1202:"There is considerable confidence that climate models provide credible quantitative estimates of future climate change, particularly at continental scales and above. This confidence comes from the foundation of the models in accepted physical principles and from their ability to reproduce observed features of current climate and past climate changes. Confidence in model estimates is higher for some climate variables (e.g., temperature) than for others (e.g., precipitation). Over several decades of development, models have consistently provided a robust and unambiguous picture of significant climate warming in response to increasing greenhouse gases."
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922:(which must be reduced by the fourth power of the ratio of cloud absolute temperature to average surface absolute temperature) and an average cloud temperature of about 258 K (−15 °C; 5 °F). Taking all this properly into account results in an effective earth emissivity of about 0.64 (earth average temperature 285 K (12 °C; 53 °F)).
942:, which may be readily extended to an arbitrary number of atmospheric layers. The surface and atmospheric layer(s) are each characterized by a corresponding temperature and emissivity value, but no thickness. Applying radiative equilibrium (i.e conservation of energy) at the interfaces between layers produces a set of coupled equations which are solvable.
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states, the constituent and dimensional complexities of the system needed to be reduced. A simple quantitative model that balanced incoming/outgoing energy was first developed for the atmosphere in the late 19th century. Other EBMs similarly seek an economical description of surface temperatures by
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The calculated emissivity can be compared to available data. Terrestrial surface emissivities are all in the range of 0.96 to 0.99 (except for some small desert areas which may be as low as 0.7). Clouds, however, which cover about half of the planet's surface, have an average emissivity of about 0.5
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view while highly limited is still useful in that the laws of physics are applicable in a bulk fashion to unknown objects, or in an appropriate lumped manner if some major properties of the object are known. For example, astronomers know that most planets in our own solar system feature some kind
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or climate model is a method of replacing processes that are too small-scale or complex to be physically represented in the model by a simplified process. This can be contrasted with other processes—e.g., large-scale flow of the atmosphere—that are explicitly resolved within the models. Associated
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Techniques that could lead to energy savings, include for example: "reducing floating point precision computation; developing machine learning algorithms to avoid unnecessary computations; and creating a new generation of scalable numerical algorithms that would enable higher throughput in terms of
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operating at the highest spatial and temporal resolution currently feasible. Models of intermediate complexity bridge the gap. One example is the
Climber-3 model. Its atmosphere is a 2.5-dimensional statistical-dynamical model with 7.5° × 22.5° resolution and time step of half a day; the ocean is
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Box 2.3. 'Models' are typically numerical simulations of real-world systems, calibrated and validated using observations from experiments or analogies, and then run using input data representing future climate. Models can also include largely descriptive narratives of possible futures, such as
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Simple box models, i.e. box model with a small number of boxes whose properties (e.g. their volume) do not change with time, are often useful to derive analytical formulas describing the dynamics and steady-state abundance of a species. More complex box models are usually solved using numerical
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Radiative-convective models have advantages over simpler models and also lay a foundation for more complex models. They can estimate both surface temperature and the temperature variation with elevation in a more realistic manner. They also simulate the observed decline in upper atmospheric
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Big climate models are essential but they are not perfect. Attention still needs to be given to the real world (what is happening and why). The global models are essential to assimilate all the observations, especially from space (satellites) and produce comprehensive analyses of what is
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report discussed how the large and diverse U.S. climate modeling enterprise could evolve to become more unified. Efficiencies could be gained by developing a common software infrastructure shared by all U.S. climate researchers, and holding an annual climate modeling forum, the report found.
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in the model's atmosphere gave a roughly 2 °C rise in global temperature. Several other kinds of computer models gave similar results: it was impossible to make a model that gave something resembling the actual climate and not have the temperature rise when the
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is a main determinant of the emissivity of Earth's atmosphere. It both influences the flows of radiation and is influenced by convective flows of heat in a manner that is consistent with its equilibrium concentration and temperature as a function of elevation (i.e.
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averaged. This model has the advantage of allowing a rational dependence of local albedo and emissivity on temperature – the poles can be allowed to be icy and the equator warm – but the lack of true dynamics means that horizontal transports have to be specified.
1177:. The latest update (version 3.1) of the standalone CAM was issued on 1 February 2006. In 1986, efforts began to initialize and model soil and vegetation types, resulting in more realistic forecasts. Coupled ocean-atmosphere climate models, such as the
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of Earth's combined surface and atmosphere (including clouds). It is a quantity between 0 and 1 that is calculated from the equilibrium to be about 0.61. For the zero-dimensional treatment it is equivalent to an average value over all viewing
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This very simple model is quite instructive. For example, it shows the temperature sensitivity to changes in the solar constant, Earth albedo, or effective Earth emissivity. The effective emissivity also gauges the strength of the atmospheric
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AOGCMs represent the pinnacle of complexity in climate models and internalise as many processes as possible. However, they are still under development and uncertainties remain. They may be coupled to models of other processes, such as the
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Simulation of the climate system in full 3-D space and time was impractical prior to the establishment of large computational facilities starting in the 1960s. In order to begin to understand which factors may have changed Earth's
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is therefore uniform. However, the abundance of a species within a given box may vary as a function of time due to the input to (or loss from) the box or due to the production, consumption or decay of this species within the box.
1300:. Radiative parameterizations are important to both atmospheric and oceanic modeling alike. Atmospheric emissions from different sources within individual grid boxes also need to be parameterized to determine their impact on
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In 1956, Norman
Phillips developed a mathematical model that realistically depicted monthly and seasonal patterns in the troposphere. This was the first successful climate model. Several groups then began working to create
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happening, and then they can be used to make predictions/projections. Simple models have a role to play that is widely abused and fails to recognize the simplifications such as not including a water cycle.
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transfer model treats the Earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy. This can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models) and horizontally. More complex models are the coupled atmosphere–ocean–
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Other parameters are sometimes included to simulate localized effects in other dimensions and to address the factors that move energy about Earth. For example, the effect of ice-albedo feedback on global
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distribution). This has been shown by refining the zero dimension model in the vertical to a one-dimensional radiative-convective model which considers two processes of energy transport:
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516:. A variety of these and other reduced system models can be useful for specialized tasks that supplement GCMs, particularly to bridge gaps between simulation and understanding.
452:, ARPEGE-Climat) combine the two models. The first general circulation climate model that combined both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the
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1381:"AR5 Synthesis Report - Climate Change 2014. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change"
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Depending on the nature of questions asked and the pertinent time scales, there are, on the one extreme, conceptual, more inductive models, and, on the other extreme,
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Layered models produce temperatures that better estimate those observed for Earth's surface and atmospheric levels. They likewise further illustrate the radiative
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350:. To "run" a model, scientists divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid, apply the basic equations, and evaluate the results. Atmospheric models calculate
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1977:"METEO 469: From Meteorology to Mitigation - Understanding Global Warming - Lesson 5 - Modelling of the Climate System - One-Layer Energy Balance Model"
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processes which underlie the greenhouse effect. Quantification of this phenomenon using a version of the one-layer model was first published by
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Dimensionless models have also been constructed with functionally separated atmospheric layers from the surface. The simplest of these is the
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The zero-dimensional model may be expanded to consider the energy transported horizontally in the atmosphere. This kind of model may well be
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508:. Some models account for effects of ocean, land, or ice features on the surface budget. Others include interactions with parts of the
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used in the simplified processes. Examples include the descent rate of raindrops, convective clouds, simplifications of the atmospheric
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114:. Climate models can also be qualitative (i.e. not numerical) models and contain narratives, largely descriptive, of possible futures.
