599:"Behold that storm, the gloom of good men and a sudden and unforeseen fear, the darkness of the republic, the ruin and conflagration of the state, terror given to Caesar concerning his acts, fear of slaughter for all good men, the wickedness, greed, indigence, and audacity of the consuls! If I was not helped, I did not deserve it; if I was deserted, perhaps he was providing for his own safety; if I was even attacked, as certain people either think or wish, our friendship was violated, I received an injury; I should have been his enemy, I do not deny it."
758:"There is no place for leniency any longer; the situation itself calls for severity. But one thing I will concede even now: let them go out, let them depart; let them not allow Catiline to pine away miserably with desire for them. I will show them the route: he departed by the Aurelian Way. If they are willing to hurry, by evening they will catch up with him."
1104:, and in his letters, shows a high proportion of "artistic" clausulae, with 85% in both works. His favourite clausula is the cretic + trochee (– u – – x), with 40%. However, the letters of the Emperor Trajan, which are included in book 10 of Pliny's letters, have a different profile, with 68% artistic clausulae overall, and only 26% cretic + trochee.
1107:
For the purpose of obtaining the percentages given above, a clausula was defined as the last few syllables leading up to places where editors have traditionally punctuated the Latin text with a full-stop, question-mark, exclamation-mark, colon, or semicolon. The researchers acknowledge that clausulae
1210:
The analysis of a piece of Latin into cola and clausulae can not only of help the modern student to read the passage with authentic phrasing, but also is a useful tool in investigating an author's style. So, for example, Riggsby notes that the cola in the earlier part of the 2nd
Catilinarian oration
890:
Clausulae are found not only in Cicero but in many Roman (as well as Greek and medieval) writers, especially in oratory but also in other types of writing. Each writer has their own preferences and "rhythmic signature". For example, Livy avoids clausulae which are common in Cicero, such as | – u – |
978:
Recently computer software has been written to analyse large quantities of Latin prose from numerous authors. This has confirmed the findings of earlier investigators and made it easy to compare one author with another. Thus for example, it appears that the double cretic clausula (– x – – u –)
1011:
Cicero's speeches typically have a high percentage of clausulae of the "artistic" type, for example 90% in the
Catilinarians. Even in the letters to Atticus the percentage is 70%. In fact, most of the 25 authors analysed by Keeline and Kirby have a majority of artistic-type clausulae.
1211:
are shorter, and the clausulae more varied, than in the last paragraph. He takes this as an indication of Cicero's shift in emphasis from chaos and danger to peace and resolution. Often the clausulae will throw light on the writer's choice of word, tense or word order. For example,
866:"Did you lack a house? No, you already had one. Did you have plenty of money? No, you didn't have enough. You ran madly into the columns, you raged crazily against other people's slaves; you reckoned a decrepit, dark, fallen down house as worth more than yourself and your fortunes."
1232:, whose authorship was once in doubt, has been shown to exhibit exactly the same proportions of clausulae as Cicero's other speeches. In the case of authors whose practice varied over the years, such as Plato, clausulae analysis can throw light on the date of a work.
882:), he says, is a longer sentence composed of at least two cola, and is more sparingly used. The style which consists of a mixture of commata, cola, and the occasional longer period is particularly effective, he says, in passages arguing a case or refuting one.
1201:
treats clausulae at length, especially in books 5 and 9; like
Terentianus, he approves of the double cretic | – u – | – u x |, but recommends avoiding the heroic clausula | – x – | – uu – x |, since it too much resembles the end of a line of verse.
270:
Different authors had different preferences for clausulae. For example, the cretic + trochee and its variants make up 35% of the clausulae in Seneca's letters, but only 11% of the clausulae in Livy's history. Conversely, the double spondee (e.g.
387:
Zieliński noted that Cicero's preferences changed gradually over the years. For example, the rhythm | – – – | – u x | was more common in his earlier speeches, while from his consulate onwards he preferred the lighter | – u – | – u x |.
912:
himself favoured the clausulae | – u – | – u x |, | – – – | – u x |, and | – u u | – u x |, among others. His preferences changed in the course of his life, and he used | u u u x | and | – u u u – x | more often in the later works.
