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2525:) ago, and 542 million years ago. The Precambrian can be split into two eons, the Archean and the Proterozoic, which can be further subdivided into eras. The reconstruction of the Precambrian climate is difficult for various reasons including the low number of reliable indicators and a, generally, not well-preserved or extensive fossil record (especially when compared to the Phanerozoic eon). Despite these issues, there is evidence for a number of major climate events throughout the history of the Precambrian:
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709:. It was only in the 20th century that paleoclimatology became a unified scientific field. Before, different aspects of Earth's climate history were studied by a variety of disciplines. At the end of the 20th century, the empirical research into Earth's ancient climates started to be combined with computer models of increasing complexity. A new objective also developed in this period: finding ancient analog climates that could provide information about current
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887:(EPICA), has drilled an ice core in Dome C on the East Antarctic ice sheet and retrieved ice from roughly 800,000 years ago. The international ice core community has, under the auspices of International Partnerships in Ice Core Sciences (IPICS), defined a priority project to obtain the oldest possible ice core record from Antarctica, an ice core record reaching back to or towards 1.5 million years ago.
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2806:, in response to the sum of forcings. Analyzing the sum of these forcings contributes to the ability of scientists to make broad conclusive estimates on the Earth’s climate system. These estimates include the evidence for systems such as long term climate variability (eccentricity, obliquity precession), feedback mechanisms (Ice-Albedo Effect), and anthropogenic influence.
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1047:. Evidence of these past climates to be studied can be found in the landforms they leave behind. Examples of these landforms are those such as glacial landforms (moraines, striations), desert features (dunes, desert pavements), and coastal landforms (marine terraces, beach ridges). Climatic geomorphology is of limited use to study recent (
2507:, separated by transitions that include changing greenhouse gas levels and polar ice sheets volumes. They integrated data of various sources. The warmest climate state since the time of the dinosaur extinction, "Hothouse", endured from 56 Mya to 47 Mya and was ~14 °C warmer than average modern temperatures.
2396:. Until then, any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron. Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reducing materials. That point was a shift from a
2339:
Water-related sediments have been found dating from as early as 3.8 billion years ago. About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen was the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere". An influence of life has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere because hints of early
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Coral “rings'' share similar evidence of growth to that of trees, and thus can be dated in similar ways. A primary difference is their environments and the conditions within those that they respond to. Examples of these conditions for coral include water temperature, freshwater influx, changes in pH,
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has been observed in the ice cores and can be used to understand which plants were present as the layer formed. Pollen is produced in abundance and its distribution is typically well understood. A pollen count for a specific layer can be produced by observing the total amount of pollen categorized by
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The Direct
Quantitative Measurements method is the most direct approach to understand the change in a climate. Comparisons between recent data to older data allows a researcher to gain a basic understanding of weather and climate changes within an area. There is a disadvantage to this method. Data of
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One example of a way this can be applied to study climatology is analyzing how the varying concentrations of CO2 affect the overall climate. This is done by using various proxies to estimate past greenhouse gas concentrations and compare those to that of the present day. Researchers are then able to
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into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen
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Climatic information can be obtained through an understanding of changes in tree growth. Generally, trees respond to changes in climatic variables by speeding up or slowing down growth, which in turn is generally reflected by a greater or lesser thickness in growth rings. Different species however,
2577:
Major drivers for the preindustrial ages have been variations of the Sun, volcanic ashes and exhalations, relative movements of the Earth towards the Sun, and tectonically induced effects as for major sea currents, watersheds, and ocean oscillations. In the early
Phanerozoic, increased atmospheric
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levels fell rapidly cooling the atmosphere causing the
Huronian glaciation. For about 1 Ga after the glaciation (2-0.8 Ga ago), the Earth likely experienced warmer temperatures indicated by microfossils of photosynthetic eukaryotes, and oxygen levels between 5 and 18% of the Earth's current oxygen
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The difference in global mean temperatures between a fully glacial Earth and an ice free Earth is estimated at 10 °C, though far larger changes would be observed at high latitudes and smaller ones at low latitudes. One requirement for the development of large scale ice sheets seems to be the
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Older intact wood that has escaped decay can extend the time covered by the record by matching the ring depth changes to contemporary specimens. By using that method, some areas have tree-ring records dating back a few thousand years. Older wood not connected to a contemporary record can be dated
2708:
Note in the graphic on the right the strong 120,000-year periodicity of the cycles, and the striking asymmetry of the curves. This asymmetry is believed to result from complex interactions of feedback mechanisms. It has been observed that ice ages deepen by progressive steps, but the recovery to
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Westerhold, Thomas; Marwan, Norbert; Drury, Anna Joy; Liebrand, Diederik; Agnini, Claudia; Anagnostou, Eleni; Barnet, James S. K.; Bohaty, Steven M.; Vleeschouwer, David De; Florindo, Fabio; Frederichs, Thomas; Hodell, David A.; Holbourn, Ann E.; Kroon, Dick; Lauretano, Vittoria; Littler, Kate;
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The differences in thickness displayed in the growth rings in trees can often indicate the quality of conditions in the environment, and the fitness of the tree species evaluated. Different species of trees will display different growth responses to the changes in the climate. An evaluation of
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is contained in some layers, and can be used to establish the time of the layer's formation. Volcanic events distribute ash with a unique set of properties (shape and color of particles, chemical signature). Establishing the ash's source will give a time period to associate with the layer of
778:. This is due to the millions of years of disruption experienced by the rock formations, such as pressure, tectonic activity, and fluid flowing. These factors often result in a lack of quality or quantity of data, which causes resolution and confidence in the data decrease over time.