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1143:. The first general circulation climate model combined oceanic and atmospheric processes and was developed in the late 1960s at the
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This article is about the theories and mathematics of climate modeling. For computer-driven prediction of Earth's climate, see
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482:. These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical, chemical and sometimes biological equations.
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in the climate system and has been considered foundational for the energy balance models since its publication in 1969.
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Sarmiento, J.L.; Toggweiler, J.R. (1984). "A new model for the role of the oceans in determining atmospheric P CO 2".
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had developed the
Community Atmosphere Model (CAM), which can be run by itself or as the atmospheric component of the
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Proceedings of the
Eleventh Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Science Team Meeting March 2001 Atlanta, Georgia
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North, Gerald R.; Stevens, Mark J. (2006), "Energy-balance climate models", in Kiehl, J. T.; Ramanathan, V. (eds.),
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upwelling and downwelling radiative transfer through atmospheric layers that both absorb and emit infrared radiation
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1091:) linked by fluxes. The boxes are assumed to be mixed homogeneously. Within a given box, the concentration of any
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Proceedings of the Eighth
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Science Team Meeting March 1998 Tucson, Arizona
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1821:"An Improved Land Surface Emissivity Parameter for Land Surface Models Using Global Remote Sensing Observations"
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Essential features of EBMs include their relative conceptual simplicity and their ability to sometimes produce
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2097:"Effect of ice-albedo feedback on global sensitivity in a one-dimensional radiative-convective climate model"
2075:"Pubs.GISS: Wang and Stone 1980: Effect of ice-albedo feedback on global sensitivity in a one-dimensional..."
918:, since it is the ratio of the thermal emissions escaping to space versus those emanating from the surface.
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the right hand side represents the total outgoing longwave power (in Watts) from Earth, calculated from the
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Universities: Relevant departments include atmospheric sciences, meteorology, climatology, and geography.
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198:. Scientists divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid and apply the basic equations to those grids.
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There are three major types of institution where climate models are developed, implemented and used:
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1899:"Microwave and IR Radiometry for Estimation of Atmospheric Radiation Balance and Sea Ice Formation"
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Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by
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those used in scenario construction. Quantitative and descriptive models are often used together.
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upward transport of heat by air and vapor convection, which is especially important in the lower
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Box models are used extensively to model environmental systems or ecosystems and in studies of
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consumes 29 MW. It can simulate a year’s worth of climate at cloud resolving scales in a day.
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Held, Isaac M. (2005). "The gap between simulation and understanding in climate modelling".
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The IPCC stated in 2010 it has increased confidence in forecasts coming from climate models:
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within each grid and evaluate interactions with neighboring points. These are coupled with
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1983:
College of
Mineral and Earth Sciences - Department of Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences
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and radiant exchange. In addition, other types of models can be interlinked. For example
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the left hand side represents the total incoming shortwave power (in Watts) from the Sun
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2010:"Thermal Equilibrium of the Atmosphere with a Given Distribution of Relative Humidity"
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Polvani, L. M.; Clement, A. C.; Medeiros, B.; Benedict, J. J.; Simpson, I. R. (2017).
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1927:"ACS Climate Science Toolkit - Atmospheric Warming - A Single-Layer Atmosphere Model"
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2189:"A Global Climatic Model Based on the Energy Balance of the Earth-Atmosphere System"
1976:
1952:"ACS Climate Science Toolkit - Atmospheric Warming - A Multi-Layer Atmosphere Model"
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1252:(billion billion – i.e., a quintillion – calculations per second). For example, the
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the left hand side represents the incoming shortwave energy flux from the Sun in W·m
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the right hand side represents the outgoing longwave energy flux from Earth in W·m.
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T.R. Shippert; S.A. Clough; P.D. Brown; W.L. Smith; R.O. Knuteson; S.A. Ackerman.
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Box models are simplified versions of complex systems, reducing them to boxes (or
1001:
has been investigated using a one-dimensional radiative-convective climate model.
17:
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Primary research GCM developed by NASA/GISS (Goddard
Institute for Space Studies)
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1514:"On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground"
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that gave a roughly accurate representation of the current climate. Doubling CO
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from the Sun as well as outgoing energy from Earth. An imbalance results in a
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Zero-dimensional models consider Earth as a point in space, analogous to the
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The remaining variable parameters which are specific to the planet include
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can be factored out, giving a nildimensional equation for the equilibrium
175:. This allows researchers to predict the interactions between climate and
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the Earth's atmosphere or oceans. Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs (AGCM and
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National meteorological services: Most national weather services have a
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1219:(WMO), coordinates research activities on climate modelling worldwide.
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National and international research laboratories: Examples include the
187:
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87:
59:
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J. Graham Cogley (1990). "Twenty-five years of physical climatology".
2156:"The effect of solar radiation variations on the climate of the Earth"
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1592:, Wiley Series in Atmospheric Physics and Remote Sensing, Wiley-VCH,
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Climate models divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid and apply
2593:"Impact of vegetation properties on U. S. summer weather prediction"
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440:
as boundary conditions. Coupled atmosphere-ocean GCMs (AOGCMs, e.g.
159:. These types of models solve the full equations for mass transfer,
2819:"Cloud-resolving climate model meets world's fastest supercomputer"
2318:"The general circulation of the atmosphere: a numerical experiment"
2255:
1726:"Scientists Watch Dark Side of the Moon to Monitor Earth's Climate"
1455:
1453:
1422:
Trenberth, Kevin E. (2022). "Chapter 1: Earth and
Climate System".
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within each grid and evaluate interactions with neighboring points.
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CarbonBrief, Guest post by
Belcher, Boucher, Sutton, 21 March 2019
2794:"Frontier to Meet 20MW Exascale Power Target Set by DARPA in 2008"
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Cloud-resolving climate models are nowadays run on high intensity
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The
Emergence of Numerical Weather Prediction: Richardson's Dream
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constraint to individual columns of the Earth-atmosphere system.
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By 1975, Manabe and Wetherald had developed a three-dimensional
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666:– the incoming solar radiation per unit area—about 1367 W·m
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125:. The incoming energy from the Sun is in the form of short wave
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1641:"When less is more: opening the door to simpler climate models"
628:{\displaystyle (1-a)S\pi r^{2}=4\pi r^{2}\epsilon \sigma T^{4}}
402:). These equations are the basis for computer programs used to
2531:"Description of the NCAR Community Atmosphere Model (CAM 3.0)"
4144:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
2846:
Why results from the next generation of climate models matter
1492:"NOAA 200th Top Tens: Breakthroughs: The First Climate Model"
106:. Scientists use climate models to study the dynamics of the
2465:
Concentration on the Climate of a General Circulation Model"
537:
of solid/liquid surface surrounded by a gaseous atmosphere.