1197:(c. 290 AD) also discusses clausulae in a work itself written in verse. He says of the cretic (– u –) that it is the best kind of foot, especially when used in penultimate position before a dactyl (– u x). The teacher of rhetoric
340:
in a monumental work published in German in 1904, following an earlier dissertation by G. Wüst in 1881 and work by other scholars. Zieliński established that a
Ciceronian clausula had two parts: a "base", generally a
1122:
In the medieval period, Latin ceased to be pronounced in a quantitative way, and clausulae tended to be accentual rather than based on quantity. Three end-of-sentence rhythms were especially favoured, the so called
1061:
Keeline and Kirby also investigate whether there is any difference in clausula use in historical works between the narrative parts and the speeches. For
Sallust there appears to be almost no difference. However, in
349:
rhythm such as | – x |, | – u x |, or | – u – x |. (Here "–" indicates a long syllable, "u" a short syllable, and "x" a syllable which can be either long or short, while "|" demarcates the edges of these parts.)
430:
There is no doubt that the skilful use of clausulae was one of the techniques which an orator used to excite an audience. Cicero writes of one occasion when the use of a certain clausula (a dichoreus or double
1052:
has only 46% of such clausulae. Livy varies in different parts of his work. In books 1–10 the percentage of "artistic" clausulae is 50%, but in books 21–30 it is only 33%. The spondaic clausula (as in
937:+ trochee (– uu – – x). But Demosthenes' most characteristic practice (known as "Blass's Law") is to avoid series of more than three short syllables anywhere in his sentences. Some writers such as
762:
It is characteristic of the emphatic spondaic ending (– – – –) that in Cicero there is always a word-break between the base and the cadence. With the clausula – u – – x on the other hand, as in
669:
The following passage from the 2nd
Catilinarian oration shows some of the less commonly used cadences, including the five-syllable | – u – u – | and the "hammer-blow" spondaic | – – – – |:
1181:; he says that prose should not be entirely metrical, like poetry, but also not unrhythmical either. Cicero himself discusses the use of clausulae in his books on oratory, especially in
1235:
From examining the clausulae it is sometimes possible to uncover the exact pronunciation of individual words by a particular author. For example, it appears that Cicero pronounced
246:
used to add finality to the end of a sentence or phrase. There was a large range of popular clausulae. One of the most common rhythms was cretic + trochee (– u – – x), for example
1070:
there is a difference, since the narrative parts have 56% "artistic" clausulae, while the speeches have 68%. (Similar percentages are found in
Tacitus's earliest work, the
376:
The above clausulae account for about 87% of Cicero's clausulae. Other clausulae are rarer. For example, the cadence may have five elements | – u – u – | or consist of two
1163:. However, not all writers made use of them. The professors of the period specified that the last word of the sentence had to be of either three or four syllables.
944:
In Latin, rhythmical prose was characteristic of the so-called "Asiatic" style of oratory, whereas followers of the plainer "Attic" style avoided it. The younger
1108:
can also often be found before places where editors place a comma, but not consistently so, and for this reason this type was excluded from the calculations.
991:(48%). This same cretic + trochee occurs in 34% of the clausulae in Cicero's Catilinarian orations, but in only 17% of clausulae in his letters to Atticus.
1311:"we'll have made", it appears that Cicero, contrary to the rule given in some grammars such as Kennedy, pronounced the "i" long, as did his contemporary
1223:
does not. Clausulae can also help editors decide which of two manuscript readings is the correct one, or whether an editor's conjecture is acceptable.
1628:
The macronised texts used, and the tables of percentages of different authors and works, have been made available online: see the
Bibliography below.
384:
ending | – u u | – x |, were avoided (it occurs in Cicero, but only in about 0.6% of cases, and often for a reason such as mock-heroic description).
603:
The "heroic clausula" (– uu – x), which resembles a hexameter ending, is rare but can be used for comic effect, as in the following quotation from
137:
380:| – – – – |. This last type (commoner in Livy than in Cicero) is compared by Zieliński to the blows of a hammer. Certain clausulae, such as the
1318:
In many instances, where manuscripts of a text differ, the clausula can help to decide which is the original reading. For example, in Cicero's
1058:) is more common in Livy than in other writers, but it too varies, being less common in books 1–10 (29%) and more common in books 21–30 (40%).
395:
of the feet, that is, there is usually an accent on the first syllable of the base and on the penultimate long syllable of the cadence, e.g.
876:(commata), because of their shortness, are rather freer in their rhythm, and should be used "like little daggers". The rhythmical period (
1819:
1956:
1080:, the difference is much less, the narrative having 56% as before but the speeches only 60%. Two other early works of Tacitus, the
1899:
Riggsby, Andrew M. (2010). “Form as global strategy in Cicero’s Second
Catilinarian.” In Berry, D. H., and Erskine, A., eds.