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type (shape) in a controlled sample of that layer. Changes in plant frequency over time can be plotted through statistical analysis of pollen counts in the core. Knowing which plants were present leads to an understanding of precipitation and temperature, and types of fauna present.
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Specific techniques used to make inferences on ancient climate conditions are the use of lake sediment cores and speleothems. These utilize an analysis of sediment layers and rock growth formations respectively, amongst element-dating methods utilizing oxygen, carbon and uranium.
902:
respond to changes in climatic variables in different ways. A tree-ring record is established by compiling information from many living trees in a specific area. This is done by comparing the number, thickness, ring boundaries, and pattern matching of tree growth rings.
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can also shape long-term climate evolution. However, the presence or absence of land masses at the poles is not sufficient to guarantee glaciations or exclude polar ice caps. Evidence exists of past warm periods in Earth's climate when polar land masses similar to
697:
could only be explained by a once warmer climate, which he thought could be explained by a shift in Earth's axis. Fossils were, at that time, often explained as a consequence of a biblical flood. Systematic observations of sunspots started by amateur astronomer
836:
becomes encased in tiny bubbles as the snow is compressed into ice in the glacier under the weight of later years' snow. The trapped air has proven a tremendously valuable source for direct measurement of the composition of air from the time the ice was
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carbon dioxide concentrations have been linked to driving or amplifying increased global temperatures. Royer et al. 2004 found a climate sensitivity for the rest of the
Phanerozoic which was calculated to be similar to today's modern range of values.
796:
the climate only started being recorded in the mid-1800s. This means that researchers can only utilize 150 years of data. That is not helpful when trying to map the climate of an area 10,000 years ago. This is where more complex methods can be used.
1084:. When plants then use this carbon to grow, this isotope is not replenished anymore and starts decaying. The proportion of 'normal' carbon and Carbon-14 gives information of how long the plant material has not been in contact with the atmosphere.
1071:
uses the properties of radioactive elements in proxies. In older material, more of the radioactive material will have decayed and the proportion of different elements will be different from newer proxies. One example of radiometric dating is
2802:, and the sum of these processes from Earth's spheres is what affects the climate. Greenhouse gasses act as the internal forcing of the climate system. Particular interests in climate science and paleoclimatology focus on the study of Earth
996:
going back billions of years. The division of Earth history into separate periods is largely based on visible changes in sedimentary rock layers that demarcate major changes in conditions. Often, they include major shifts in climate.
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Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions, and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land
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Superimposed on the long-term evolution between hot and cold climates have been many short-term fluctuations in climate similar to, and sometimes more severe than, the varying glacial and interglacial states of the present
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influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago, during the
860:
isotope. The ratio of O-18 to O-16 will be higher as temperature increases but it also depends on factors such as water salinity and the volume of water locked up in ice sheets. Various cycles in isotope ratios have been
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multiple trees within the same species, along with one of trees in different species, will allow for a more accurate analysis of the changing variables within the climate and how they affected the surrounding species.
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Ice core data for the past 800,000 years (x-axis values represent "age before 1950", so today's date is on the left side of the graph and older time on the right). Blue curve is temperature, red curve is atmospheric
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life forms have been dated to as early as 3.5 to 4.3 billion years ago. The fact that it is not perfectly in line with the 30% lower solar radiance (compared to today) of the early Sun has been described as the "
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Sea floor core sample labelled to identify the exact spot on the sea floor where the sample was taken. Sediments from nearby locations can show significant differences in chemical and biological composition.
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has scientists working on determining how old certain proxies are. For recent proxy archives of tree rings and corals the individual year rings can be counted, and an exact year can be determined.
763:, or something else) and how long ago the climate of interest occurred. For instance, the deep marine record, the source of most isotopic data, exists only on oceanic plates, which are eventually
856:) in ice layers represent changes in average ocean surface temperature. Water molecules containing the heavier O-18 evaporate at a higher temperature than water molecules containing the normal
705:
The scientific study of paleoclimatology began to take shape in the early 19th century, when discoveries about glaciations and natural changes in Earth's past climate helped to understand the
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dynamics and continental positions (and linked vegetation changes) have been important factors in the long term evolution of the Earth's climate. There is also a close correlation between CO
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generally with radiocarbon techniques. A tree-ring record can be used to produce information regarding precipitation, temperature, hydrology, and fire corresponding to a particular area.
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red algae provides a useful proxy of the combined sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity at high latitudes and the tropics, where many traditional techniques are limited.
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LĂĽthi, Dieter; Le Floch, Martine; Bereiter, Bernhard; Blunier, Thomas; Barnola, Jean-Marc; Siegenthaler, Urs; Raynaud, Dominique; Jouzel, Jean; Fischer, Hubertus (15 May 2008).
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Layering can be observed because of seasonal pauses in ice accumulation and can be used to establish chronology, associating specific depths of the core with ranges of time.
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Paleoclimatologists employ a wide variety of techniques to deduce ancient climates. The techniques used depend on which variable has to be reconstructed (this could be
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in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which is high enough for rapid development of animals.
3309:"Page 1 1 International Partnerships in Ice Core Sciences (IPICS) The oldest ice core: A 1.5 million year record of climate and greenhouse gases from Antarctica"
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and wave disturbances. From there, specialized equipment, such as the
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) instrument, can be used to derive the
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Lambert, F.; Delmonte, B.; Petit, J. R.; Bigler, M.; Kaufmann, P. R.; Hutterli, M. A.; Stocker, T. F.; Ruth, U.; Steffensen, J. P. (3 April 2008).
3744:
Lourens, Lucas J.; Lyle, Mitchell; Pälike, Heiko; Röhl, Ursula; Tian, Jun; Wilkens, Roy H.; Wilson, Paul A.; Zachos, James C. (11 September 2020).