4490:
Atmospheric, oceanographic, cryospheric, and climate models
2490:
10.1175/1520-0469(1975)032<0003:teodtc>2.0.co;2
2214:
10.1175/1520-0450(1969)008<0392:AGCMBO>2.0.CO;2
2122:
10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<0545:EOIAFO>2.0.CO;2
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10.1175/1520-0469(1967)024<0241:TEOTAW>2.0.CO;2
678:
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that can simulate the interactions of important drivers of
58:
to each grid. The equations are based on the basic laws of
989:
amounts of other non-condensible greenhouse gases such as
4320:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
2757:"Earth System Modeling Must Become More Energy Efficient"
2591:
Yongkang Xue & Michael J. Fennessey (20 March 1996).
1356:
Verification and validation of computer simulation models
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or an astronomer's view of very distant objects. This
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Atmospheric GCMs (AGCMs) model the atmosphere and impose
148:
Climate models vary in complexity. For example, a simple
306:
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement
141:
electromagnetic energy. These processes are part of the
137:. The outgoing energy is in the form of long wave (far)
1897:
A.G. Gorelik; V. Sterljadkin; E. Kadygrov; A. Koldaev.
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Earth systems models of intermediate complexity (EMICs)
1425:
The Changing Flow of Energy Through the Climate System
5314:
4161:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
2881:
CCCma model info and interface to retrieve model data
2877:(GCM) with a user-friendly interface for PCs and Macs
2326:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
1244:
which have a high power consumption and thus cause CO
889:
857:
829:
754:
720:
691:
558:
1670:"Earthshine Observations of the Earth's Reflectance"
1056:) with a 3.75° × 3.75° grid and 24 vertical levels.
926:
Models with separated surface and atmospheric layers
230:
that occurs on different timescales due to shifting
5271:
5225:
5199:
5143:
5095:
4982:
4966:
4940:
4909:
4823:
4774:
4716:
4654:
4598:
4338:
4223:
4192:
4121:
4056:
3978:
3900:
3851:
3768:
3725:
3635:
3542:
3405:
3352:
3195:
3019:
2988:
1068:Schematic of a simple box model used to illustrate
2725:A National Strategy for Advancing Climate Modeling
2695:A National Strategy for Advancing Climate Modeling
1870:"Spectral Cloud Emissivities from LBLRTM/AERI QME"
895:
863:
835:
797:
737:
697:
627:
2723:"U.S. National Research Council Report-in-Brief,
1179:Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research
985:temperature and rise in surface temperature when
294:Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research
110:and to make projections of future climate and of
4361:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
2571:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
2538:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
2435:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1614:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
1149:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
674:is Earth's radius—approximately 6.371×10 m
378:(GCM) is a type of climate model. It employs a
1778:"Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System"
1043:Earth systems model of intermediate complexity
246:better accounts for long term effects such as
5073:
4475:
3106:History of climate change policy and politics
2901:
2529:William D. Collins; et al. (June 2004).
1518:Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
798:{\displaystyle (1-a)S=4\epsilon \sigma T^{4}}
29:Quantitative methods used to simulate climate
8:
2000:
1998:
421:GCMs and global climate models are used for
242:of change may also be applied. Including an
3223:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
5080:
5066:
5058:
4595:
4584:
4496:
4482:
4468:
4460:
4442:
4430:
4189:
4178:
3897:
3883:
3632:
3619:
3192:
3179:
3091:
2985:
2972:
2924:
2908:
2894:
2886:
1428:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
1194:Increase of forecasts confidence over time
541:Model with combined surface and atmosphere
382:of the general circulation of a planetary
3988:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
3131:United Nations Climate Change conferences
2768:
2621:
2488:
2212:
2171:
2120:
2033:
1652:
1588:North, Gerald R.; Kwang-Yul, Kim (2017),
1563:
1541:
1539:
1284:with these parameterizations are various
888:
856:
828:
789:
753:
729:
724:
719:
690:
619:
603:
584:
557:
3692:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
2859:NCAR/UCAR Community Climate System Model
2693:"U.S. National Research Council Report,
1507:
1505:
1171:National Center for Atmospheric Research
1072:in geochemical cycles, showing a source
274:National Center for Atmospheric Research
117:Climate models take account of incoming
39:For broader coverage of this topic, see
5321:
4048:National Adaptation Programme of Action
3837:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
2875:Original NASA/GISS global climate model
1915:from the original on 25 September 2006.
1886:from the original on 25 September 2006.
1371:
682:is the mathematical constant (3.141...)
5248:Construction and management simulation
3697:Economics of climate change mitigation
3660:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
3011:Scientific consensus on climate change
2366:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p.
2008:; Wetherald, Richard T. (1 May 1967).
1404:
1393:
4356:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
2750:
2748:
2661:"Climate Models and Their Evaluation"
1260:simulated years per wall clock day."
1145:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
1029:). This work also showed the role of
476:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
457:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
282:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
7:
5359:Numerical climate and weather models
5284:List of computer simulation software
4775:Regional and mesoscale oceanographic
4378:Representative Concentration Pathway
3329:Tipping points in the climate system
3005:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
1756:"Climate Change: Global Temperature"
1550:, Cambridge University, p. 52,
1294:atmospheric radiative transfer codes
1185:model, are being used as inputs for
1132:Atmospheric model § Climate modeling
934:One-layer EBM with blackbody surface
302:Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
4149:Nationally determined contributions
3859:Individual action on climate change
3074:World energy supply and consumption
2567:"CAM3.0 COMMUNITY ATMOSPHERE MODEL"
2469:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
2459:Manabe S.; Wetherald R. T. (1975).
2014:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
1017:Early examples include research of
4717:Regional and mesoscale atmospheric
4288:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
1714:from the original on 22 July 2018.
1668:Goode, P. R.; et al. (2001).
1271:Parametrization (climate modeling)
394:terms for various energy sources (
25:
4215:Satellite temperature measurement
3820:forestry for carbon sequestration
3111:History of climate change science
2865:Do it yourself climate prediction
2316:Norman A. Phillips (April 1956).
1857:from the original on 4 June 2007.
1802:"Seawater Samples - Emissivities"
1351:Tropical cyclone prediction model
1325:Atmospheric Radiation Measurement
1217:World Meteorological Organization
1125:History of climate change science
940:zero-dimensional, one-layer model
317:General circulation models (GCMs)
5336:
5324:
4441:
4429:
4418:
4417:
4405:
4066:Climate Change Performance Index
1269:This section is an excerpt from
1213:World Climate Research Programme
1130:This section is an excerpt from
653:The constant parameters include
410:) are key components along with
322:This section is an excerpt from
5212:Integrated assessment modelling
4541:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
4536:Tropical cyclone forecast model
4205:Instrumental temperature record
4156:Sustainable Development Goal 13
2601:Journal of Geophysical Research
2461:"The Effects of Doubling the CO
2095:Wang, W.C.; P.H. Stone (1980).
1819:Jin M, Liang S (15 June 2006).
1732:. 17 April 2001. Archived from
1463:. NOAA 200th Celebration. 2007.