367:
Variations may include resolving one of the long syllables in the rhythm into two short ones, for example | – u uu | – x | (
373:) instead of | – u – | – x |. Another type of allowable variation is to substitute | – uu – | or | – u – – | for the base.
1157:(13th-14th century). They are known to modern scholars (although apparently not to the medieval writers themselves) as
1226:
Clausulae have sometimes helped editors to decide on the authenticity or otherwise of a work. For example, the speech
337:
305:); the last few syllables of every colon tend to conform to certain favourite rhythmic patterns, which are known as
1946:
994:
Those clausulae which are considered most "rhythmic" or "artistic" are the following together with their variants:
1336:(– u u – –). An emendation suggested by an editor that corrupts a good clausula is to be regarded with suspicion.
130:
91:
81:
419:, etc. However, there are often exceptions to this rule, and Cicero was not so strict as later writers such as
336:
The constant use of clausulae in Cicero's speeches was first thoroughly investigated by the Polish philologist
964:
more or less followed the
Ciceronian pattern, though several writers avoided | – – – | – u x | and the famous
447:
An example of Cicero's use of clausulae in a speech is given below, with the two sentences divided into cola:
1951:
96:
17:
1035:
984:
123:
1914:
988:
436:
86:
900:
The earliest orator to make extensive use of rhythmic prose in Greek is said to have been the sophist
1146:
111:
949:
933:, especially the ditrochaeus (– u – x), dispondaeus (– – – x), cretic + trochee (– u – – x), and
420:
391:
According to Zieliński, it is a principle of clausulae that the word-accent tends to follow the
1961:
1095:
987:'s work on the same subject (8%). The cretic + trochee (– u – – x) is exceptionally common in
945:
56:
1142:
1048:, however, seem to have avoided the "artistic" clausulae or used them less often. Sallust's
658:"They hid in the baths. Outstanding witnesses! Then they rashly leapt out. Cool-headed men!"
206:
166:
71:
46:
41:
23:
1189:
1154:
1017:
980:
243:
61:
929:
and others also had their own preferences. Clausulae are prominent in the orations of
1940:
32:
1150:
1880:
Major, Tristan (2023). "Rhythmic «cursus» in Pre-Conquest Anglo-Latin Literature".
901:
891:– x |, but frequently ends a sentence with a series of long syllables, for example
151:
76:
66:
1129:(– x x – x) (where – indicates an accented syllable and x an unaccented one), the
1257:"not only" was pronounced with the last vowel long. For ordinary nouns ending in
1927:
1194:
930:
51:
1198:
1183:
961:
938:
259:
106:
277:– – – –) makes up 36% of Livy's clausulae, but only 11% in Seneca's letters.
1870:
1248:
1172:
1025:
1013:
953:
918:
904:
of Chalcedon (the same person who appears as a speaker in book 1 of Plato's
381:
285:
Every long sentence can be divided into sections called by the Greek word
1312:
957:
934:
926:
424:
392:
154:
1141:(– x x x x – x). These rhythms are found for example in the writings of
1063:
1041:
1024:
has a slightly lower percentage (63%). Even a technical writer such as
432:
377:
346:
1845:
1835:
766:, the most usual place for a word-break is after the second syllable.
922:
914:
342:
1217:"the gates are open; depart!" makes an effective clausula, whereas *
662:
As Adams points out, the passage is made even funnier by the pun on
1821:
Esse videtur: Occurrences of Heroic Clausulae in Cicero’s Orations
909:
239:
1906:
Shewring, W.H. & Denniston, J.D. (1970). "Prose Rhythm", in
1045:
345:| – u – | or a variation on it, and a "cadence", generally of a
1305:"danger" both forms occur. In the future perfect tense, as in
1871:"Auceps syllabarum: A Digital Analysis of Latin Prose Rhythm"
218:
178:
941:, wrote prose almost free of rhythmical influence, however.
357:| – u – | – x | and variations (32.4% of Cicero's clausulae)
230:
221:
190:
181:
224:
184:
1931:
Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide
970:
clausula | – u u u | – x |, as being overly Ciceronian.
1846:"Some Phonetic Aspects of Word Order Patterns in Latin"
1481:
214; cf. Adams (2013), p. 8; Cunningham (1957), p. 498.
353:
The most common clausulae in Cicero are the following:
1718:
Riggsby (2010), pp. 101-102; cf. Adams (2013), p. 16.