3419:
Cobb, K.; Charles, C. D.; Cheng, H; Edwards, R. L. (2003). "El Nino/Southern
Oscillation and tropical Pacific climate during the past millennium".
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The scientific field of paleoclimatology came to maturity in the 20th century. Notable periods studied by paleoclimatologists include the frequent
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6889:
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Cin-Ty Aeolus Lee; Douglas M. Morton; Mark G. Little; Ronald
Kistler; Ulyana N. Horodyskyj; William P. Leeman; Arnaud Agranier (28 January 2008).
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Jouzel, J.; Masson-Delmotte, V.; Cattani, O.; Dreyfus, G.; Falourd, S.; Hoffmann, G.; Minster, B.; Nouet, J.; Barnola, J. M. (10 August 2007).
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Goddéris, Yves; Ramstein, Gilles; Le Hir, Guillaume (2021), Ramstein, Gilles; Landais, Amaëlle; Bouttes, Nathaelle; Sepulchre, Pierre (eds.),
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Goddéris, Yves; Ramstein, Gilles; Le Hir, Guillaume (2021), Ramstein, Gilles; Landais, Amaëlle; Bouttes, Nathaelle; Sepulchre, Pierre (eds.),
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Goddéris, Yves; Ramstein, Gilles; Le Hir, Guillaume (2021), Ramstein, Gilles; Landais, Amaëlle; Bouttes, Nathaelle; Sepulchre, Pierre (eds.),
3250:
Jouzel, Jean; Masson-Delmotte, V.; Cattani, O.; Dreyfus, G.; Falourd, S.; Hoffmann, G.; Minster, B.; Nouet, J.; et al. (10 August 2007).
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Eine kurze
Geschichte des Klimas. Von der Entstehung der Erde bis heute, (A short history of climate, From the evolution of earth till today)
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647:. Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation, specifically the impact of climate on
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Halfar, J.; Steneck, R.S.; Joachimski, M.; Kronz, A.; Wanamaker, A.D. (2008). "Coralline red algae as high-resolution climate recorders".
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The graph on the left shows the temperature change over the past 12,000 years, from various sources; the thick black curve is an average.
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showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of the
Precambrian. The following time span was the
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to infer ancient climates. Being often concerned about past climates climatic geomorphology is considered sometimes to be a theme of
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of incoming and outgoing energy, the Earth either warms up or cools down. Earth radiative balance originates from changes in solar
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Douwe G. Van Der Meer; Richard E. Zeebe; Douwe J. J. van
Hinsbergen; Appy Sluijs; Wim Spakman; Trond H. Torsvik (February 2014).
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1970:
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determine Earth distance and position to the Sun. The solar insolation is the total amount of solar radiation received by Earth.
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which demonstrate the appearance of photosynthetic organisms. Due to the high levels of oxygen in the atmosphere from the GOE,
581:, the reconstruction of ancient climate is important to understand natural variation and the evolution of the current climate.
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Frieling, Joost; Svensen, Henrik H.; Planke, Sverre; Cramwinckel, Margot J.; Selnes, Haavard; Sluijs, Appy (25 October 2016).
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Knowledge of precise climatic events decreases as the record goes back in time, but some notable climate events are known:
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Human activities causing anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions leading to global warming and associated climate changes.
2547:'. Snowball Earth is supported by different indicators such as, glacial deposits, significant continental erosion called
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The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of 35% during the
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Came, Rosemarie E.; Eiler, John M.; Veizer, Jan; Azmy, Karem; Brand, Uwe; Weidman, Christopher R (September 2007).
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concentrations, and brown curve is dust fluxes. Note length of glacial-interglacial cycles averages ~100,000 years.
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level. At the end of the Proterozoic, there is evidence of global glaciation events of varying severity causing a '
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4869:(1 July 2012). "Geobiological constraints on Earth system sensitivity to CO2 during the Cretaceous and Cenozoic".
628:. Combined with techniques to date the proxies, the paleoclimate records are used to determine the past states of
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Sediments, sometimes lithified to form rock, may contain remnants of preserved vegetation, animals, plankton, or
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Caldeira, Ken (18 June 1992). "Enhanced Cenozoic chemical weathering and the subduction of pelagic carbonate".
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proportions) was very much in line with what is found today, suggesting that the fundamental features of the
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period, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: plants
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2336:. A major part of carbon dioxide emissions were soon dissolved in water and built up carbonate sediments.
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3746:"An astronomically dated record of Earth's climate and its predictability over the last 66 million years"
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arrangement of continental land masses at or near the poles. The constant rearrangement of continents by
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2766:. Climate change may be due to internal processes in Earth sphere's and/or following external forcings.
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3524:"Methods and future directions for paleoclimatology in the Maya Lowlands. Global and Planetary Change"
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The geological record, however, shows a continually relatively warm surface during the complete early
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2467:, is the first known glaciation in Earth's history, and lasted from 2400 to 2100 million years ago.
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Changes in the layering thickness can be used to determine changes in precipitation or temperature.
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have yielded data going back several hundred thousand years, over 800,000 years in the case of the
577:, when no direct measurement data were available. As instrumental records only span a tiny part of
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Large asteroids that have cataclysmic impacts on Earth’s climate are considered external forcings.
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goes along with an increase of subduction and mid-ocean ridge volcanism due to the breakup of the
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3331:"A noodle, hockey stick, and spaghetti plate: a perspective on high-resolution paleoclimatology"
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Drummond, Carl N. & Wilkinson, Bruce H. (2006). "Interannual Variability in Climate Data".
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Fairbridge, Rhodes (31 October 2008). "history of paleoclimatology". In Gornitz, Vivien (ed.).