1254:Frontier exascale supercomputer
4273:Climate variability and change
3314:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
2193:Journal of Applied Meteorology
1548:Frontiers in Climate Modelling
1224:U.S. National Research Council
1175:Community Climate System Model
767:
755:
710:—approximately 5.67×10 J·K·m·s
571:
559:
334:Climate models are systems of
290:Los Alamos National Laboratory
228:climate variability and change
182:Climate models are systems of
1:
4383:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
3918:Climate emergency declaration
1981:Pennsylvania State University
1590:Energy Balance Climate Models
1248:emissions. They require
1169:By the early 1980s, the U.S.
1167:concentration was increased.
876:, measured as about 288
234:and the much larger combined
5181:Hydrological transport model
5135:Protein structure prediction
5130:Modelling biological systems
4941:Land surface parametrization
4531:Numerical weather prediction
4366:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
3592:Middle East and North Africa
2242:10.1016/0921-8181(90)90001-S
1783:. NASA. 2013. Archived from
1556:10.1017/CBO9780511535857.004
1341:Numerical Weather Prediction
487:Energy balance models (EBMs)
304:in Hamburg, Germany, or the
5125:Metabolic network modelling
2230:Global and Planetary Change
2187:William D. Sellers (1969).
2173:10.3402/tellusa.v21i5.10109
957:Radiative-convective models
874:average surface temperature
738:{\displaystyle \pi \,r^{2}}
545:A very simple model of the
338:based on the basic laws of
186:based on the basic laws of
5380:
5238:Business process modelling
4200:Global surface temperature
4091:Popular culture depictions
4003:Ecosystem-based adaptation
3733:Carbon capture and storage
3655:Carbon offsets and credits
2853:Climate models on the web:
2404:Cambridge University Press
1730:American Geophysical Union
1268:
1147:, a component of the U.S.
1141:general circulation models
1129:
1122:
1111:. They are instances of a
1049:general circulation models
1040:
390:on a rotating sphere with
321:
38:
31:
5110:Chemical process modeling
5027:
4594:
4583:
4566:Meteorological reanalysis
4506:
4495:
4412:Climate change portal
4399:
4305:Extreme event attribution
4188:
4177:
3928:School Strike for Climate
3896:
3882:
3807:Climate-smart agriculture
3631:
3618:
3191:
3178:
3101:
3090:
2984:
2971:
2954:Climate change adaptation
2949:Climate change mitigation
2944:Effects of climate change
2934:
2923:
2439:"The First Climate Model"
1956:American Chemical Society
1931:American Chemical Society
1530:10.1080/14786449608620846
1512:Svante Arrhenius (1896).
1478:27 September 2007 at the
1461:"The First Climate Model"
896:{\displaystyle \epsilon }
708:Stefan–Boltzmann constant
376:general circulation model
324:General circulation model
127:electromagnetic radiation
34:General circulation model
5156:Chemical transport model
5120:Infectious disease model
4551:Upper-atmospheric models
4546:Chemical transport model
4315:Global warming potential
4122:International agreements
3769:Preserving and enhancing
3213:Arctic methane emissions
3135:Years in climate change
3042:Greenhouse gas emissions
2939:Causes of climate change
2792:Trader, Tiffany (2021).
2396:"The ENIAC Integrations"
1346:Static atmospheric model
1320:Chemical transport model
1207:Coordination of research
438:sea surface temperatures
236:volume and heat capacity
90:. These drivers are the
4561:Model output statistics
4346:Climate change scenario
3998:Disaster risk reduction
3650:Carbon emission trading
3460:U.S. insurance industry
3440:Civilizational collapse
3287:sea surface temperature
2137:"Energy Balance Models"
1626:10.1175/BAMS-86-11-1609
1236:Electricity consumption
1113:multi-compartment model
1005:Higher-dimension models
698:{\displaystyle \sigma }
520:Zero-dimensional models
388:Navier–Stokes equations
4824:Atmospheric dispersion
4339:Research and modelling
4023:Nature-based solutions
3843:Nature-based solutions
3785:Carbon dioxide removal
3702:Fossil fuel divestment
3687:Climate risk insurance
3597:Small island countries
3218:Arctic sea ice decline
2755:Loft, Richard (2020).
2347:10.1002/qj.49708235202
2050:"Syukuro Manabe Facts"
1403:Cite journal requires
1315:Atmospheric reanalysis
1215:(WCRP), hosted by the
1204:
1084:
935:
897:
865:
837:
799:
739:
699:
629:
499:conservation of energy
386:or ocean. It uses the
371:
336:differential equations
238:of the global ocean.
184:differential equations
133:and short-wave (near)
71:
56:differential equations
5289:Mathematical modeling
5233:Biopsychosocial model
4300:Earth's energy budget
4183:Background and theory
4071:Climate crisis (term)
3743:Fossil fuel phase-out
3637:Economics and finance
3602:by individual country
3544:By country and region
3519:Security and conflict
3514:Psychological impacts
3203:Abrupt climate change
3126:Charles David Keeling
2959:By country and region
1434:10.1017/9781108979030
1336:Climateprediction.net
1331:Climate Data Exchange
1200:
1067:
933:
898:
866:
848:, measured to be 0.3.
838:
800:
740:
700:
630:
547:radiative equilibrium
480:Princeton, New Jersey
333:
286:Princeton, New Jersey
157:global climate models
123:change in temperature
80:climate system models
53:
5243:Catastrophe modeling
5089:Scientific modelling
5042:Scientific modelling
4556:Ensemble forecasting
4129:Glasgow Climate Pact
3790:Carbon sequestration
3365:Mass mortality event
2770:10.1029/2020EO147051
2673:on 22 September 2010
2547:on 26 September 2019
2394:Peter Lynch (2006).
2360:John D. Cox (2002).
2154:M.I. Budyko (1969).
1790:on 18 February 2013.
