4821: 2484:"Pozew zbiorowy" or class action has been allowed under Polish law since July 19, 2010. A minimum of 10 persons, suing based on the same law, is required. 2467:) to bring a so-called collective action on behalf of other persons, provided they can represent the interests of such persons according to their by-laws ( 3663: 931: 232: 3190:"Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals Holds that Incentive Payments Commonly Awarded to Class Representatives are Impermissible in a Classwide Settlement" 3093: 2070: 4886: 1670:

Proponents of class actions state that they offer a number of advantages because they aggregate many individualized claims into one representational

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is represented by a foreign body in the matter of asserting and enforcing individual claims and the claimant can no longer control the proceedings.

1977:, in a judgment, confirmed the legal admissibility of these lawsuits under the condition that all claims are essentially based on the same grounds. 1469: 2245:

Class actions can be brought by Germans in the US for events in Germany if the facts of the case relate to the US. For example, in the case of the

4887:"The Legislation Enacting Virginia's New Class Action Statute Should Be Amended to Protect Virginia Businesses from In Terrorem Statutory Damages" 4166: 3300: 2492:

Collective litigation has been allowed under Russian law since 2002. Basic criteria are, like in the US, numerosity, commonality, and typicality.

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medieval group litigation bound all members of the group regardless of whether they all actually appeared in court, the modern class action binds

3307: 911:. These groups were usually based on existing societal structures like villages, towns, parishes, and guilds. Unlike modern courts, the medieval 4561: 3166: 1559:

effectively supplement direct government regulation of securities markets and other similar markets. The second development was the rise of the

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any member of a class of plaintiffs is a foreign state or a citizen or subject of a foreign state and any defendant is a citizen of a State; or

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amended the Federal Court of Australia Act in 1992 to introduce "representative proceedings", the equivalent of the American "class actions".

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From 1400 to 1700, group litigation gradually switched from being the norm in England to the exception. The development of the concept of the

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Nationwide plaintiff classes are possible, but such suits must have a commonality of issues across state lines. This may be difficult if the

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to examine the possibility of new legislation providing for a cost-effective and appropriate way to deal with mass claims. Together with the

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Barroilhet, Agustin (2016-05-27). "Self-interested gatekeeping? Clashes between public and private enforcers in two Chilean class actions".

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any member of a class of plaintiffs is a citizen of a State and any defendant is a foreign state or a citizen or subject of a foreign state.

4054: 973: 3883: 2152:) is another method that permits a judge to combine multiple separate court cases into a single trial with a single verdict. According to 1840:

and confusing notices are published that prevent class members from being able to fully understand and effectively exercise their rights.

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opinion may arguably render nationwide mass action and class action impossible in any single state besides the defendant's home state.

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was next, with the Class Proceedings Act, 1992. As of 2008, 9 of 10 provinces had enacted comprehensive class actions legislation. In

1965: – ZPO) does not provide for a special proceeding for complex class-action litigation. However, Austrian consumer organizations ( 1413: 839: 2525:

is controversial even in its country of origin, the U.S., because it can result in significant procedural problems. ... Finally, the

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requirement ensures that the claims or defenses of the named plaintiff are typical of those of everyone else in the class. Finally,

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did not question the right of the actual plaintiffs to sue on behalf of a group or a few representatives to defend an entire group.

4711: 4031: 3982: 2618:, "officers and directors are liable together with the corporation for material misrepresentations in the registration statement." 1418: 4838: 4217: 2639: 1539: 1369: 984: 903:

The antecedent of the class action was what modern observers call "group litigation," which appears to have been quite common in

5003: 3468: 1958: 558: 1591:

called "collective action waivers", which prohibit those signing the contracts from bringing class-action suits. In 2011, the

4998: 4965: 4815: 4524: 4009: 2370: 4592: 3639: 2756:

requirement states that the named plaintiff must fairly and adequately represent the interests of the absent class members.

1597: 2602:

exchange, the class representative may be entitled to compensation (at the court's discretion) out of the recovery amount.

4788: 4313: 2844: 2685:§ 1332(d). Under § 1332(d)(2) the federal district courts have original jurisdiction over any civil action where the 2350: 2205: 1015: 31: 3399: 3122: 2678: 2393: 2288:

arose out of the wide powers of judicial review granted to the Supreme Court of India and the various High Courts under

2125:

urged changes that would provide greater consumer protection. A draft bill was proposed in April 2006 but did not pass.

1656: 1374: 989: 348: 3935: 3604: 2311:

due to procedural rules that would make such litigation impossible to conclude and unwieldy to carry out. Instead, the

4983: 4917: 4101: 1626: 1359: 1010: 564: 1728:

Third, class-action cases may be brought to purposely change behavior of a class of which the defendant is a member.

3699: 2849: 2285: 2258: 2249:, the lawsuit was allowed because several aggrieved parties came from the US and had purchased rail tickets there. 1930: 1124: 338: 3961: 1496: 2358: 1895:

Although normally plaintiffs are the class, defendant class actions are also possible. For example, in 2005, the

1063: 1026: 653: 502: 4279: 3145: 2708: 1735: 1613: 1512: 946:

resulted in periods during which the common law courts were frequently paralyzed, and out of the confusion the

874: 686: 670: 237: 197: 2307:, who were unable to fully prosecute a class-action litigation (as understood in the American sense) against 2233:), which is comparable to the class action and is predominantly used in environmental law. In civil law, the 4970: 4550:"Morrison, the Restricted Scope of Securities Act Section 11 Liability, and Prospects for Regulatory Reform" 3781:"BancoEstado devolverá US$ 12 millones a clientes por cobro de comisiones en cuentas de ahorro - LA TERCERA" 3756: 3716:

Barroilhet, Agustin (2012-01-30). "Class Actions in Chile". Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network.

2855: 2704: 2431: 2024: 2016: 1287: 551: 376: 343: 3232:

Fitzpatrick, Brian T. (2010-12-01). "An Empirical Study of Class Action Settlements and Their Fee Awards".

922:

Engraving of the Star Chamber, published in "Old and new London" in 1873, taken from a drawing made in 1836

3968: 3509:

Johnston, Robert; Karageorge, Felicity; Solomonidis, Rena; Briggs, Nicholas; Gaertner, Sara (April 2023).