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of Earth with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late
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4468:"Centennial mineral dust variability in high-resolution ice core data from Dome C, Antarctica"
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in the early 19th century, starting a discussion of the Sun's influence on Earth's climate.
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1055:) large climate changes since there are seldom discernible in the geomorphological record.
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5647:
5621:
5568:
5319:
4930:
Royer, Dana L. (1 December 2006). "CO2-forced climate thresholds during the Phanerozoic".
4343:"High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650,000–800,000 years before present"
3968:, Frontiers in Earth Sciences, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 343–358,
3876:, Frontiers in Earth Sciences, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 343–358,
3833:, Frontiers in Earth Sciences, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 343–358,
2945:
2866:
2721:
2583:
2384:
2269:
2091:
1592:
1024:
750:
741:
585:
401:
282:
141:
83:
3745:
2355:
eon, an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently from photosynthesizing
2304:. As the solar nebula dissipated, the gases would have escaped, partly driven off by the
5208:
4943:
4882:
4801:
4742:
4695:
4483:
4426:
4361:
4295:
4225:
4166:
4125:
4062:
3928:
3764:
3432:
3389:
3346:
3270:
2978: – Map of continents and mountain ranges in the past based on plate reconstructions
7528:
7330:
7186:
7128:
7123:
6965:
6854:
6586:
6581:
6576:
6424:
6361:
6099:
6079:
6038:
5959:
5892:
5840:
5774:
5736:
5731:
5683:
5563:
5306:
4982:
4866:
4820:
4785:
4761:
4726:
4252:
4209:
4185:
4150:
3670:
3608:
3583:
3063:
3038:
2963:
2779:
2727:
2610:
2551:, and sedimentary rocks called cap carbonates that form after a deglaciation episode.
2544:
2521:
The Precambrian took place between the time when Earth first formed 4.6 billion years (
2424:
2321:
1211:
1127:
710:
652:
636:
597:
466:
451:
426:
345:
93:
5113:. Oxford monographs on geology and geophysics. Vol. 18. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3498:
2660:
7550:
7403:
7335:
7060:
6882:
6867:
6802:
6697:
5871:
5652:
5588:
5537:
5361:
5356:
5224:
5089:
5068:
5060:
4900:
4342:
4276:
3804:
3675:
3471:
3405:
3251:
2529:, which started around 2.3 Ga ago (the beginning of the Proterozoic) is indicated by
2420:
2413:
2368:
2356:
2172:
1187:
1064:
760:
674:
640:
621:
589:
471:
456:
446:
131:
4916:
4711:
4327:
3937:
3912:
3531:
3294:
2942: – Study of astronomically forced climate cycles within sedimentary successions
729:
project, showing Earth's average surface temperature over the past 500 million years
7523:
7288:
7085:
6729:
6719:
6366:
6250:
6163:
5887:
5754:
5678:
5611:
5606:
5573:
5519:
5333:
5328:
5302:
5064:
4843:
4411:"Dust-climate couplings over the past 800,000 years from the EPICA Dome C ice core"
4395:
4086:
3456:
2909:
2870:
2372:
2364:
2273:
2050:
1788:
1155:
945:
875:
690:
481:
441:
431:
121:
78:
63:
35:
4277:"Orbital and Millennial Antarctic Climate Variability over the Past 800,000 Years"
3523:
3252:"Orbital and Millennial Antarctic Climate Variability over the Past 800,000 Years"
918:
On a longer time scale, geologists must refer to the sedimentary record for data.
5134:
3973:
3881:
3838:
3719:"High-fidelity record of Earth's climate history puts current changes in context"
3706:
2857:
On timescales of millions of years, the uplift of mountain ranges and subsequent
7315:
6832:
6824:
6074:
5835:
5701:
5657:
5642:
5311:
5297:
3599:
2799:
2795:
2572:
2516:
2409:
1734:
1696:
756:
678:
436:
151:
68:
3961:
3869:
3826:
2892:
from the atmosphere and reducing the radiative forcing. The opposite effect is
2770:
assess their role in progression of climate change throughout Earth’s history.
2701:
for the past 2.2–2.1 million years (starting before the Quaternary in the late
992:
can be identified. Scientists can get a grasp of long-term climate by studying
17:
7347:
6724:
6351:
5815:
5790:
5769:
5746:
5673:
5578:
5366:
5346:
5341:
5130:(Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit). 1924, Wladimir Köppen, Alfred Wegener
4951:
4847:
4466:
Lambert, F.; Bigler, M.; Steffensen, J. P.; Hutterli, M.; Fischer, H. (2012).
2905:
2862:
2858:
2791:
2783:
2755:
2750:, in units of watts per square meter to the Earth's surface. Dependent on the
2747:
2682:
2603:
2588:
2522:
2305:
2070:
1077:
1048:
923:
869:
821:
816:
provide much data in paleoclimatology. Ice-coring projects in the ice caps of
813:
775:
764:
733:
486:
355:
4444:
4379:
4311:
4243:
3946:
3788:
3362:
965:
record reflects a range of factors, which are often difficult to disentangle.
6292:
5861:
5716:
5583:
5375:
5371:
5240:
4810:
4751:
4303:
4234:
4175:
3913:"The Precambrian continental record: A window into early Earth environments"
3772:
3278:
2919:
2893:
2787:
2592:
2564:
2530:
2401:
2333:
2325:
1580:
1520:
1171:
1081:
985:
930:
857:
846:
817:
613:
609:
496:
406:
322:
4908:
4829:
4770:
4452:
4387:
4319:
4261:
4194:
4078:
3911:
Cosgrove, Grace I. E.; Colombera, Luca; Mountney, Nigel P. (1 March 2024).