1697:10.1029/2000GL012580
1654:10.1029/2017EO079417
1156:global climate model
1027:Budyko-Sellers model
906:effective emissivity
887:
855:
827:
752:
718:
689:
647:Stefan–Boltzmann law
556:
506:analytical solutions
425:, understanding the
5186:Modular Ocean Model
5047:Computer simulation
4516:Oceanographic model
4268:Climate sensitivity
4043:The Adaptation Fund
3499:Infectious diseases
3406:Social and economic
2614:1996JGR...101.7419X
2481:1975JAtS...32....3M
2339:1956QJRMS..82..123P
2287:1984Natur.308..621S
2205:1969JApMe...8..392S
2113:1980JAtS...37..545W
2026:1967JAtS...24..241M
1840:2006JCli...19.2867J
1736:on 27 February 2009
1689:2001GeoRL..28.1671G
1054:Modular Ocean Model
999:climate sensitivity
844:is Earth's average
423:weather forecasting
165:Earth System Models
84:mathematical models
5279:Data visualization
5263:Input–output model
5176:Hydrological model
5166:Geologic modelling
5032:Mathematical model
4967:Cryospheric models
4910:Chemical transport
3839:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
3811:Forest management
3795:Direct air capture
3760:Sustainable energy
3717:Net zero emissions
3712:Low-carbon economy
3707:Green Climate Fund
3494:Indigenous peoples
3397:Plant biodiversity
3185:Effects and issues
2733:on 18 October 2012
2505:"CAM 3.1 Download"
1848:10.1175/JCLI3720.1
1677:Geophys. Res. Lett
1361:CICE sea ice model
1298:cloud microphysics
1290:radiative transfer
1250:exascale computing
1085:
1025:who worked on the
1023:William D. Sellers
936:
893:
861:
833:
795:
735:
695:
625:
429:, and forecasting
380:mathematical model
372:
200:Atmospheric models
72:
18:Climate box models
5312:
5311:
5191:Wildfire modeling
5171:Groundwater model
5151:Atmospheric model
5055:
5054:
5037:Statistical model
5023:
5022:
5019:
5018:
4579:
4578:
4521:Cryospheric model
4511:Atmospheric model
4457:
4456:
4395:
4394:
4391:
4390:
4330:Radiative forcing
4173:
4172:
4169:
4168:
3993:Adaptive capacity
3878:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3738:Energy transition
3614:
3613:
3610:
3609:
3334:Tropical cyclones
3260:Urban heat island
3174:
3173:
3086:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3047:Carbon accounting
3001:Greenhouse effect
2967:
2966:
2703:on 3 October 2012
2632:10.1029/95JD02169
2509:www.cesm.ucar.edu
2413:978-0-521-85729-1
2377:978-0-471-38108-2
1620:(11): 1609–1614.
1599:978-3-527-41132-0
1443:978-1-108-97903-0
1327:(ARM) (in the US)
1105:ocean circulation
1031:positive feedback
967:relative humidity
916:greenhouse effect
864:{\displaystyle T}
836:{\displaystyle a}
364:relative humidity
278:Boulder, Colorado
216:relative humidity
143:greenhouse effect
41:Atmospheric model
16:(Redirected from
5371:
5364:Climate modeling
5341:
5340:
5329:
5328:
5320:
5304:Visual analytics
5299:Systems thinking
5217:Population model
5082:
5075:
5068:
5059:
4596:
4585:
4497:
4484:
4477:
4470:
4461:
4445:
4444:
4433:
4432:
4421:
4420:
4410:
4409:
4408:
4373:Paleoclimatology
4190:
4179:
3940:Ecological grief
3923:Climate movement
3898:
3884:
3864:Plant-based diet
3755:Renewable energy
3633:
3620:
3455:Economic impacts
3387:Invasive species
3243:Coastal flooding
3193:
3180:
3116:Svante Arrhenius
3092:
3062:from agriculture
3052:Carbon footprint
3037:Greenhouse gases
2986:
2973:
2925:
2910:
2903:
2896:
2887:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2772:
2752:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2738:
2729:. Archived from
2719:
2713:
2712:
2710:
2708:
2699:. Archived from
2689:
2683:
2682:
2680:
2678:
2672:
2666:. Archived from
2665:
2657:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2640:
2634:. Archived from
2625:
2597:
2588:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2563:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2546:
2540:. Archived from
2535:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2420:
2391:
2382:
2381:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2333:(352): 123–154.
2322:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2295:10.1038/308621a0
2281:(5960): 621–24.
2270:
2264:
2263:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2236:(3–4): 213–216.
2225:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2175:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2084:on 30 July 2012.
2080:. Archived from
2071:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2037:
2002:
1993:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1903:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1874:
1865:
1859:
1858:
1856:
1825:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1789:
1782:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1674:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1567:
1565:2060/19810008165
1543:
1534:
1533:
1524:(251): 237–276.
1509:
1500:
1499:
1488:
1482:
1471:
1465:
1464:
1457:
1448:
1447:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1406:
1401:
1399:
1391:
1385:
1376:
1292:on the basis of
1277:Parameterization
1093:chemical species
993:are included.
951:Svante Arrhenius
902:
900:
899:
894:
870:
868:
867:
862:
842:
840:
839:
834:
804:
802:
801:
796:
794:
793:
744:
742:
741:
736:
734:
733:
704:
702:
701:
696:
634:
632:
631:
626:
624:
623:
608:
607:
589:
588:
549:of the Earth is
240:External drivers
173:land use changes
21:
5379:
5378:
5374:
5373:
5372:
5370:
5369:
5368:
5349:
5348:
5347:
5335:
5323:
5315:
5313:
5308:
5267:
5221:
5207:Energy modeling
5195:
5139:
5115:Ecosystem model
5091:
5086:
5056:
5051:
5015:
4978:
4962:
4936:
4905:
4819:
4770:
4712:
4650:
4590:
4589:Specific models
4575:
4571:Parametrization
4502:
4491:
4488:
4458:
4453:
4406:
4404:
4387:
4334:
4325:Orbital forcing
4219:
4184:
4165:
4139:Paris Agreement
4117:
4113:Warming stripes
4052:
4018:Managed retreat
4013:Loss and damage
3974:
3908:Business action
3892:
3870:
3847:
3770:
3764:
3721:
3682:Climate finance
3627:
3606:
3538:
3401:
3377:Extinction risk
3353:Flora and fauna
3348:
3309:Permafrost thaw
3304:Ozone depletion
3233:Extreme weather
3187:
3170:
3097:
3078:
3015:
2980:
2963:
2930:
2919:
2914:
2842:
2837:
2827:
2825:
2817:
2816:
2812:
2802:
2800:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2754:
2753:
2746:
2736:
2734:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2706:
2704:
2691:
2690:
2686:
2676:
2674:
2670:
2663:
2659:
2658:
2654:
2644:
2642:
2641:on 10 July 2010
2638:
2595:
2590:
2589:
2585:
2575:
2573:
2565:
2564:
2560:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2533:
2528:
2527:
2523:
2513:
2511:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2453:
2443:
2441:
2437:(22 May 2008).
2433:
2432:
2428:
2418:
2416:
2414:
2406:. p. 208.
2393:
2392:
2385:
2378:
2359:
2358:
2354:
2320:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2186:
2185:
2181:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2135:
2134:
2130:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2073:
2072:
2068:
2058:
2056:
2048:
2047:
2043:
2006:Manabe, Syukuro
2004:
2003:
1996:
1986:
1984:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1958:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1935:
1933:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1912:
1901:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1883:
1872:
1867:
1866:
1862:
1854:
1834:(12): 2867–81.
1823:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1787:
1780:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1761:
1759:
1754:
1753:
1749:
1739:
1737:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1711:
1672:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1638:
1637:
1633:
1611:
1610:
1606:
1600:
1587:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1545:
1544:
1537:
1511:
1510:
1503:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1480:Wayback Machine
1472:
1468:
1459:
1458:
1451:
1444:
1421:
1420:
1416:
1402:
1392:
1383:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1311:
1306:
1305:
1274:
1266:
1264:Parametrization
1247:
1242:super-computers
1238:
1233:
1209:
1196:
1191:
1190:
1166:
1161:
1135:
1127:
1121:
1062:
1045:
1039:
1007:
959:
928:
885:
884:
880:as of year 2020
853:
852:
825:
824:
785:
750:
749:
725:
716:
715:
687:
686:
615:
599:
580:
554:
553:
543:
522:
489:
484:
483:
327:
319:
308:(LSCE), France.