2626: 2615: 2611: 2563: 2338: 2246: 1974: 1588: 1248: 1243: 1020: 907:

from about 1200 onward. These lawsuits involved groups of people either suing or being sued in actions at

832: 747: 569: 480: 323: 268: 172: 67: 3365: 3055:

Deborah R. Hensler, Nicholas M. Pace, Bonita Dombey-Moore, Beth Giddens, Jennifer Gross, Erik K. Moller,

2003:

in Canada allow class actions. All provinces permit plaintiff classes and some permit defendant classes.

3729: 3343: 2686: 2660: 2559: 2514: 2293: 2264: 1560: 1343: 1280: 1043: 935: 878: 707: 681: 600: 490: 485: 447: 242: 202: 189: 4370:"Class Actions 101: An Introduction to UK Collective Actions and How They Differ from US Class Actions" 1507:

Class actions survived in the United States thanks to the influence of Supreme Court Associate Justice

3304: 2652: 2354: 2274: 2093: 2012: 1525: 1424: 1092: 1031: 179: 119: 4429:"The Limits of Delaware Corporate Law: Internal Affairs, Federal Forum Provisions, and Sciabacucchi" 2142: 3491: 2821: 2814: 2436: 2312: 2297: 2102: 2074: 1981: 1631: 1275: 1180: 1154: 1056: 544: 538: 497: 434: 257: 58: 2329:(US$ 91 million) as a complete settlement of all claims of all victims for all time to come. 2156:, this is only permissible if all cases are regarding the same factual and legal event and basis. 1555:

members of the class, except for those who choose to opt out (if the rules permit them to do so).

4948: 4630: 3528: 3380: 3257: 3010: 2827: 2804:, a contract clause that attempts to prevent lawsuits by requiring arbitration in a private forum 2801: 2440: 2268: 1942: 1867: 1225: 1195: 1160: 787: 674: 605: 574: 465: 429: 405: 361: 144: 86: 3324:"FindLaw Class Action and Mass Tort Center: Legal Research: Cohelan on California Class Actions" 4705:"William B. Rubenstein, "Understanding the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005" (briefing paper)" 3840: 3323: 4794: 4487: 4400: 4248: 4184: 3820: 3721: 3717: 3657: 3514: 3441: 3435: 3249: 3157: 3028: 3018: 2923: 2917: 2837: 2759:

Rule 23(b)(3) allows class certification if "questions of law or fact common to class members

2659:

increases defendants' ability to remove state cases to federal court by giving federal courts

2423: 1848: 1843:

For example, in the United States, class lawsuits sometimes bind all class members with a low

1730: 1721:

who engages in widespread harm – but does so minimally against each individual

1607: 1572: 1409: 947: 939: 825: 732: 727: 717: 712: 528: 507: 371: 317: 304: 252: 212: 4760: 2824:, a provision in some contracts which prevents one or both parties from filing a class action 2430:. The introduction of class actions is on the government's agenda. On November 19, 2007, the 4622: 4325: 3812: 3549: 3241: 2788: 2693:

any member of a class of plaintiffs is a citizen of a State different from any defendant; or

2342: 2213: 1878:. However, empirical studies have generally found the extortion thesis to be "overstated". 1844: 1592: 1564: 1270: 1265: 1235: 904: 722: 595: 523: 475: 424: 357: 299: 207: 184: 126: 114: 2149: 1790:

could result in different outcomes and inconsistent standards of conduct for the defendant

4834: 4236: 4221: 3806: 3742: 3703: 3497: 3369: 3311: 3076: 2892: 2448: 2304: 1766:, 527 U.S. 815 (1999). A class action in such a situation centralizes all claims into one 1517: 1230: 1220: 1119: 1086: 962:

of 1874 and 1875. Group litigation was essentially dead in the United Kingdom after 1850.

959: 399: 328: 311: 4704: 4128: 3275: 3069: 1694:, 782 F.2d 468, 473 (5th Cir. 1986) (granting certification of a class action involving 4214: 3431: 2831: 2643: 2622: 2374: 2317: 2122: 2000: 1875: 1871: 1863: 1779: 1354: 1200: 777: 533: 415: 333: 135: 81: 76: 4648: 3862: 3384: 4992: 4127:

Collins, Niall; Johnston, Peter; Gilvarry, Ailbhe; Farrell, Kevin (1 December 2019).

3358: 3245: 2807: 2767:

to other available methods for fairly and efficiently adjudicating the controversy."

2308: 1379: 912: 742: 617: 3914: 3461: 3347: 2153: 4613:

Miller, Scott D. (1984). "Certification of Defendant Classes under Rule 23(b)(2)".

3261: 2883: 2409: 2279: 2066: 2031: 1794:. Thus, courts will generally allow a class action in such a situation. See, e.g., 1783: 1508: 1501: 1394: 1190: 1165: 1150: 998: 955: 943: 795: 782: 772: 737: 277: 4266: 4225: 1515:

through summary discussions in his two equity treatises as well as his opinion in

4912: 4394: 3986: 2763:

over any questions affecting only individual members, and that a class action is

2562:

of the courts of England and Wales came into force in 1999 and have provided for

3816: 3609: 2775: 2059: 2043: 2023:, 2 S.C.R. 534, class actions may be advanced under a local rule of court. The 1791: 1787: 1767: 1750:

receive relief and that early-filing plaintiffs do not raid the fund (i.e., the

1687: 1584: 1568: 1524:

The oldest predecessor to the class-action rule in the United States was in the

1307: 1077: 1049: 927: 808: 648: 381: 247: 162: 2955: 2534: 2399: 2088: 1802: 1771: 1759: 1455: 1399: 1170: 908: 813: 757: 660: 612: 282: 223: 149: 41: 3253: 3161: 17: 3939: 3582:"Slater and Gordon announces launch of New Zealand class action against ANZ" 3216: 3032: 2540: 2427: 1859: 1858:

A common critique is that class actions are a form of judicially sanctioned

1806: 1751: 1747: 1722: 1718: 1679: 1336: 1317: 1312: 1185: 1114: 791: 2015:, where no comprehensive legislation exists, following the decision of the 4962: 4329: 1990:

Austrian Ministry for Social Security, Generations and Consumer Protection

1941:

Class actions became part of the Australian legal landscape only when the

1683: 4344: 4299: 3094:"Supreme Court: AT&T can force arbitration, block class-action suits" 2887: 2035: 1695: 1448: 1145: 1102: 958:

pleading, in general, was falling into disfavor, which culminated in the

767: 627: 390: 287: 109: 3863:"with a list of the KapMuG proceedings published in the Federal Gazette" 3693: 2069:

initiated efforts that led to an estimated 79,000 survivors of Canada's

2007:

was the first province to enact class proceedings legislation, in 1978.