3796:
3657:
3617:
3448:
3286:
3072:
3054:
4492:
4467:
4210:"Thermogenic methane release as a cause for the long duration of the PETM"
5337:
3780:
3192:"Leading Scientists Convene to Chart 500M Years of Global Climate Change"
2975:
2948: – Ancient atmosphere, particularly of Earth, in the geological past
2881:
2763:
2731:
2599:
2317:
2277:
2152:
1601:
1583:
1052:
809:
605:
601:
4435:
4410:
4370:
4100:
Royer, Dana L.; Berner, Robert A.; Montañez, Isabel P.; Tabor, Neil J.;
4070:
3440:
2501:
record of variations in Earth's climate during the past 66 million years
1080:
constantly convert nitrogen into a specific radioactive carbon isotope,
6270:
5693:
5480:
5351:
4607:
Dynamical Paleoclimatology: Generalized Theory of Global Climate Change
3219:
Dynamical Paleoclimatology: Generalized Theory of Global Climate Change
2702:
2698:
2689:
List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years
2618:
2567:
ratios over the last 500 million years, indicating environmental change
2534:
2352:
2301:
2297:
2285:
2281:
1668:
1635:
1020:
959:
952:
941:
850:
805:
570:
5136:
The climates of the geological past – Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit
4151:"Plate tectonic controls on atmospheric CO2 levels since the Triassic"
3397:
3329:
Frank, David; Esper, Jan; Zorita, Eduardo; Wilson, Rob (14 May 2010).
7283:
5251:
4703:
2607:
2436:
2428:
2289:
1645:
1617:
1175:
864:
769:
694:
58:
5001:
Quaternary paleoclimatology: methods of paleoclimatic reconstruction
4727:"Regulating continent growth and composition by chemical weathering"
2367:
fossils from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (
5216:
3354:
951:
Isotopic ratios can provide further information. Specifically, the
6280:
3489:
Gutiérrez, Mateo, ed. (2005). "Chapter 1 Climatic geomorphology".
2930:
has a strong control over global temperatures in Earth's history.
2916:
10,000 times faster than natural processes have done in the past.
2672:
2659:
2495:
is the current glaciation period and began 2.58 million years ago.
2447:
2397:
2293:
2197:
1552:
968:
958:
record responds to changes in temperature and ice volume, and the
937:
740:
732:
720:
617:
5928:
3708:
Out of Thin Air: Dinosaurs, Birds, and Earth's Ancient Atmosphere
3522:
Douglas, Peter; Brenner, Mark; Curtis, Jason (27 February 2016).
2636:
A similar, single event of induced severe climate change after a
3168:
2819:
1626:
989:
833:
745:
The oxygen content in the atmosphere over the last billion years
7234:
6939:
6675:
6225:
6137:
6018:
5970:
5932:
5453:
5255:
4786:"Plate tectonic controls on Atmospheric CO2 since the Triassic"
2842:
Human changes of the composition of the atmosphere or land use.
2234:
2193:
1228:
7197:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
3039:"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time"
5073:. The Bio-origins series. New Haven: Yale University Press.
5070:
Origins of sex: three billion years of genetic recombination
5020:
Paleoclimates: understanding climate change past and present
3014:
Paleoclimatology: Reconstructing Climates of the Quaternary
1119:(~2400 Mya Earth completely covered in ice probably due to
933:
may yield information about their temperature of formation.
5449:
984:
On a longer time scale, the rock record may show signs of
774:
old. Older sediments are also more prone to corruption by
7373:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
4658:
Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments
4566:
Paleoclimatology: From Snowball Earth to the Anthropocene
3548:(2004). "Climatic geomorphology". In Goudie, A.S. (ed.).
3105:
Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments
2880:, by the reaction of minerals with chemicals (especially
2499:
In 2020 scientists published a continuous, high-fidelity
4135:
10.1130/1052-5173(2004)014<4:CAAPDO>2.0.CO;2
3658:
Back to Earth History: Summary Chart for the Precambrian
2697:
includes the current climate. There has been a cycle of
926:, which may be characteristic of certain climatic zones.
639:
that Earth has undergone, rapid cooling events like the
4848:"The 8 Minute Epoch 65 million Years with James Hansen"
3043:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
5133:
Facsimile of German original and English translation:
4003:
Stern, Robert J.; Miller, Nathan R. (1 January 2021),
3677:
The emerald planet: how plants changed Earth's history
2839:
Volcanic eruptions are considered an internal forcing.
7512:
7214:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
4005:"Neoproterozoic Glaciation—Snowball Earth Hypothesis"
3645:
Earth's Earliest Biosphere: Its Origin and Evolution.
2280:. In addition, there would probably have been simple
673:
Notions of a changing climate most likely evolved in
4040:"Coupling of surface temperatures and atmospheric CO
2988:
Table of historic and prehistoric climate indicators
2621:. Some of the most severe fluctuations, such as the
2392:, and its appearance is indicated by the end of the
1019:
and water salinity from the past few centuries. The
7391:
7276:
7245:
7174:
7109:
7031:
6953:
6904:
6821:
6778:
6688:
6595:
6448:
6395:
6238:
6062:
6031:
5854:
5783:
5745:
5692:
5666:
5630:
5597:
5556:
5528:
5487:
2324:, and inert gases, was produced by outgassing from
948:
tests, can be used to reconstruct past temperature.
5038:
4546:"What are Climate Change and Climate Variability?"
3674:
2375:were established as early as 4 billion years ago.
693:postulated that fossils of giant turtles found in
3647:Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1983
7414:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
2954: – Study of the oceans in the geologic past
2709:interglacial conditions occurs in one big step.