666:, which can mean "testicles" as well as "witnesses".
439:
was so effective that the audience all gave a shout.
212:
172:
785:(cola), and then a long spondaic period ending in a
227:
215:
187:
175:
1540:
222–26; analysed in Cunningham (1957), pp. 499–500.
773:is analysed explicitly by Cicero himself into four
209:
169:
1275:"of the trial"), although in proper names such as
1850:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
1281:"of Clodius" the ending "-iī" was often used. In
1016:'s biographies have 81%, as do Seneca's letters;
258:, and variations of this, such as the well-known
1247:"remaining" with a long first syllable, as did
1171:The first writer to mention rhythm in prose is
1088:(67%), are more similar to the speeches of the
333:), which also often display rhythmic endings.
1922:Tunberg, Terence O. (1996) "Prose Styles and
131:
8:
1682:Clark (1905), pp. 164-5; Adams (2013), p. 7.
1919:. (English translation of Polish original.)
1891:
1739:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1306:
1300:
1294:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1252:
1242:
1236:
1227:
1218:
1212:
1176:
1158:
1136:
1130:
1124:
1113:
1099:
1071:
1053:
1029:
965:
892:
877:
871:
852:
841:
829:
817:
805:
793:
780:
774:
744:
732:
720:
708:
697:
685:
673:
645:
634:
623:
611:
585:
575:
564:
553:
542:
531:
517:
506:
495:
484:
473:
462:
451:
414:
408:
402:
396:
368:
328:
322:
300:
294:
272:
262:
253:
247:
1857:Cicero's de Provinciis Consularibus Oratio
1619:See Keeline and Kirby (2019), pp. 163–164.
464:cālīgō bonōr(um) et subit(a) atqu(e) imprō
138:
124:
28:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1726:
1724:
1709:Quintilian 9.4.102; Clark (1905), p. 168.
1700:Quintilian 9.4.107; Clark (1905), p. 166.
1561:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1098:, both in his one surviving oration, the
1468:Shewring & Dennison (1970), §16, 20.
1419:
1417:
1415:
1396:
1394:
1076:.) However, in Tacitus's last work, the
242:for "little close or conclusion") was a
1801:
1799:
1345:
736:trāb(o) iter: Aurēliā viā profectus est
31:
1601:Shewring & Denniston (1970), §17f.
1001:cretic/molossus + cretic (– x – – u –)
1767:Shewring & Denniston (1970), §22.
1646:Shewring & Denniston (1970), §21.
1583:Shewring & Denniston (1970), §10.
1574:Shewring & Denniston (1970), §11.
1370:Shewring & Denniston (1970), §16.
983:'s book on farming (21%) but rare in
722:nē patiantur dēsīderiō suī Catilīnam
555:s(ī) eti(am) oppugnātus, ut quīd(am)
7:
1852:, Vol. 101, No. 5, pp. 481–505.
1592:Shewring & Denniston (1970), §8.
22:For clausula in medieval music, see
1869:Keeline, Tom; Kirby, Tyler (2019).
1824:. (University of Kansas MA thesis).
1637:Keeline & Kirby (2019), p. 165.
1352:Keeline & Kirby (2019), p. 170.
861:| – – – – – – – | – u – | – u – – |
1901:Form and Function in Roman Oratory
14:
1866:. University of California Press.
1034:has 61%, and the medical writer
205:
165:
1926:". In Mantello, F. A. C. &
1910:, 2nd edition.pp. 888–890.
1908:The Oxford Classical Dictionary
1893:In L. Calpurniam Pisonem Oratio
838:| u u u – – – | – u – | – – – |
814:| u | – uu uu | – – || uu – – |
769:The following passage from the
1913:Srebrny, Stefan (1947 (2013))
1903:, New York: Cambridge. 92–104.
1844:Cunningham, Maurice P. (1957)
1673:1408b; cf. Adams (2013), p. 2.
1400:Srebrny (1947 (2013)), p. 150.
1269:was preferred by Cicero (e.g.
1206:Applications of clausula-study
854:plūris quam t(e) et quam fortū
741:| – uu – | – u – u – u – u – |
1:
1916:Tadeusz Zieliński (1859-1944)
1610:See Keeline and Kirby (2019).
1515:§63; cf. Adams (2013), p. 42.
1330:(– u – – –) is preferable to
802:| u | – u – | – – || uu – – |
519:cōnsulum scelus, cupiditās, e
1864:The Colometry of Latin Prose
1829:Cicero: Pro P. Sulla Oratio.