4634: 4055:"Chief Justice launches report on litigation funding and class actions" 3116: 2405: 2303:

However, this innovative jurisprudence did not help the victims of the

2039: 2008: 1671: 1404: 1210: 1175: 869: 622: 590: 470: 292: 4449: 3962:"Union of India Vs. Association for Democratic Reforms & Another" 2682: 2681:

if the claim arises under federal law or if the claim falls under 28

2051:

whose courts have certified a parallel class action. However, in the

2004: 1579:

text of Rule 23 and mentioned "class actions" 14 times in its index.

1437: 665: 632: 4626: 4433:

Harvard Law School on Corporate Governance and Financial Regulation

4154: 3513:(7th ed.). United Kingdom: Law Business Research. p. 8. 2334: 2065:

The largest class action suit in Canada was settled in 2005 after

2052: 2027:

permits class actions under Part V.1 of the Federal Courts Rules.

1755: 1717:, 109 F.3d at 344). In other words, a class action ensures that a 1297: 442: 4955: 1746:

Fourth, in "limited fund" cases, a class action ensures that all

3757:"Class Actions in Chile: Update | Global Class Actions Exchange" 2530: 2513:

Swiss law does not allow for any form of class action. When the

1739: 1331: 456: 49: 3276:"Data Collection: Civil Justice Survey of State Courts (CJSSC)" 1862:. The extortion thesis was first articulated by law professor 4963:

Class Action Lawsuits: A Legal Overview for the 115th Congress

3889:. Deutscher Bundestag: Wissenschaftliche Dienste. 2012-03-19. 3363:"Harm-Less Lawsuits? What's Wrong with Consumer Class Actions" 3362: 2922:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 162. 2092:

effects if and only if the defendant is found liable, and the

1770:

where a court can equitably divide the assets amongst all the

4300:"Different class: UK representative actions suffer a setback" 3057:

Class Action Dilemmas: Pursuing Public Goals for Private Gain

2874:

The proper term used by specialists in complex litigation is

2841:(2011), the largest civil rights class-action lawsuit to date 954:

it never recovered. It was further weakened by the fact that

4265:

Message to Parliament on the Swiss Code of Civil Procedure,

2204:

Effective on November 1, 2018, the Code of Civil Procedure (

2886:

courts. "Class action lawsuit" or "class action suit" are

950:

emerged with exclusive jurisdiction over group litigation.

3842:

LOI n° 2014-344 du 17 mars 2014 relative à la consommation

1587:". In response, lawyers have added provisions to consumer 30:

This article is about the legal term. For other uses, see

4675:"Class Action Fairness Act Public Law 109-2, 119 Stat. 4" 3015:

From Medieval Group Litigation to the Modern Class Action

4269:

et seq. The quote, p. 7290, is the author's translation.

1929:

Class actions were recognized in "Halabi" leading case (

4507:"Pleading Section 11 Liability for Secondary Offerings" 3437:

Entrepreneurial Litigation: Its Rise, Fall, and Future

3150:"Arbitration Everywhere, Stacking the Deck of Justice" 2610:

In securities class actions that allege violations of

4793:. Chicago: American Bar Association. pp. 57–59. 2830:, a similar legal framework under development in the 2077:. The settlement amounted to upwards of $ 5 billion. 4859:(Quoting Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b)(3) (emphasis added)). 3440:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 133. 1528:, specifically Equity Rule 48, promulgated in 1842. 4468:"Securities Fraud Plaintiff Need Not Show Reliance" 4032:"Law firms excluded from EU consumer class actions" 2647:Rule 23 also provides for defendant class actions. 4100:McClusky, Aoife; McClements, April (28 May 2019). 3426: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3165: 3121: 4444: 4442: 4228:or visit Italian reference site for Class Action 3112:"Supreme Court rules for Comcast in class action" 2638:In federal courts, class actions are governed by 1801:Whether a class action is superior to individual 4874:California Class Actions: Practice and Procedure 4249:"La class action nel codice di procedura civile" 4189:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 3348:"Class Actions: The Need for a Hard Second Look" 2021:Western Canadian Shopping Centres Inc. v. Dutton 1897:Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Portland in Oregon 4314:"The United Kingdom's New Opt-Out Class Action" 4129:"Class/collective actions in Ireland: overview" 4077:"Class/collective actions in Ireland: overview" 2519: 2241:Class Action With Relation to the United States 1821:, passed by the United States Congress, found: 4957:Stanford Securities Class Action Clearinghouse 4918:Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute 4368:Yoshino, Troy M.; Labi, Suzanne (2023-11-27). 2895:has criticized "class action suit" as "wordy". 4746:"A View from the Panel: Part of the Solution" 3811:. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 362–384. 2447:) do not contrast with Italian principles of 1662:, which offers statistics for the year 2005. 1477: 877:, have made changes in recent years to allow 833: 8: 3936:"Introduction to Public Interest Litigation" 3462:"Ethical Issues In Class Action Settlements" 93:Intentional infliction of emotional distress 4548:Grundfest, Joseph A. (September 22, 2015). 4010:"Revisiting the potential of class actions" 3971:Judgement on Civil Appeal No. 7178 of 2001. 4374:Class Action Insider, Winston & Strawn 4215:Class Action Italia, Dalle origini ad oggi 4172:. Archived from the original on 2013-10-05 3005: 3003: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2388:Some test cases in Ireland have included: 2341:engines on the basis of the orders of the 1969:(VKI) and the Federal Chamber of Labour / 1734:(1976) was a landmark case decided by the 1484: 1470: 969: 840: 826: 233:Negligent infliction of emotional distress 36: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4579: 3605:"Thousands sign up for bank class action" 3550:"Class Actions in Australia - An Overnew" 3400:"Do Class Actions Benefit Class Members?" 2995: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2810:, an English predecessor to class actions 2720:of the criteria listed under Rule 23(b). 1778:determine whether they may convert their 4782: 4780: 4483: 4481: 3188:Troutman, Eric J. (September 18, 2020). 2666:Private Securities Litigation Reform Act 1602:contract or its clauses may be revoked. 1495: 917: 881:to bring claims on behalf of consumers. 4839:"The Plight of the Individual Investor" 4790:A Practitioner's Guide to Class Actions 4427:Grundfest, Joseph A. (September 2019). 4226:Italy introduces consumer class actions 3548:Stuart Clark and Colin Loveday (2004). 3301:Association of Trial Lawyers of America 2908: 2867: 1786:. Refusing to litigate the case in one 1436: 1296: 1256: 1209: 1101: 1076: 997: 972: 755: 699: 640: 582: 515: 455: 414: 389: 356: 267: 222: 134: 101: 66: 48: 4182: 3738: 3727: 3662:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3655: 3526: 2792:that may be brought as class actions. 2723:The 23(a) criteria are referred to as 4950:Manual for Complex Litigation, Fourth 3394: 3392: 3326:. Classaction.findlaw.com. 1966-07-01 3227: 3225: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2878:, which replaced the historical term 2744:be sufficiently numerous. To satisfy 2194:Kapitalanleger-Musterverfahrensgesetz 1986:Austrian Federal Minister for Justice 7: 3682:Wuttunee v. Merck Frosst Canada Ltd. 3017:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 1798:, 259 F. Supp. 125 (S.D.N.Y. 1966). 1705:, 521 U.S. 591, 617 (1997) (quoting 1660:Civil Justice Survey of State Courts 4870:Cohelan on California Class Actions 4102:"Class action procedure in Ireland" 4053:McKeown, Andrew (31 January 2020). 3110:Stempel, Jonathan (27 March 2013). 2882:after the merger of common law and 2852:, a similar system adopted in India 2426:on retail clients' current account 1870:, along with prominent judges like 1836:for the country's judicial system. 4843:Northwestern University Law Review 4595:. federalrulesofcivilprocedure.org 4494:Supreme Court of the United States 4345:"Class action legal change for UK" 3678:Tiboni v. Merck Frosst Canada Ltd. 3603:Meadows, Richard (11 March 2013). 3234:Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 3059:(Santa Monica: RAND, 2000), 10–11. 2919:Garner's Dictionary of Legal Usage 2576: 2353:and activists, citing concerns of 25: 4525:"CITIC Trust_FIC_Order_PACER.pdf" 4008:Boland, James (12 October 2018). 3706:Archived at Arnold Pizzo McKiggan 3584:. Slater and Gordon. 18 June 2013 3148:; Gebeloff, Robert (2015-10-31). 2715:Class certification under Rule 23 2657:Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 2577:Class_action § United_States 2172:. Pursuant to Sec. 13 Sentence 2 1967:Verein für Konsumenteninformation 1901:Catholic priest sex-abuse scandal 1819:Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 4537:from the original on 2015-10-08. 3960:Justice M.B. Shah (2 May 2002). 