872:includes the study of pollen for these purposes.
4214:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3470:Gutiérrez, Mateo; Gutiérrez, Francisco (2013).
2972: – Study of past tropical cyclone activity
2966: – Study of hydrology over geological time
5091:Wonderful life, the story of the Burgess Shale
4007:, in Alderton, David; Elias, Scott A. (eds.),
6149:History of climate change policy and politics
5944:
5465:
5267:
5109:Crowley, Thomas J.; North, Gerald R. (1996).
2984: – Atmosphere containing reducing agents
1257:
1094:List of periods and events in climate history
885:European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica
534:
8:
4011:, Oxford: Academic Press, pp. 546–556,
3139:. Columbia University Press. pp. 8–10.
3098:
3096:
3094:
2383:The constant rearrangement of continents by
2328:, supplemented by gases produced during the
6266:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
4629:
4627:
4110:as a primary driver of Phanerozoic climate"
2316:The next atmosphere, consisting largely of
2284:such as those now found in gas giants like
596:to obtain data previously preserved within
7495:
7483:
7242:
7231:
6950:
6936:
6685:
6672:
6235:
6222:
6134:
6028:
6015:
5967:
5951:
5937:
5929:
5472:
5458:
5450:
5274:
5260:
5252:
5045:. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.
4563:Summerhayes, Colin P. (8 September 2020).
3588:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
2726:Climate forcing is the difference between
2598:The relatively warm local minimum between
1264:
1250:
541:
527:
26:
7041:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
6174:United Nations Climate Change conferences
4890:
4819:
4809:
4760:
4750:
4661:. Springer Science & Business Media.
4491:
4434:
4369:
4251:
4233:
4184:
4174:
4133:
4044:concentrations during the Palaeozoic era"
3936:
3607:
3573:
3571:
3062:
2488:lasted from 360 to 260 million years ago.
2481:lasted from 450 to 420 million years ago.
2474:lasted from 720 to 635 million years ago.
6745:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
5139:. Borntraeger, Berlin / Stuttgart 2015,
4009:Encyclopedia of Geology (Second Edition)
3128:
3126:
3124:
2558:
2427:, releasing oxygen and the breakdown of
737:Palaeotemperature graphs placed together
7519:
7101:National Adaptation Programme of Action
6890:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
5022:. New York: Columbia University Press.
3491:Developments in Earth Surface Processes
3161:"What's the hottest Earth's ever been?"
3004:
1088:Notable climate events in Earth history
34:
6750:Economics of climate change mitigation
6713:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
6054:Scientific consensus on climate change
4854:from the original on 11 December 2021.
3562:
3085:
3037:Sahney, S. & Benton, M.J. (2008).
2452:Timeline of glaciations, shown in blue
2425:use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
7409:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
4784:van der Meer, Douwe (25 March 2014).
3107:. Springer Nature. pp. 414–426.
2960: – Study of ancient temperatures
2861:processes of rocks and soils and the
2650:Ordovician-Silurian extinction events
2642:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
2272:would have consisted of gases in the
1162:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
7:
7431:Representative Concentration Pathway
6372:Tipping points in the climate system
6048:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
5432:
5128:The Climates of the Geological Past.
2904:into the atmosphere, thus affecting
2640:has been proposed as reason for the
2206:
2182:
2161:
2141:
2120:
2100:
2080:
2059:
2039:
2019:
1999:
1979:
1959:
1938:
1918:
1897:
1877:
1857:
1837:
1817:
1797:
1777:
988:rise and fall, and features such as
7202:Nationally determined contributions
6912:Individual action on climate change
6117:World energy supply and consumption
5911:
4655:Gornitz, Vivien (31 October 2008).
3681:. Oxford University press. p.
2629:due to sudden collapses of natural
2412:eon, during which oxygen-breathing
767:; the oldest remaining material is
643:, and the rapid warming during the
584:Paleoclimatology uses a variety of
553:Study of changes in ancient climate
7341:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
3222:. Google Scholar: Academic Press.
936:Chemical signatures, particularly
25:
7268:Satellite temperature measurement
6873:forestry for carbon sequestration
6154:History of climate change science
5169:Earth's Climate — Past and Future
3478:. Vol. 13. pp. 115–131.
2644:. Other major thresholds are the
1200:Extreme weather events of 535–536
1150:Permian–Triassic extinction event
1144:Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse
665:History of climate change science
7534:
7522:
7494:
7482:
7471:
7470:
7458:
7119:Climate Change Performance Index
6498:Destruction of cultural heritage
5910:
5899:
5898:
5886:
5518:
5431:
5419:
5408:
5407:
5394:
4901:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2012.00320.x
2734:) received by the Earth and the
2652:with various reasons suggested.
2623:Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum
2595:forests rather than ice sheets.
1168:Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum
929:Biomarker molecules such as the
883:A multinational consortium, the
791:Direct Quantitative Measurements
651:and biotic recovery and current
645:Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum
42:
7258:Instrumental temperature record
7209:Sustainable Development Goal 13
4932:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
3938:10.1016/j.precamres.2023.107286
3532:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2015.07.008
3016:. Oxford: Elsevier. p. 1.
2869:, are an important part of the
2774:Internal processes and forcings
2677:Holocene temperature variations
717:Reconstructing ancient climates
104:List of human evolution fossils
7326:Climate variability and change
6357:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
4512:"Concept of Radiative Forcing"
3584:"Earth's Earliest Atmospheres"
3493:. Vol. 8. pp. 3–32.
3136:Principles of Paleoclimatology
2896:, responsible for the natural
2444:Climate during geological ages
1158:(~120 Mya, 93 Mya, and others)
1:
7436:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
6971:Climate emergency declaration
5167:William F. Ruddimann (2001).