256:
244:ice-sheet model
161:energy transfer
48:
37:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5377:
5375:
5367:
5366:
5361:
5351:
5350:
5346:
5345:
5343:Global warming
5333:
5310:
5309:
5307:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5294:Systems theory
5291:
5286:
5281:
5275:
5273:
5272:Related topics
5269:
5268:
5266:
5265:
5260:
5258:Economic model
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5229:
5227:
5223:
5222:
5220:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5203:
5201:
5200:Sustainability
5197:
5196:
5194:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5173:
5168:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5147:
5145:
5141:
5140:
5138:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5105:Cellular model
5101:
5099:
5093:
5092:
5087:
5085:
5084:
5077:
5070:
5062:
5053:
5052:
5050:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5028:
5025:
5024:
5021:
5020:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4993:
4990:
4986:
4984:
4980:
4979:
4977:
4976:
4970:
4968:
4964:
4963:
4961:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4944:
4942:
4938:
4937:
4935:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4913:
4911:
4907:
4906:
4904:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4827:
4825:
4821:
4820:
4818:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4778:
4776:
4772:
4771:
4769:
4768:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4752:
4749:
4744:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4720:
4718:
4714:
4713:
4711:
4710:
4707:
4702:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4658:
4656:
4655:Global weather
4652:
4651:
4649:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4602:
4600:
4592:
4591:
4588:
4581:
4580:
4577:
4576:
4574:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4507:
4504:
4503:
4500:
4493:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4486:
4479:
4472:
4464:
4455:
4454:
4452:
4451:
4439:
4427:
4415:
4400:
4397:
4396:
4393:
4392:
4389:
4388:
4386:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4369:
4368:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4342:
4340:
4336:
4335:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4291:
4290:
4280:
4278:Cloud feedback
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4233:
4227:
4225:
4221:
4220:
4218:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4196:
4194:
4186:
4185:
4182:
4175:
4174:
4171:
4170:
4167:
4166:
4164:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4152:
4151:
4146:
4136:
4134:Kyoto Protocol
4131:
4125:
4123:
4119:
4118:
4116:
4115:
4110:
4109:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4088:
4086:Media coverage
4083:
4078:
4076:Climate spiral
4073:
4068:
4062:
4060:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3984:
3982:
3976:
3975:
3973:
3972:
3967:
3965:Public opinion
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3931:
3930:
3920:
3915:
3913:Climate action
3910:
3904:
3902:
3894:
3893:
3887:
3880:
3879:
3876:
3875:
3872:
3871:
3869:
3868:
3867:
3866:
3855:
3853:
3849:
3848:
3846:
3845:
3840:
3834:
3833:
3832:
3827:
3825:REDD and REDD+
3822:
3817:
3809:
3804:
3802:Carbon farming
3799:
3798:
3797:
3792:
3782:
3776:
3774:
3766:
3765:
3763:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3746:
3745:
3735:
3729:
3727:
3723:
3722:
3720:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3663:
3662:
3652:
3647:
3641:
3639:
3629:
3628:
3623:
3616:
3615:
3612:
3611:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3548:
3546:
3540:
3539:
3537:
3536:
3534:Water security
3531:
3529:Water scarcity
3526:
3524:Urban flooding
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3485:
3484:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3463:
3462:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3426:
3425:
3420:
3409:
3407:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3382:Forest dieback
3379:
3374:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3356:
3354:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3319:Sea level rise
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3294:
3292:stratification
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3264:
3263:
3262:
3257:
3247:
3246:
3245:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3199:
3197:
3189:
3188:
3183:
3176:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3095:
3088:
3087:
3084:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3071:
3070:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3057:Carbon leakage
3054:
3049:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3023:
3021:
3017:
3016:
3014:
3013:
3008:
2998:
2996:Climate system
2992:
2990:
2982:
2981:
2976:
2969:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2928:
2921:
2920:
2917:Climate change
2915:
2913:
2912:
2905:
2898:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2878:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2850:
2849:
2841:
2840:External links
2838:
2836:
2835:
2810:
2784:
2744:
2714:
2684:
2652:
2623:10.1.1.453.551
2583:
2558:
2521:
2496:
2462:
2451:
2426:
2412:
2383:
2376:
2363:Storm Watchers
2352:
2308:
2265:
2260:pik-potsdam.de
2247:
2220:
2199:(3): 392–400.
2179:
2166:(5): 611–619.
2146:
2128:
2087:
2066:
2054:nobelprize.org
2041:
2020:(3): 241–259.
1994:
1968:
1943:
1918:
1889:
1860:
1811:
1793:
1769:
1747:
1717:
1660:
1631:
1604:
1598:
1580:
1574:
1535:
1501:
1483:
1466:
1449:
1442:
1414:
1405:|journal=
1370:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1322:
1317:
1310:
1307:
1275:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1245:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1208:
1205:
1195:
1192:
1187:climate change
1164:
1159:
1136:
1128:
1120:
1117:
1080:and reservoir
1061:
1058:
1041:Main article:
1038:
1035:
1019:Mikhail Budyko
1006:
1003:
991:carbon dioxide
982:
981:
974:
958:
955:
953:in year 1896.