3680:, O.J. No. 2996. Saskatchewan: 3246:10.1111/j.1740-1461.2010.01196.x 2818:, 1991 American legal drama film 2677:Class actions may be brought in 2640:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 2404:Damages claims brought by Irish 2148:The combination of court cases ( 2138:causality between both parties. 2105:agency. Salient cases have been 2099:Servicio Nacional del Consumidor 1959:Austrian Code of Civil Procedure 1540:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 985:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 938:. The tumultuous history of the 807: 4717:from the original on 2006-11-02 4318:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 3896:from the original on 2019-10-20 3761:globalclassactions.stanford.edu 3562:from the original on 2012-03-30 3474:from the original on 2011-07-13 3404:www.instituteforlegalreform.com 2655:the case to federal court. The 2459:Dutch law allows associations ( 2225:German law also recognizes the 2190:Capital Investor Model Case Act 2184:Investor Model Case Proceedings 1657:US Bureau of Justice Statistics 1598:AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion 559:Ex turpi causa non oritur actio 4966:Congressional Research Service 4816:Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes 3938:. Karmayog.org. Archived from 3884:"Sachstand WD 7 –3000/070 –12" 2351:non-governmental organizations 1703:Amchem Prods., Inc. v. Windsor 1692:Jenkins v. Raymark Indus. Inc. 1370:Notwithstanding verdict (JNOV) 899:England and the United Kingdom 1: 4343:Coleman, Clive (2015-10-01). 3533:: CS1 maint: date and year ( 2845:List of class action lawsuits 2277:in the 1980s loosened strict 669:(term used for torts in some 4984:Collective Redress in Europe 4876:by Elizabeth Cabraser et al. 4393:Sullivan, E. Thomas (2009). 4282:. Justice.gov.uk. 2013-09-27 4267:Federal Journal 2006 p. 7221 3511:The Class Actions Law Review 3282:. Office of Justice Programs 3280:Bureau of Justice Statistics 2394:CervicalCheck cancer scandal 990:Doctrines of civil procedure 4787:Greer, Marcy Hogan (2010). 4759:: 2225–2331. Archived from 4734:28 U.S.C. § 1332(d)(2) 4399:. LexisNexis. p. 441. 3817:10.4337/9781783470440.00027 1713:, 521 U.S. at 617 (quoting 1707:Mace v. Van Ru Credit Corp. 1630:(2018), enabled the use of 1627:Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis 1595:ruled in a 5–4 decision in 565:Joint and several liability 5020: 4694:28 U.S.C.A. § 1332(d) 4677:. Frwebgate.access.gpo.gov 4554:Journal of Corporation Law 4450:"Bloomberg Industry Group" 4312:Mulheron, Rachael (2017). 3697:article on Bernard in 2006 2850:Public Interest Litigation 2581:In the United States, the 2574: 2286:Public Interest Litigation 2262: 2259:Public Interest Litigation 2256: 1984:unanimously requested the 1812:Castano v. Am. Tobacco Co. 1125:Case Information Statement 339:Comparative responsibility 29: 3219: September 17, 2020). 3212:Johnson v. NPAS Solutions 3146:Silver-greenberg, Jessica 2916:Garner, Bryan A. (2011). 2359:parliamentary sovereignty 2298:Parliamentary legislation 2071:residential school system 1937:Australia and New Zealand 1764:Ortiz v. Fibreboard Corp. 1360:As a matter of law (JMOL) 654:Non-economic damages caps 4913:"Rule 23. Class Actions" 3808:Class Actions in Context 3496:January 6, 2009, at the 2709:multidistrict litigation 2689:exceeds $ 5,000,000 and 2595:representative plaintiff 2412:by European truck makers 2200:Model Declaratory Action 1920:Class action legislation 1899:was sued as part of the 1796:Van Gemert v. Boeing Co. 1762:may be compensated. See 1736:California Supreme Court 1614:Comcast Corp. v. Behrend 1257:Resolution without trial 687:Private attorney general 641:Other topics in tort law 269:Principles of negligence 198:Alienation of affections 4891:The National Law Review 4649:"Unintended Precedents" 4560:(1): 38. Archived from 4108:. Law Business Research 3917:. Legalserviceindia.com 3070:Opting Out of Liability 2856:Securities Class Action 2564:group litigation orders 2432:Senato della Repubblica 2337:from diesel engines to 2315:exercised its right of 2292:and Article 226 of the 2174:Mediation Procedure Act 2107:Condecus v. BancoEstado 2025:Federal Court of Canada 2017:Supreme Court of Canada 1575:treatise reprinted the 1511:, who imported it into 552:Volenti non fit injuria 377:Ultrahazardous activity 344:Contributory negligence 5004:Civil law (common law) 4230:Class Action Community 3969:Supreme Court of India 3915:"PIL A Boon Or A Bane" 3737:Cite journal requires 3305:Class Action Press Kit 2616:Securities Act of 1933 2546: 2445:azioni rappresentative 2439:, the second house of 2378: 2339:compressed natural gas 2247:Eschede train disaster 2178:Spruchverfahrensgesetz 1975:Austrian Supreme Court 1891:Defendant class action 1828: 1774:if they win the case. 1535: 1504: 1249:Request for production 1244:Request for admissions 923: 879:consumer organizations 570:Market share liability 503:Shopkeeper's privilege 481:Statute of limitations 324:Restitutio ad integrum 173:Intrusion on seclusion 68:Trespass to the person 4999:Class action lawsuits 4653:The American Prospect 3985:. ADR. Archived from 3787:(in European Spanish) 2771:Notice and settlement 2687:amount in controversy 2661:original jurisdiction 2560:Civil Procedure Rules 2473:collective settlement 2294:Constitution of India 2265:Constitution of India 2166:Stock Corporation Act 1823: 1589:contracts of adhesion 1561:civil rights movement 1530: 1499: 1282:Involuntary dismissal 936:voluntary association 921: 866:representative action 682:Conflict of tort laws 448:Tortious interference 203:Criminal conversation 190:Malicious prosecution 4744:John G. Heyburn II. 4255:. December 10, 2019. 