1818:Adams, Elizabeth D. (2013).
1214:patent portae, proficīscere!
1167:Ancient writers on clausulae
1020:'s lives have 70%; Caesar's
998:cretic + trochee (– u – – x)
1862:Habinek, Thomas N. (1985).
1855:Grillo, Luca (ed.) (2015).
1549:Clark (1905), pp. 167, 171.
1220:portae patent, proficīscere
894:lēgātī Rōmān(i) occurrērunt
849:| – – – – | – u – | – u – |
779:(commata), followed by two
746:s(ī) accelerāre volent, ad
363:| – x – | – u – x | (30.1%)
1978:
1827:Berry, D. H. (ed). (1996)
1664:Tunberg (1996), pp. 115-6.
1655:Tunberg (1996), pp. 114-5.
1501:dē Prōvinciīs cōnsulāribus
1379:Cunningham (1957), p. 499.
1361:Habinek (1985), pp. 10–11.
886:Clausulae in other writers
700:ūn(um) etiam nunc concēdam
21:
15:
1957:Latin-language literature
1887:Nisbet, R. G. M. (1961).
1838:Zielinski's Clauselgesetz
1834:Clark, Albert C. (1905).
870:Cicero comments that the
826:| – – | – – – | – u – – |
821:rist(i) āmēns in columnās
360:| – x – | – u x | (24.4%)
92:Subjunctive by attraction
1877:109 (2019), pp. 161–204.
1875:Journal of Roman Studies
1007:hypodochmiac (– u – u x)
1004:double trochee (– u – x)
637:dein temerē prōsiluērunt
1409:Berry (1996), pp. 51-2.
1135:(– x x – x x), and the
1092:than to the narrative.
689:tātem rēs ipsa flāgitat
499:Caesarī d(ē) eius āctīs
435:– u – x) by the orator
416:Cáesarī d(e) eius áctīs
18:Cursus (disambiguation)
1896:. Oxford. pp. xvii–xx.
1892:
1805:Nisbet (1961), p. xix.
1791:Catullus: A commentary
1740:
1527:6; cf. Riggsby (2010).
1332:
1326:
1320:
1307:
1301:
1295:
1289:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1253:
1243:
1237:
1228:
1219:
1213:
1177:
1159:
1137:
1131:
1125:
1114:
1100:
1072:
1054:
1030:
966:
893:
878:
872:
853:
842:
830:
818:
806:
794:
781:
775:
745:
733:
721:
709:
698:
686:
674:
646:
635:
624:
612:
586:
576:
565:
554:
543:
532:
518:
507:
496:
485:
474:
463:
452:
415:
409:
403:
397:
369:
329:
323:
301:
295:
273:
263:
254:
248:
1882:Filologia mediolatina
1789:Fordyce, C.J. (1961)
1758:Clark (1905), p. 170.
1730:Clark (1905), p. 171.
1691:Clark (1905), p. 165.
1565:Clark (1905), p. 164.
1490:Grillo (2015), p. 42.
1459:Clark (1905), p. 168.
1450:Clark (1905), p. 166.
1423:Clark (1905), p. 167.
879:numerōsa comprehēnsiō
748:vesperam cōnsequentur
694:| – – – | – u – u – |
642:| – uu – | – uu – – |
568:lāt(a) amīcitia (e)st
557:aut putant aut volunt
544:sī dēsertus, sibī for
503:, | – u – | – u – – |
492:, | – u – | – u – – |
1884:30 (2023), pp. 1-56.
1841:(available on JSTOR)
1778:Revised Latin Primer
1432:Berry (1996), p. 52.
1327:Fūfi(a) ēversa (e)st
1153:(12th century), and
1147:Bernard of Clairvaux
1112:Medieval clausulae (
705:| – uu – | – – – – |
620:| – u – | – uu – – |
443:Examples from Cicero
317:/ˈkɒmətə/ (singular
47:Uses of the ablative
1933:, pp. 111–120.
1241:"I bring back" and
979:is quite common in
856:nās tuās aestimāstī
845:cam, iacentem domum
789:or double trochee:
753:| – u – | – u – – |
712:ant, proficīscantur
648:hominēs temperantīs
615:balneīs dēlituērunt
582:; | – – – | – u – |
561:, | – u – | – u – |
539:; | – – – | – u – |
514:, | – u – | – u – |
481:, | – – – | – u – |
410:incéndium civitátis
102:Clausula (rhetoric)
82:Conditional clauses
1195:Terentianus Maurus
729:| uu – – | – u – |
653:| uu – | – u – – |
572:, | – u – | uu – |
486:ruīn(a) atqu(e) in
281:Types of clausulae
52:Uses of the dative
1947:Figures of speech
1780:, 1962 ed. p. 64.