5041:Ice ages: solving the mystery
5003:. Boston: Allen & Unwin.
3550:Encyclopedia of Geomorphology
3499:10.1016/S0928-2025(05)80051-3
3190:Soul, Laura (24 April 2018).
2912:suggested that humans emit CO
2742:is quantified based on the CO
569:) is the scientific study of
7419:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
6645:Middle East and North Africa
4999:Bradley, Raymond S. (1985).
4988:Resources in other libraries
3974:10.1007/978-3-030-24982-3_26
3882:10.1007/978-3-030-24982-3_26
3839:10.1007/978-3-030-24982-3_26
1130:(~600 Mya, precursor to the
99:List of transitional fossils
6493:Depopulation of settlements
5543:Geological history of Earth
5088:Gould, Stephen Jay (1989).
3600:10.1101/cshperspect.a004895
2736:outgoing longwave radiation
2527:The Great Oxygenation Event
2363:) which have been found as
1991:Earliest multicellular life
1039:, one approach is to study
725:Preliminary results from a
573:predating the invention of
215:Mammalian auditory ossicles
7578:
7253:Global surface temperature
7144:Popular culture depictions
7056:Ecosystem-based adaptation
6786:Carbon capture and storage
6708:Carbon offsets and credits
5516:
5152:Karl-Heinz Ludwig (2006).
5018:Cronin, Thomas N. (2010).
4865:Royer, D. L.; Pagani, M.;
4591:"Glossary, Climate system"
3634:Wiley Press, New York 1984
3133:Cronin, Thomas M. (1999).
2758:and the concentrations of
2719:
2686:
2680:
2633:reservoirs in the oceans.
2570:
2514:
2455:
2252:
1091:
894:
832:Air trapped within fallen
748:
662:
575:meteorological instruments
7465:Climate change portal
7452:
7358:Extreme event attribution
7241:
7230:
6981:School Strike for Climate
6949:
6935:
6860:Climate-smart agriculture
6684:
6671:
6234:
6221:
6144:
6133:
6027:
6014:
5997:Climate change adaptation
5992:Climate change mitigation
5987:Effects of climate change
5977:
5966:
5880:
5557:Composition and structure
5510:Index of geology articles
5403:
5392:
5289:
5094:. New York: W.W. Norton.
4983:Resources in your library
4952:10.1016/j.gca.2005.11.031
4569:. John Wiley & Sons.
3962:"The Precambrian Climate"
3870:"The Precambrian Climate"
3827:"The Precambrian Climate"
3476:Treatise on Geomorphology
3012:Bradley, Raymond (2015).
2926:and temperature, where CO
2888:) and thereby removing CO
2479:Andean-Saharan glaciation
2230:
1242:
1231:
1225:History of the atmosphere
1194:Holocene climatic optimum
1190:/Big Freeze (~11,000 BCE)
1138:Andean-Saharan glaciation
412:Invertebrate paleontology
361:Biological classification
341:Introduction to evolution
242:Evolution of various taxa
7368:Global warming potential
7175:International agreements
6822:Preserving and enhancing
6256:Arctic methane emissions
6178:Years in climate change
6085:Greenhouse gas emissions
5982:Causes of climate change
5246:Short history of climate
5190:. New York: Wiley Press.
4850:. University of Oregon.
4604:Saltzman, Barry (2002).
3656:Christopher R. Scotese,
3632:The Evolving Continents.
3472:"Climatic Geomorphology"
3216:Saltzman, Barry (2002).
2814:Thermohaline circulation
1417:−1000 —
1397:−1500 —
1377:−2000 —
1357:−2500 —
1337:−3000 —
1317:−3500 —
1297:−4000 —
1277:−4500 —
1031:Landscapes and landforms
396:Branches of paleontology
384:Timeline of paleontology
7399:Climate change scenario
7051:Disaster risk reduction
6703:Carbon emission trading
6513:U.S. insurance industry
6483:Civilizational collapse
6330:sea surface temperature
5188:The Evolving Continents
4811:10.1073/pnas.1315657111
4752:10.1073/pnas.0711143105
4304:10.1126/science.1141038
4235:10.1073/pnas.1603348113
4176:10.1073/pnas.1315657111
3773:10.1126/science.aba6853
3279:10.1126/science.1141038
2416:forms began to appear.
2390:Great Oxygenation Event
2361:Great Oxygenation Event
2342:faint young Sun paradox
1437:−500 —
1121:Great Oxygenation Event
1111:Faint young Sun paradox
1017:sea surface temperature
990:"fossilised" sand dunes
727:Smithsonian Institution
502:Vertebrate paleontology
379:History of paleontology
373:History of paleontology
94:Lagerstätte fossil beds
7392:Research and modelling
7076:Nature-based solutions
6896:Nature-based solutions
6838:Carbon dioxide removal
6755:Fossil fuel divestment
6740:Climate risk insurance
6650:Small island countries
6261:Arctic sea ice decline
5171:. Palgrave Macmillan.
3055:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370
2678:
2670:
2568:
2549:the Great Unconformity
2458:Timeline of glaciation
2453:
2394:banded iron formations
2330:late heavy bombardment
1098:Timeline of glaciation
1037:climatic geomorphology
974:
746:
738:
730:
669:Historical climatology
422:Molecular paleontology
7353:Earth's energy budget
7236:Background and theory
7124:Climate crisis (term)
6796:Fossil fuel phase-out
6690:Economics and finance
6655:by individual country
6597:By country and region
6572:Security and conflict
6567:Psychological impacts
6246:Abrupt climate change
6169:Charles David Keeling
6002:By country and region
5806:Environmental geology
5241:NOAA Paleoclimatology
5037:Imbrie, John (1979).