2960:Wex Legal Dictionary 2583:class representative 2355:separation of powers 2275:Indian Supreme Court 2143:Streitgenossenschaft 2094:declaratory judgment 2013:Prince Edward Island 1817:The preamble to the 1632:class action waivers 1611:(2011) and later in 1526:Federal Equity Rules 1425:Declaratory judgment 1093:Forum non conveniens 976:in the United States 858:class action lawsuit 180:Breach of confidence 4921:. February 28, 1966 4655:. February 28, 2010 4615:Columbia Law Review 4511:www.americanbar.org 4472:www.americanbar.org 4330:10.1093/ojls/gqx016 4155:Class Action Italia 3081:Michigan Law Review 3011:Yeazell, Stephen C. 2822:Class action waiver 2463:) and foundations ( 2437:Camera dei Deputati 2313:Government of India 2206:Zivilprozessordnung 2160:Mediation Procedure 2103:consumer protection 2075:Canadian government 1982:Austrian Parliament 1971:Bundesarbeitskammer 1963:Zivilprozessordnung 1711:Amchem Prods., Inc. 1546:Modern developments 1375:Motion to set aside 1276:Voluntary dismissal 1181:Indispensable party 1155:affirmative defense 675:mixed legal systems 545:Respondeat superior 539:Vicarious liability 498:Defence of property 435:Insurance bad faith 349:Attractive nuisance 168:Invasion of privacy 4824:, 2541 (2011). 4454:Bloomberg Industry 4396:Complex Litigation 4235:2010-01-31 at the 4220:2008-02-12 at the 4057:. Irish Legal news 3983:"Our Achievements" 3702:2008-09-30 at the 3695:Halifax Daily News 3406:. 11 December 2013 3368:2009-07-15 at the 3310:2006-12-03 at the 3154:The New York Times 3075:2009-04-02 at the 2828:Collective redress 2802:Arbitration clause 2441:Italian Parliament 2398:financial product 2381:) or 'test case' ( 2305:Bhopal gas tragedy 2269:Judiciary of India 2235:Associative Action 2227:Associative Action 2141:Joint litigation ( 2111:SERNAC v. La Polar 1943:Federal Parliament 1868:U.S. Supreme Court 1849:coupon settlements 1505: 1500:Associate Justice 1226:Initial conference 1211:Pretrial procedure 924: 856:, also known as a 575:Transferred intent 466:Assumption of risk 430:Restraint of trade 406:Rylands v Fletcher 238:Employment-related 87:False imprisonment 4753:Tulane Law Review 4564:on August 6, 2020 4153:More information 4135:. Thomson Reuters 4012:. The Irish Times 3613:. Fairfax Digital 3520:978-1-80449-160-7 3068:Giles M. (2005). 2838:Dukes v. Wal-Mart 2554:England and Wales 2424:compound interest 2379:gníomh ionadaíoch 2273:Decisions of the 2150:Prozessverbindung 1731:Landeros v. Flood 1608:Wal-Mart v. Dukes 1573:environmental law 1494: 1493: 948:Court of Chancery 940:Wars of the Roses 850: 849: 723:England and Wales 678: 529:Last clear chance 524:Intentional torts 508:Neutral reportage 491:Defense of others 439: 372:Product liability 318:Res ipsa loquitur 305:Reasonable person 213:Breach of promise 62: 16:(Redirected from 5011: 4931: 4930: 4928: 4926: 4909: 4903: 4902: 4900: 4898: 4883: 4877: 4866: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4854: 4835:Webber, David H. 4831: 4825: 4819: 4811: 4805: 4804: 4784: 4775: 4774: 4772: 4771: 4765: 4750: 4741: 4735: 4732: 4726: 4725: 4723: 4722: 4716: 4709: 4701: 4695: 4692: 4686: 4685: 4683: 4682: 4671: 4665: 4664: 4662: 4660: 4645: 4639: 4638: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4601: 4600: 4589: 4574: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4545: 4539: 4538: 4536: 4529: 4521: 4515: 4514: 4503: 4497: 4485: 4476: 4475: 4464: 4458: 4457: 4446: 4437: 4436: 4424: 4418: 4417: 4415: 4413: 4390: 4384: 4383: 4381: 4380: 4365: 4359: 4358: 4356: 4355: 4340: 4334: 4333: 4309: 4303: 4297: 4291: 4290: 4288: 4287: 4280:"CPR, Part 19.6" 4276: 4270: 4263: 4257: 4256: 4245: 4239: 4211: 4205: 4201: 4195: 4194: 4188: 4180: 4178: 4177: 4171: 4163: 4157: 4151: 4145: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4124: 4118: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4097: 4091: 4090: 4088: 4087: 4073: 4067: 4066: 4064: 4062: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4041: 4039: 4034:. 4 January 2019 4028: 4022: 4021: 4019: 4017: 4005: 3999: 3998: 3996: 3994: 3979: 3973: 3972: 3966: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3948: 3947: 3932: 3926: 3925: 3923: 3922: 3911: 3905: 3904: 3902: 3901: 3895: 3888: 3880: 3874: 3873: 3871: 3870: 3859: 3853: 3852: 3851: 3850: 3845:, March 17, 2014 3837: 3831: 3830: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3793: 3792: 3777: 3771: 3770: 3768: 3767: 3753: 3747: 3746: 3740: 3735: 3733: 3725: 3713: 3707: 3691: 3685: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3661: 3653: 3651: 3650: 3644: 3638:. 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March 7, 2024 4885: 4884: 4880: 4867: 4863: 4852: 4850: 4833: 4832: 4828: 4813: 4812: 4808: 4801: 4786: 4785: 4778: 4769: 4767: 4763: 4748: 4743: 4742: 4738: 4733: 4729: 4720: 4718: 4714: 4707: 4703: 4702: 4698: 4693: 4689: 4680: 4678: 4673: 4672: 4668: 4658: 4656: 4647: 4646: 4642: 4627:10.2307/1122354 4612: 4611: 4607: 4598: 4596: 4591: 4590: 4577: 4567: 4565: 4547: 4546: 4542: 4534: 4527: 4523: 4522: 4518: 4505: 4504: 4500: 4486: 4479: 4466: 4465: 4461: 4448: 4447: 4440: 4426: 4425: 4421: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4392: 4391: 4387: 4378: 4376: 4367: 4366: 4362: 4353: 4351: 4342: 4341: 4337: 4311: 4310: 4306: 4298: 4294: 4285: 4283: 4278: 4277: 4273: 4264: 4260: 4253:www.tedioli.com 4247: 4246: 4242: 4237:Wayback Machine 4222:Wayback Machine 4212: 4208: 4202: 4198: 4181: 4175: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4164: 4160: 4152: 4148: 4138: 4136: 4126: 4125: 4121: 4111: 4109: 4099: 4098: 4094: 4085: 4083: 4075: 4074: 4070: 4060: 4058: 4052: 4051: 4047: 4037: 4035: 4030: 4029: 4025: 4015: 4013: 4007: 4006: 4002: 3992: 3990: 3989:on 29 June 2009 3981: 3980: 3976: 3964: 3959: 3958: 3954: 3945: 3943: 3934: 3933: 3929: 3920: 3918: 3913: 3912: 3908: 3899: 3897: 3893: 3886: 3882: 3881: 3877: 3868: 3866: 3861: 3860: 3856: 3848: 3846: 3839: 3838: 3834: 3827: 3804: 3803: 3799: 3790: 3788: 3779: 3778: 3774: 3765: 3763: 3755: 3754: 3750: 3736: 3726: 3715: 3714: 3710: 3704:Wayback Machine 3692: 3688: 3675: 3671: 3654: 3648: 3646: 3642: 3635: 3633:"Archived copy" 3631: 3630: 3626: 3616: 3614: 3602: 3601: 3597: 3587: 3585: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3565: 3563: 3559: 3555:. Clayton Utz. 3552: 3547: 3546: 3542: 3525: 3521: 3508: 3507: 3503: 3498:Wayback Machine 3490: 3486: 3477: 3475: 