927:
924:
911:
910:
892:
881:
860:
849:
832:
817:
816:
813:
806:
805:
792:
788:
784:
781:
778:
775:
772:
769:
766:
763:
760:
757:
732:
728:
723:
712:
711:
694:
683:
675:
667:
664:solar constant
651:
650:
643:
636:
635:
622:
618:
614:
611:
606:
602:
598:
595:
592:
587:
583:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
564:
561:
542:
539:
521:
518:
488:
485:
468:Syukuro Manabe
431:climate change
366:, and surface
328:
320:
318:
315:
310:
309:
270:
267:
255:
252:
248:sea level rise
232:ocean currents
224:oceanic models
218:, and surface
112:climate change
108:climate system
76:climate models
28:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5376:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5356:
5354:
5344:
5339:
5334:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5318:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5276:
5274:
5270:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5253:Crime mapping
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5230:
5228:
5224:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5204:
5202:
5198:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5161:Climate model
5159:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5148:
5146:
5144:Environmental
5142:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5102:
5100:
5098:
5094:
5090:
5083:
5078:
5076:
5071:
5069:
5064:
5063:
5060:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5029:
5026:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4991:
4988:
4987:
4985:
4981:
4975:
4972:
4971:
4969:
4965:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4945:
4943:
4939:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4914:
4912:
4908:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4828:
4826:
4822:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4780:
4779:
4777:
4773:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4721:
4719:
4715:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4659:
4657:
4653:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4586:
4582:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4526:Climate model
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4508:
4505:
4498:
4494:
4485:
4480:
4478:
4473:
4471:
4466:
4465:
4462:
4450:
4449:
4440:
4438:
4437:
4428:
4426:
4425:
4416:
4414:
4413:
4402:
4401:
4398:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4367:
4364:
4363:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4351:Climate model
4349:
4347:
4344:
4343:
4341:
4337:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4289:
4286:
4285:
4284:
4283:Cloud forcing
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4238:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4228:
4226:
4222:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4180:
4176:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4141:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4124:
4120:
4114:
4111:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4093:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4059:
4058:Communication
4055:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4038:Vulnerability
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4008:Flood control
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3985:
3983:
3981:
3977:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3929:
3926:
3925:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3885:
3881:
3865:
3862:
3861:
3860:
3857:
3856:
3854:
3850:
3844:
3841:
3838:
3835:
3831:
3830:reforestation
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3815:afforestation
3813:
3812:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3787:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3777:
3775:
3773:
3767:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3750:Nuclear power
3748:
3744:
3741:
3740:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3728:
3724:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3645:Carbon budget
3643:
3642:
3640:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3621:
3617:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
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3558:
3555:
3553:
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3535:
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3527:
3525:
3522:
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3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3483:
3482:Mental health
3480:
3479:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3424:
3423:United States
3421:
3419:
3416:
3415:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3408:
3404:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3351:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3277:deoxygenation
3275:
3273:
3272:acidification
3270:
3269:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3248:
3244:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3177:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3103:
3100:
3093:
3089:
3075:
3072:
3068:
3067:from wetlands
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3027:Deforestation
3025:
3024:
3022:
3018:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2974:
2970:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
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2933:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2911:
2906:
2904:
2899:
2897:
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2888:
2882:
2879:
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2873:
2871:
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2866:
2863:
2860:
2857:
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2855:
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2844:
2843:
2839:
2824:
2820:
2814:
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2795:
2788:
2785:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2749:
2745:
2732:
2728:
2726:
2718:
2715:
2702:
2698:
2696:
2688:
2685:
2669:
2662:
2656:
2653:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2602:
2594:
2587:
2584:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2543:
2539:
2532:
2525:
2522:
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2500:
2497:
2491:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2455:
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2440:
2436:
2430:
2427:
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2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2390:
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2379:
2373:
2369:
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2364:
2356:
2353:
2348:
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2336:
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2328:
2327:
2319:
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2309:
2304:
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2288:
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2280:
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2257:
2251:
2248:
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2239:
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2231:
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2206:
2202:
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2194:
2190:
2183:
2180:
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2169:
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2161:
2157:
2150:
2147:
2142:
2138:
2132:
2129:
2123:
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2114:
2110:
2107:(3): 545–52.
2106:
2102:
2101:J. Atmos. Sci
2098:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2070:
2067:
2055:
2051:
2045:
2042:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1982:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1957:
1953:
1947:
1944:
1932:
1928:
1922:
1919:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1893:
1890:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1864:
1861:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1822:
1815:
1812:
1807:
1803:
1797:
1794:
1786:
1779:
1773:
1770:
1757:
1751:
1748:
1735:
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1718:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1683:(9): 1671–4.
1682:
1678:
1671:
1664:
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1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1635:
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1575:9780511535857
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1523:
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1493:
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1477:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1462:
1456:
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1450:
1445:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1418:
1415:
1410:
1397:
1390:
1382:
1379:IPCC (2014).
1375:
1372:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1323:
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1318:
1316:
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1291:
1287:
1282:
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1263:
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1243:
1235:
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1228:
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1218:
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1184:
1180:
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1168:
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1126:
1118:
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1106:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1090:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1066:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1050:
1044:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1012:
1004:
1002:
1000:
994:
992:
988:
979:
975:
972:
971:
970:
968:
963:
956:
954:
952:
948:
947:heat transfer
943:
941:
932:
925:
923:
919:
917:
907:
903:
890:
882:
879:
875:
871:
858:
850:
847:
843:
830:
822:
821:
820:
814:
811:
810:
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790:
786:
782:
779:
776:
773:
770:
764:
761:
758:
748:
747:
746:
730:
726:
721:
714:The constant
709:
705:
692:
684:
681:
680:
676:
673:
672:
668:
665:
661:
660:
656:
655:
654:
648:
644:
641:
640:
639:
620:
616:
612:
609:
604:
600:
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593:
590:
585:
581:
577:
574:
568:
565:
562:
552:
551:
550:
548:
540:
538:
535:
534:dimensionless
531:
527:
526:pale blue dot
519:
517:
515:
511:
507:
502:
500:
497:applying the
495:
486:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
463:
458:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
434:
432:
428:
424:
419:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
392:thermodynamic
389:
385:
381:
377:
369:
365:
361:
357:
356:heat transfer
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
332:
325:
316:
314:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
268:
265:
261:
260:
259:
253:
251:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
208:heat transfer
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
180:
178:
174:
170:
167:include also
166:
162:
158:
155:
151:
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
115:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
69:
65:
61:
57:
52:
46:
45:Oceanic model
42:
35:
27:
19:
5160:
4983:Discontinued
4856:DISPERSION21
4525:
4446:
4434:
4422:
4403:
4350:
4236:Carbon cycle
4193:Measurements
3888:Society and
3772:carbon sinks
3677:Climate debt
3667:Carbon price
3489:Human rights
3324:Season creep
3282:heat content
3208:Anoxic event
3121:James Hansen
2852:
2851:
2826:. Retrieved
2822:
2813:
2801:. Retrieved
2797:
2787:
2760:
2735:. Retrieved
2731:the original
2724:
2717:
2705:. Retrieved
2701:the original
2694:
2687:
2675:. Retrieved
2668:the original
2655:
2643:. Retrieved
2636:the original
2608:(D3): 7419.
2605:
2599:
2586:
2574:. Retrieved
2561:
2549:. Retrieved
2542:the original
2524:
2512:. Retrieved
2508:
2499:
2472:
2468:
2454:
2442:. Retrieved
2429:
2417:. Retrieved
2399:
2362:
2355:
2330:
2324:
2311:
2278:
2274:
2268:
2259:
2250:
2233:
2229:
2223:
2196:
2192:
2182:
2163:
2159:
2149:
2140:
2131:
2104:
2100:
2090:
2082:the original
2077:
2069:
2057:. Retrieved
2053:
2044:
2017:
2013:
1985:. Retrieved
1971:
1959:. Retrieved
1946:
1934:. Retrieved
1921:
1905:
1892:
1876:
1863:
1831:
1827:
1814:
1805:
1796:
1785:the original
1772:
1760:. Retrieved
1750:
1738:. Retrieved
1734:the original
1729:
1720:
1680:
1676:
1663:
1644:
1634:
1617:
1613:
1607:
1589:
1583:
1547:
1521:
1517:
1495:
1486:
1469:
1424:
1417:
1396:cite journal
1387:
1374:
1285:
1258:
1239:
1221:
1210:
1201:
1197:
1153:
1137:
1109:carbon cycle
1102:
1100:techniques.
1098:
1086:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1046:
1026:
1016:
1008:
995:
983:
960:
944:
937:
920:
912:
883:
851:
823:
818:
807:
713:
685:
677:
669:
657:
652:
637:
544:
523:
514:carbon cycle
503:
494:paleoclimate
490:
462:carbon cycle
435:
420:
418:components.