1333:Fūfia versa (e)st
1096:Pliny the Younger
724:miserum tābēscere
682:| – u – | – u – |
594:| – u – | – u – |
578:accēp(ī) iniūriam
550:; | – u – | – – |
526:| – – – | – u – |
510:dis bonīs omnibus
488:cendium cīvitātis
477:brae rēī pūblicae
470:, | – u – | – – |
459:, | – u – | – – |
437:Carbo the Younger
338:Tadeusz Zieliński
148:
147:
1969:
1895:
1806:
1803:
1794:
1787:
1781:
1774:
1768:
1765:
1759:
1756:
1745:
1743:
1737:
1731:
1728:
1719:
1716:
1710:
1707:
1701:
1698:
1692:
1689:
1683:
1680:
1674:
1671:
1665:
1662:
1656:
1653:
1647:
1644:
1638:
1635:
1629:
1626:
1620:
1617:
1611:
1608:
1602:
1599:
1593:
1590:
1584:
1581:
1575:
1572:
1566:
1563:
1550:
1547:
1541:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1497:
1491:
1488:
1482:
1475:
1469:
1466:
1460:
1457:
1451:
1448:
1442:
1439:
1433:
1430:
1424:
1421:
1410:
1407:
1401:
1398:
1389:
1386:
1380:
1377:
1371:
1368:
1362:
1359:
1353:
1350:
1335:
1329:
1323:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1280:
1274:
1256:
1246:
1240:
1231:
1222:
1216:
1180:
1162:
1143:Gregory of Tours
1140:
1134:
1128:
1117:
1103:
1075:
1057:
1033:
969:
896:
881:
875:
860:
848:
837:
825:
813:
801:
784:
778:
752:
740:
728:
717:| – uu – | – – |
716:
704:
693:
681:
652:
641:
631:| – – – | uu – |
630:
619:
593:
581:
571:
560:
549:
538:
535:iūtus, non dēbuī
525:
513:
502:
497:terror iniectus
491:
480:
469:
458:
418:
412:
406:
400:
372:
332:
326:
304:
298:
276:
266:
257:
251:
249:vīta trānscurrit
237:
236:
233:
232:
229:
226:
223:
220:
217:
214:
211:
197:
196:
193:
192:
189:
186:
183:
180:
177:
174:
171:
140:
133:
126:
97:Temporal clauses
29:
24:Clausula (music)
1977:
1976:
1972:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1966:
1937:
1936:
1815:
1810:
1809:
1804:
1797:
1793:, note on 5.10.
1788:
1784:
1775:
1771:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1748:
1738:
1734:
1729:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1623:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1591:
1587:
1582:
1578:
1573:
1569:
1564:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1535:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1511:
1507:
1498:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1427:
1422:
1413:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1392:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1342:
1265:, the genitive
1208:
1187:3.173-198, and
1169:
1145:(6th century),
1120:
1031:de Architectura
976:
974:Recent research
888:
833:sānus īnsānistī
809:cūnia superābat
797:mus tibī deerat
626:testīs ēgregiōs
589:dēbuī, nōn negō
533:sī non s(um) ad
521:gestās, audācia
445:
404:egéstās audácia
321:), or in Latin
283:
244:rhythmic figure
208:
204:
168:
164:
144:
87:Indirect speech
27:
20:
12:
11:
5:
1975:
1973:
1965:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1952:Latin language
1949:
1939:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1920:
1911:
1904:
1897:
1885:
1878:
1867:
1860:
1853:
1842:
1832:
1825:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1795:
1782:
1769:
1760:
1746:
1732:
1720:
1711:
1702:
1693:
1684:
1675:
1666:
1657:
1648:
1639:
1630:
1621:
1612:
1603:
1594:
1585:
1576:
1567:
1551:
1542:
1529:
1517:
1505:
1492:
1483:
1470:
1461:
1452:
1443:
1434:
1425:
1411:
1402:
1390:
1381:
1372:
1363:
1354:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1293:"nothing" and
1207:
1204:
1168:
1165:
1119:
1110:
1084:(70%) and the
1050:Jugurthine War
1009:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
975:
972:
887:
884:
868:
867:
863:
862:
850:
843:dēpressam, cae
839:
827:
815:
803:
764:illa tempestas
760:
759:
755:
754:
742:
730:
718:
706:
695:
683:
677:lēnitātī locus
660:
659:
655:
654:
643:
632:
621:
601:
600:
596:
595:
587:inimīcus esse
583:
573:
562:
551:
546:tasse prōvīdit
540:
528:
527:
515:
504:
493:
482:
471:
460:
455:illa tempestās
444:
441:
398:ílla tempéstās
365:
364:
361:
358:
313:were known as
282:
279:
267:(– u uu – x).