3471: 3464: 3460: 3459: 3455: 3448: 3432:Coffee, John C. 3430: 3429: 3418: 3409: 3407: 3398: 3397: 3390: 3385:"Class Actions" 3379: 3375: 3370:Wayback Machine 3357: 3353: 3344:Richard Epstein 3342: 3338: 3329: 3327: 3322: 3321: 3317: 3312:Wayback Machine 3299: 3295: 3285: 3283: 3274: 3273: 3269: 3231: 3230: 3223: 3210: 3209: 3205: 3195: 3193: 3187: 3186: 3182: 3173: 3171: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3129: 3127: 3109: 3108: 3104: 3091: 3087: 3077:Wayback Machine 3067: 3063: 3054: 3050: 3044: 3040: 3025: 3009: 3008: 2975: 2965: 2963: 2954: 2953: 2944: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2915: 2914: 2910: 2905: 2900: 2899: 2893:Bryan A. Garner 2873: 2869: 2864: 2798: 2785: 2773: 2717: 2675: 2636: 2625:" to sue under 2608: 2591:named plaintiff 2579: 2573: 2556: 2551: 2531:huge indebtness 2511: 2498: 2490: 2482: 2457: 2449:civil procedure 2419: 2367: 2324: 2323: 2271: 2261: 2255: 2243: 2223: 2202: 2186: 2162: 2135: 2119: 2083: 2030:Legislation in 2001:Provincial laws 1998: 1955: 1939: 1927: 1922: 1909: 1893: 1884: 1833: 1668: 1652: 1548: 1518:West v. Randall 1490: 1461: 1430: 1397: 1388: 1357: 1348: 1344:Burden of proof 1292: 1281: 1240: 1231:Interrogatories 1205: 1139: 1120:Cause of action 1117: 1087:Change of venue 1070: 1046: 1037: 1025: 1013: 975: 974:Civil procedure 968: 960:Judicature Acts 901: 896: 887: 868:, is a type of 846: 806: 700:By jurisdiction 400:Public nuisance 329:Rescue doctrine 312:Proximate cause 224:Negligent torts 136:Dignitary torts 91: 35: 28: 27:Type of lawsuit 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5017: 5015: 5007: 5006: 5001: 4991: 4990: 4987: 4986: 4979: 4976: 4975: 4974: 4968: 4960: 4953: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4938:External links 4936: 4933: 4932: 4904: 4878: 4861: 4826: 4806: 4799: 4776: 4736: 4727: 4696: 4687: 4666: 4640: 4605: 4575: 4540: 4516: 4498: 4489:Slack v. Prani 4477: 4459: 4438: 4419: 4406:978-1422411469 4405: 4385: 4360: 4335: 4324:(4): 814–843. 4304: 4292: 4271: 4258: 4240: 4206: 4196: 4167:"art. 140 bis" 4158: 4146: 4119: 4092: 4068: 4045: 4023: 4000: 3974: 3952: 3927: 3906: 3875: 3854: 3832: 3825: 3797: 3772: 3748: 3739:|journal= 3708: 3686: 3684:, 2008 SKQB 78 3669: 3624: 3595: 3573: 3540: 3519: 3501: 3484: 3453: 3446: 3416: 3388: 3373: 3351: 3336: 3315: 3293: 3267: 3240:(4): 811–846. 3221: 3203: 3180: 3137: 3126:on 2 June 2016 3102: 3085: 3061: 3048: 3038: 3023: 2973: 2956:"Class Action" 2942: 2928: 2907: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2898: 2897: 2866: 2865: 2863: 2860: 2859: 2858: 2853: 2847: 2842: 2834: 2832:European Union 2825: 2819: 2811: 2805: 2797: 2794: 2784: 2781: 2772: 2769: 2716: 2713: 2701: 2700: 2697: 2694: 2674: 2671: 2635: 2634:Federal courts 2632: 2607: 2604: 2587:lead plaintiff 2572: 2569: 2555: 2552: 2550: 2549:United Kingdom 2547: 2510: 2507: 2497: 2494: 2489: 2486: 2481: 2478: 2456: 2453: 2418: 2415: 2414: 2413: 2402: 2396: 2366: 2363: 2318:parens patriae 2257:Main article: 2254: 2251: 2242: 2239: 2222: 2219: 2201: 2198: 2185: 2182: 2161: 2158: 2134: 2131: 2118: 2115: 2101:, the Chilean 2082: 2079: 1997: 1994: 1954: 1951: 1938: 1935: 1926: 1923: 1921: 1918: 1908: 1905: 1892: 1889: 1883: 1880: 1876:Richard Posner 1872:Henry Friendly 1864:Milton Handler 1832: 1829: 1667: 1664: 1651: 1648: 1547: 1544: 1492: 1491: 1489: 1488: 1481: 1474: 1466: 1463: 1462: 1460: 1459: 1452: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1434: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1429: 1428: 1422: 1416: 1410:Attorney's fee 1407: 1402: 1391: 1389: 1387: 1386: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1362: 1351: 1347: 1346: 1341: 1329: 1322: 1321: 1320: 1315: 1304: 1301: 1300: 1294: 1293: 1291: 1290: 1285: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1262: 1259: 1258: 1254: 1253: 1252: 1251: 1246: 1239: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1217: 1214: 1213: 1207: 1206: 1204: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1148: 1142: 1141: 1140: 1138: 1137: 1127: 1122: 1111: 1106: 1105: 1099: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1089: 1081: 1080: 1074: 1073: 1072: 1071: 1069: 1068: 1060: 1053: 1040: 1038: 1036: 1035: 1029: 1023: 1018: 1011:Subject-matter 1007: 1002: 1001: 995: 994: 993: 992: 987: 979: 978: 967: 964: 932:unincorporated 913:English courts 900: 897: 895: 892: 886: 883: 848: 847: 845: 844: 837: 830: 822: 819: 818: 817: 816: 814:Law portal 801: 800: 799: 798: 785: 780: 775: 770: 762: 761: 753: 752: 751: 750: 745: 740: 735: 730: 728:European Union 725: 720: 715: 710: 702: 701: 697: 696: 695: 694: 689: 684: 679: 663: 658: 657: 656: 643: 642: 638: 637: 636: 635: 630: 625: 620: 615: 610: 609: 608: 603: 598: 585: 584: 580: 579: 578: 577: 572: 567: 562: 555: 548: 541: 536: 534:Eggshell skull 531: 526: 518: 517: 513: 512: 511: 510: 505: 500: 495: 494: 493: 483: 478: 473: 468: 460: 459: 453: 452: 451: 450: 445: 440: 438:(American law) 432: 427: 419: 418: 416:Economic torts 412: 411: 410: 409: 402: 394: 393: 387: 386: 385: 384: 379: 374: 366: 365: 354: 353: 352: 351: 346: 341: 336: 334:Duty to rescue 331: 326: 321: 314: 309: 308: 307: 297: 296: 295: 290: 285: 272: 271: 265: 264: 263: 262: 261: 260: 255: 245: 240: 235: 227: 226: 220: 219: 218: 217: 216: 215: 210: 205: 200: 192: 187: 182: 177: 176: 175: 165: 160: 159: 158: 155: 147: 139: 138: 132: 131: 130: 129: 124: 123: 122: 117: 104: 103: 102:Property torts 99: 98: 97: 96: 89: 84: 79: 71: 70: 64: 63: 53: 52: 46: 45: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5016: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4996: 4994: 4985: 4982: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4958: 4954: 4952: 4951: 4947: 4946: 4943:United States 4942: 4937: 4920: 4919: 4914: 4908: 4905: 4892: 4888: 4882: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4865: 4862: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4830: 4827: 4823: 4822:131 S. Ct 4818: 4817: 4810: 4807: 4802: 4800:9781604429558 4796: 4792: 4791: 4783: 4781: 4777: 4766:on 2012-04-26 