416:land-surface
373:
344:fluid motion
311:
257:
226:to simulate
192:fluid motion
181:
150:radiant heat
147:
116:
100:land surface
79:
75:
73:
64:fluid motion
26:
4662:IFS (ECMWF)
4501:Model types
4263:Carbon sink
4241:atmospheric
4106:video games
3780:Blue carbon
3413:Agriculture
3392:Marine life
3339:Water cycle
3297:temperature
3032:Fossil fuel
2475:(3): 3–15.
2059:14 November
1302:air quality
978:troposphere
962:Water vapor
872:is Earth's
510:water cycle
400:latent heat
300:, UK), the
280:, US), the
264:climatology
171:as well as
5353:Categories
5097:Biological
4886:PUFF-PLUME
4846:AUSTAL2000
4705:GME / ICON
4672:GEM / GDPS
4621:GFDL CM2.X
4295:Cryosphere
4256:permafrost
4028:Resilience
3980:Adaptation
3955:Litigation
3945:Governance
3890:adaptation
3672:Carbon tax
3625:Mitigation
3562:Antarctica
3450:Disability
2828:8 December
2803:8 December
2707:18 January
2576:6 February
2419:6 February
2141:shodor.org
1828:J. Climate
1367:References
1286:parameters
1123:See also:
1089:reservoirs
1060:Box models
528:viewed by
478:(GFDL) in
472:Kirk Bryan
450:GFDL CM2.X
384:atmosphere
284:(GFDL, in
276:(NCAR, in
202:calculate
177:ecosystems
129:, chiefly
92:atmosphere
74:Numerical
4927:GEOS-Chem
4310:Feedbacks
4081:Education
3582:Caribbean
3577:Australia
3504:Migration
3467:Fisheries
3418:Livestock
3344:Wildfires
3250:Heat wave
2779:2324-9250
2737:3 October
2677:29 August
2645:6 January
2618:CiteSeerX
2551:3 January
2444:8 January
1987:2 October
1961:2 October
1936:2 October
891:ϵ
783:σ
780:ϵ
762:−
722:π
693:σ
613:σ
610:ϵ
597:π
578:π
566:−
530:Voyager 1
396:radiation
368:hydrology
360:radiation
348:chemistry
220:hydrology
212:radiation
196:chemistry
68:chemistry
4896:SAFE AIR
4729:RR / RAP
4436:Glossary
4424:Category
4246:biologic
3960:Politics
3852:Personal
3557:Americas
3430:Children
3196:Physical
2989:Overview
2929:Overview
2256:"emics1"
2078:nasa.gov
1910:Archived
1881:Archived
1852:Archived
1806:ucsb.edu
1709:Archived
1705:34790317
1496:noaa.gov
1476:Archived
1309:See also
1189:studies.
1107:and the
404:simulate
266:section.
169:land use
139:infrared
135:infrared
5317:Portals
4932:CHIMERE
4891:RIMPUFF
4871:MERCURE
4851:CALPUFF
4701:JMA-GSM
4616:HadGEM1
4599:Climate
4251:oceanic
4101:fiction
3950:Justice
3901:Society
3509:Poverty
3228:Drought
3096:History
3020:Sources
2823:LabNews
2798:HPCwire
2763:(101).
2610:Bibcode
2514:25 June
2477:Bibcode
2335:Bibcode
2303:4312683
2283:Bibcode
2201:Bibcode
2109:Bibcode
2022:Bibcode
1836:Bibcode
1740:1 March
1685:Bibcode
1281:weather
1222:A 2012
1119:History
1076:, sink
1052:MOM-3 (
1011:zonally
909:angles.
904:is the
706:is the
662:is the
474:at the
427:climate
412:sea ice
340:physics
288:, US),
188:physics
154:sea ice
131:visible
88:climate
60:physics
5331:Energy
5226:Social
5006:NOGAPS
4922:MOZART
4841:ATSTEP
4836:AERMOD
4815:ADCIRC
4805:MITgcm
4747:HIRLAM
4709:ARPEGE
4692:NAVGEM
4611:HadCM3
4231:Albedo
4224:Theory
3935:Denial
3726:Energy
3587:Europe
3567:Arctic
3552:Africa
3477:Health
3472:Gender
3435:Cities
3360:Biomes
3267:Oceans
3255:Marine
2978:Causes
2861:(CCSM)
2777:
2620:
2410:
2374:
2301:
2275:Nature
2160:Tellus
1762:6 July
1758:. NOAA
1703:
1647:(98).
1596:
1572:
1440:
1386:: 58.
1296:, and
1231:Issues
1183:HadCM3
1070:fluxes
846:albedo
808:where
638:where
442:HadCM3
346:, and
298:Exeter
292:, the
194:, and
119:energy
96:oceans
82:) are
66:, and
4953:CLASS
4948:JULES
4917:CLaMS
4901:SILAM
4810:FESOM
4800:FVCOM
4781:HyCOM
4767:HRDPS
4743:RAQMS
4687:NAEFS
4646:ECHAM
4641:CFSv2
4448:Index
4210:Proxy
3970:Women
3445:Crime
3372:Birds
3238:Flood
2671:(PDF)
2664:(PDF)
2639:(PDF)
2596:(PDF)
2545:(PDF)
2534:(PDF)
2321:(PDF)
2299:S2CID
1913:(PDF)
1902:(PDF)
1884:(PDF)
1873:(PDF)
1855:(PDF)
1824:(PDF)
1788:(PDF)
1781:(PDF)
1712:(PDF)
1701:S2CID
1673:(PDF)
1384:(PDF)
1279:in a
987:trace
446:EdGCM
352:winds
204:winds
4974:CICE
4958:ISBA
4881:OSPM
4876:NAME
4866:MEMO
4861:ISC3
4831:ADMS
4785:ROMS
4763:RGEM
4758:HWRF
4751:LAPS
4734:RAMS
4682:MPAS
4636:CESM
4631:CCSM
4626:CGCM
4606:IGCM
4033:Risk
3572:Asia
3164:2024
3159:2023
3154:2022
3149:2021
3144:2020
3139:2019
2830:2023
2805:2023
2775:ISSN
2739:2012
2709:2021
2679:2010
2647:2011
2578:2018
2553:2011
2516:2019
2446:2011
2421:2018
2408:ISBN
2372:ISBN
2061:2023
1989:2022
1963:2022
1938:2022
1764:2023
1742:2010
1594:ISBN
1570:ISBN
1438:ISBN
1409:help
1211:The
1021:and
470:and
454:NOAA
414:and
408:OGCM
296:(in
254:Uses
102:and
78:(or
43:and
5011:RUC
5001:NGM
4996:MM5
4992:LFM
4989:Eta
4795:MOM
4790:POM
4754:RPM
4739:WRF
4724:NAM
4677:GFS
4667:FIM
4096:art
2765:doi
2761:Eos
2628:doi
2606:101
2485:doi
2368:210
2343:doi
2291:doi
2279:308
2238:doi
2209:doi
2168:doi
2117:doi
2030:doi
1844:doi
1693:doi
1649:doi
1645:Eos
1622:doi
1560:hdl
1552:doi
1526:doi
1430:doi
1181:'s
1151:.
1082:(M)
1078:(S)
1074:(Q)
512:or
104:ice
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