255:illa tempestās
146:
145:
143:
142:
135:
128:
120:
117:
116:
115:
114:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
44:
36:
35:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1974:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1942:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1912:
1909:
1905:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1883:
1879:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1865:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1840:
1839:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1786:
1783:
1779:
1773:
1770:
1764:
1761:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1747:
1742:
1736:
1733:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1715:
1712:
1706:
1703:
1697:
1694:
1688:
1685:
1679:
1676:
1670:
1667:
1661:
1658:
1652:
1649:
1643:
1640:
1634:
1631:
1625:
1622:
1616:
1613:
1607:
1604:
1598:
1595:
1589:
1586:
1580:
1577:
1571:
1568:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1552:
1546:
1543:
1539:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1493:
1487:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1471:
1465:
1462:
1456:
1453:
1447:
1444:
1441:Adams (2013).
1438:
1435:
1429:
1426:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1412:
1406:
1403:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1388:Clark (1905).
1385:
1382:
1376:
1373:
1367:
1364:
1358:
1355:
1349:
1346:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1316:
1314:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1285:
1279:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1239:
1233:
1230:
1224:
1221:
1215:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1191:
1186:
1185:
1179:
1178:Ars Rhētorica
1174:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1139:
1133:
1127:
1116:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1102:
1097:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1059:
1056:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1006:
1003:
1000:
997:
996:
995:
992:
990:
989:Curtius Rufus
986:
982:
973:
971:
968:
967:esse videātur
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
942:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
911:
907:
903:
898:
895:
885:
883:
880:
874:
865:
864:
859:
857:
851:
847:
846:
840:
836:
834:
831:in aliēnōs īn
828:
824:
822:
816:
812:
810:
804:
800:
799:? at habēbās.
798:
792:
791:
790:
788:
783:
777:
772:
767:
765:
757:
756:
751:
749:
743:
739:
737:
731:
727:
725:
719:
715:
713:
707:
703:
701:
696:
692:
690:
684:
680:
678:
672:
671:
670:
667:
665:
657:
656:
651:
649:
644:
640:
638:
633:
629:
627:
622:
618:
616:
610:
609:
608:
606:
598:
597:
592:
590:
584:
580:
579:
574:
570:
569:
563:
559:
558:
552:
548:
547:
541:
537:
536:
530:
529:
524:
522:
516:
512:
511:
505:
501:
500:
494:
490:
489:
483:
479:
478:
472:
468:
467:
461:
457:
456:
450:
449:
448:
442:
440:
438:
434:
428:
426:
422:
417:
411:
405:
399:
394:
389:
385:
383:
379:
374:
371:
370:esse videātur
362:
359:
356:
355:
354:
351:
348:
344:
339:
334:
331:
325:
320:
316:
312:
308:
303:
297:
292:
288:
280:
278:
275:
268:
265:
264:esse videātur
261:
256:
250:
245:
241:
235:
203:
202:
195:
162:
161:
156:
153:
141:
136:
134:
129:
127:
122:
121:
119:
118:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
83:
80:
78:
75:
73:
70:
68:
65:
63:
60:
58:
55:
53:
50:
48:
45:
43:
40:
39:
38:
37:
34:
33:Latin grammar
30:
25:
19:
1930:
1923:
1915:
1907:
1900:
1888:
1881:
1874:
1863:
1856:
1849:
1837:
1828:
1820:
1813:Bibliography
1790:
1785:
1777:
1776:Kennedy, B.