4762: 4758: 4754: 4747: 4740: 4737: 4731: 4728: 4713: 4706: 4700: 4697: 4691: 4688: 4676: 4670: 4667: 4654: 4650: 4644: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4609: 4606: 4594: 4588: 4586: 4584: 4582: 4580: 4576: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4544: 4541: 4533: 4526: 4520: 4517: 4512: 4508: 4502: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4490: 4484: 4482: 4478: 4473: 4469: 4463: 4460: 4455: 4451: 4445: 4443: 4439: 4434: 4430: 4423: 4420: 4408: 4402: 4398: 4397: 4389: 4386: 4375: 4371: 4364: 4361: 4350: 4346: 4339: 4336: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4308: 4305: 4301: 4296: 4293: 4281: 4275: 4272: 4268: 4262: 4259: 4254: 4250: 4244: 4241: 4238: 4234: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4216: 4210: 4207: 4200: 4197: 4192: 4186: 4168: 4162: 4159: 4156: 4150: 4147: 4134: 4133:Practical Law 4130: 4123: 4120: 4107: 4103: 4096: 4093: 4082: 4081:Practical Law 4078: 4072: 4069: 4056: 4049: 4046: 4033: 4027: 4024: 4011: 4004: 4001: 3988: 3984: 3978: 3975: 3970: 3963: 3956: 3953: 3942:on 2013-10-05 3941: 3937: 3931: 3928: 3916: 3910: 3907: 3892: 3885: 3879: 3876: 3864: 3858: 3855: 3844: 3843: 3836: 3833: 3828: 3826:9781783470440 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3809: 3801: 3798: 3786: 3782: 3776: 3773: 3762: 3758: 3752: 3749: 3744: 3731: 3723: 3719: 3712: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3690: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3673: 3670: 3665: 3659: 3645:on 2006-08-11 3641: 3634: 3628: 3625: 3612: 3611: 3606: 3599: 3596: 3583: 3577: 3574: 3558: 3551: 3544: 3541: 3536: 3530: 3522: 3516: 3512: 3505: 3502: 3499: 3495: 3492: 3488: 3485: 3470: 3463: 3457: 3454: 3449: 3447:9780674736795 3443: 3439: 3438: 3433: 3427: 3425: 3423: 3421: 3417: 3405: 3401: 3395: 3393: 3389: 3386: 3382: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3367: 3364: 3360: 3359:Michael Greve 3355: 3352: 3349: 3345: 3340: 3337: 3325: 3319: 3316: 3313: 3309: 3306: 3302: 3297: 3294: 3281: 3277: 3271: 3268: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3228: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3213: 3207: 3204: 3196:September 19, 3191: 3184: 3181: 3170:on 2015-11-15 3168: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3141: 3138: 3124: 3119: 3118: 3113: 3106: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3089: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3071: 3065: 3062: 3058: 3052: 3049: 3042: 3039: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3024:9780300037760 3020: 3016: 3012: 3006: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2974: 2961: 2957: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2943: 2931: 2929:9780195384208 2925: 2921: 2920: 2912: 2909: 2902: 2894: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2871: 2868: 2861: 2857: 2854: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2840: 2839: 2835: 2833: 2829: 2826: 2823: 2820: 2817: 2816: 2812: 2809: 2808:Bill of Peace 2806: 2803: 2800: 2799: 2795: 2793: 2790: 2782: 2780: 2777: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2762: 2757: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2698: 2695: 2692: 2691: 2690: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2679:federal court 2672: 2670: 2667: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2648: 2645: 2641: 2633: 2631: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2617: 2613: 2605: 2603: 2599: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2578: 2571:United States 2570: 2568: 2565: 2561: 2553: 2548: 2545: 2543: 2542: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2518: 2516: 2508: 2506: 2502: 2495: 2493: 2487: 2485: 2479: 2477: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2454: 2452: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2416: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2401: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2390: 2389: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2346: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2330: 2320: 2319: 2314: 2310: 2309:Union Carbide 2306: 2301: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2282: 2281: 2276: 2270: 2266: 2260: 2252: 2250: 2248: 2240: 2238: 2236: 2232: 2231:Verbandsklage 2228: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2209: 2207: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2191: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2151: 2146: 2144: 2139: 2132: 2130: 2126: 2124: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2095: 2091: 2090: 2080: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2063: 2061: 2056: 2054: 2048: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1995: 1993: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1952: 1950: 1946: 1944: 1936: 1934: 1932: 1931:Supreme Court 1924: 1919: 1917: 1913: 1906: 1904: 1902: 1898: 1890: 1888: 1881: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1856: 1852: 1850: 1846: 1841: 1837: 1830: 1827: 1822: 1820: 1815: 1813: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1775: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1758:before other 1757: 1754:) of all its 1753: 1749: 1744: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1732: 1726: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1699: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1675: 1673: 1665: 1663: 1661: 1658: 1649: 1647: 1645: 1639: 1635: 1633: 1629: 1628: 1621: 1618: 1616: 1615: 1610: 1609: 1603: 1600: 1599: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1580: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1556: 1554: 1545: 1543: 1541: 1534: 1529: 1527: 1522: 1520: 1519: 1514: 1510: 1503: 1498: 1487: 1482: 1480: 1475: 1473: 1468: 1467: 1465: 1464: 1458: 1457: 1453: 1451: 1450: 1446: 1445: 1443: 1442: 1439: 1435: 1426: 1423: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1414:American rule 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1396: 1393: 1392: 1390: 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