1772:
1763:
1741:In Catilinam
1735:
1714:
1705:
1696:
1687:
1678:
1669:
1660:
1651:
1642:
1633:
1624:
1615:
1606:
1597:
1588:
1579:
1570:
1545:
1537:
1532:
1525:in Catilīnam
1524:
1520:
1512:
1508:
1500:
1495:
1486:
1478:
1473:
1464:
1455:
1446:
1437:
1428:
1405:
1384:
1375:
1366:
1357:
1348:
1317:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1234:
1225:
1209:
1188:
1182:
1170:
1121:
1106:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1067:
1060:
1049:
1040:
1021:
1010:
993:
977:
943:
905:
902:Thrasymachus
899:
889:
869:
855:
844:
832:
820:
811:? at egēbās.
808:
796:
786:
770:
768:
763:
761:
747:
735:
723:
711:
699:
688:
676:
675:nōn est iam
668:
663:
661:
647:
636:
625:
614:
604:
602:
588:
577:
567:
556:
545:
534:
520:
509:
498:
487:
476:
466:vīsa formīdo
465:
454:
446:
429:
390:
386:
375:
366:
352:
335:
318:
314:
310:
306:
293:), in Latin
290:
286:
284:
269:
200:
199:
159:
158:
149:
112:Alliteration
101:
1928:Rigg, A. G.
1229:dē domō suā
1101:Panegyricus
931:Demosthenes
57:Conjugation
1941:Categories
1831:Cambridge.
1513:pro Caelio
1340:References
1321:In Pisonem
1199:Quintilian
1184:dē Ōrātōre
1055:accēpērunt
1022:Gallic War
962:Tertullian
939:Thucydides
771:pro Scauro
605:pro Caelio
327:(singular
309:. Shorter
299:(singular
289:(singular
274:accēpērunt
260:Ciceronian
107:Hyperbaton
72:Word order
42:Declension
16:See also:
1308:fēcerīmus
1296:perīculum
1249:Lucretius
1244:relliquus
1193:204-226.
1173:Aristotle
1090:Histories
1068:Histories
1038:has 70%.
1026:Vitruvius
1014:Suetonius
954:Suetonius
919:Aeschines
787:dichoreus
508:metus cae
421:Augustine
382:hexameter
307:clausulae
201:clausulae
198:, plural
1962:Rhetoric
1836:Review:
1536:Cicero,
1499:Cicero,
1477:Cicero,
1313:Catullus
1302:perīclum
1254:Nōn modō
1086:Germania
1082:Dialogus
1073:Agricola
958:Apuleius
935:choriamb
927:Plutarch
906:Republic
425:Arnobius
378:spondees
347:trochaic
160:clausula
155:rhetoric
62:Numerals
1889:Cicero:
1238:reddūcō
1175:in his
1151:Héloïse
1064:Tacitus
1042:Sallust
1028:in his
453:ecc(e)
433:trochee
330:incīsum
315:commata
302:membrum
1924:Cursus
1859:. OUP.
1538:Orator
1479:Orator
1278:Clōdiī
1272:iūdicī
1190:Ōrātor
1160:cursūs
1132:tardus
1126:plānus
1115:cursūs
1078:Annals
1036:Celsus
950:Seneca
923:Isaeus
915:Lysias
873:incīsa
782:membra
776:incīsa
734:dēmōns
687:sevēri
664:testes
343:cretic
324:incīsa
296:membra
77:Tenses
67:Syntax
1744:1.10.
1503:, 43.
1290:nihil
1155:Dante
1138:velōx
1018:Nepos
985:Varro
946:Pliny
910:Plato
819:incur
393:ictus
319:comma
291:colon
240:Latin
152:Roman
1299:and
1287:and
1263:-ius
1259:-ium
1149:and
1046:Livy
1044:and
981:Cato
960:and
475:tene
423:and
311:cola
287:cola
157:, a
1324:9,
1284:nīl
1261:or
1066:'s
908:).
710:exe
613:in
566:vio
252:or
150:In
1943::
1873:.
1848:.
1798:^
1749:^
1723:^
1554:^
1414:^
1393:^
1315:.
1267:-i
1251:.
956:,
952:,
948:,
925:,
921:,
917:,
897:.
807:pe
795:do
607::
427:.
413:,
407:,
401:,
238:;
222:zj
219:ɔː
182:zj
179:ɔː
1118:)
858:.
835:;
823:,
750:.
738:;
726:.
714:;
702::
691:.
679:;
650:!
639::
628:!
617::
591:.
523:!
234:/
231:i
228:l
225:ʊ
216:l
213:k
210:ˈ
207:/
194:/
191:ə
188:l
185:ʊ
176:l
173:k
170:ˈ
167:/
163:(
139:e
132:t
125:v
26:.
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