4635:"Annex III: Glossary"
4493:10.5194/cp-8-609-2012
3582:; Fegley, B. (2010).
2676:
2663:
2627:rapid climate changes
2562:
2493:Quaternary glaciation
2472:Cryogenian glaciation
2451:
1218:Year Without a Summer
1156:Oceanic anoxic events
1126:Later Neoproterozoic
972:
744:
736:
724:
162:Timeline of evolution
7182:Glasgow Climate Pact
6843:Carbon sequestration
6408:Mass mortality event
5765:Planetary geophysics
3917:Precambrian Research
3335:WIREs Climate Change
3196:Smithsonian Magazine
2738:back to space. Such
2625:, may be related to
2503:and identified four
1206:Medieval Warm Period
1182:Last Glacial Maximum
179:Organs and processes
89:List of fossil sites
7321:Climate sensitivity
7096:The Adaptation Fund
6552:Infectious diseases
6449:Social and economic
5867:Petroleum geologist
5831:Forensic geophysics
5801:Engineering geology
5548:Timeline of geology
5500:Glossary of geology
5294:Atmospheric science
5209:2006JG....114..325D
5186:B. Windley (1984).
4944:2006GeCoA..70.5665R
4883:2012Gbio...10..298R
4802:2014PNAS..111.4380V
4743:2008PNAS..105.4981L
4696:1992Natur.357..578C
4593:. NASA. March 2020.
4484:2012CliPa...8..609L
4472:Climate of the Past
4436:10.1038/nature06763
4427:2008Natur.452..616L
4371:10.1038/nature06949
4362:2008Natur.453..379L
4296:2007Sci...317..793J
4226:2016PNAS..11312059F
4220:(43): 12059–12064.
4167:2014PNAS..111.4380V
4126:2004GSAT...14c...4R
4071:10.1038/nature06085
4063:2007Natur.449..198C
3929:2024PreR..40207286C
3765:2020Sci...369.1383W
3759:(6509): 1383–1387.
3552:. pp. 162–164.
3441:10.1038/nature01779
3433:2003Natur.424..271C
3390:2008Geo....36..463H
3347:2010WIRCC...1..507F
3271:2007Sci...317..793J
2982:Reducing atmosphere
2834:Milankovitch cycles
2804:climate sensitivity
2555:Phanerozoic climate
2511:Precambrian climate
2465:Huronian glaciation
2264:Earliest atmosphere
2255:Atmosphere of Earth
1971:Sexual reproduction
1950:Huronian glaciation
1117:Huronian glaciation
914:Sedimentary content
786:Proxies for climate
513:Paleontology Portal
167:Transitional fossil
137:Geologic time scale
30:Part of a series on
6892:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
6864:Forest management
6848:Direct air capture
6813:Sustainable energy
6770:Net zero emissions
6765:Low-carbon economy
6760:Green Climate Fund
6547:Indigenous peoples
6440:Plant biodiversity
6228:Effects and issues
5893:Geology portal
5821:Geologic modelling
5760:Geophysical survey
5712:Geodetic astronomy
5638:Structural geology
5599:Historical geology
5530:History of geology
5505:History of geology
5495:Outline of geology
5386:Quaternary science
5283:Physical geography
5197:Journal of Geology
4867:Beerling, David J.
4610:. Academic Press.
4102:Beerling, David J.
3660:, Paleomar Project
3171:. 22 November 2023
2908:(Ice Age) cycles.
2884:weathering with CO
2679:
2671:
2656:Quaternary climate
2569:
2454:
2433:volcanic eruptions
2349:temperature record
2218:Quaternary ice age
2153:Earliest tetrapods
2112:Cambrian explosion
2071:Cryogenian ice age
1930:Atmospheric oxygen
1909:Pongola glaciation
1537:Multicellular life
1489:Single-celled life
1132:Cambrian Explosion
1074:radiocarbon dating
1069:Radiometric dating
1045:historical geology
979:Sedimentary facies
975:
849:quantity changes (
747:
739:
731:
630:Earth's atmosphere
74:Fossil preparation
7510:
7509:
7448:
7447:
7444:
7443:
7383:Radiative forcing
7226:
7225:
7222:
7221:
7046:Adaptive capacity
6931:
6930:
6927:
6926:
6791:Energy transition
6667:
6666:
6663:
6662:
6377:Tropical cyclones
6303:Urban heat island
6217:
6216:
6129:
6128:
6125:
6124:
6090:Carbon accounting
6044:Greenhouse effect
6010:
6009:
5926:
5925:
5811:Planetary geology
5727:Planetary geodesy
5447:
5446:
5381:Landscape ecology
5325:Coastal geography
5178:978-0-7167-3741-4
5145:978-3-443-01088-1
5120:978-0-19-510533-9
5101:978-0-393-02705-1
5080:978-0-300-03340-3
5052:978-0-674-44075-3
5029:978-0-231-14494-0
5010:978-0-04-551067-2
4969:Library resources
4938:(23): 5665–5675.
4796:(12): 4380–4385.
4737:(13): 4981–4986.
4690:(6379): 578–581.
4668:978-1-4020-4551-6
4617:978-0-12-617331-4
4576:978-1-119-59138-2
4522:on 4 January 2014
4421:(7187): 616–619.
4356:(7193): 379–382.
4290:(5839): 793–796.
4161:(12): 4380–4385.
4057:(7159): 198–201.
4018:978-0-08-102909-1
3983:978-3-030-24982-3
3891:978-3-030-24982-3
3848:978-3-030-24982-3
3565:, pp. 32–34.
3508:978-0-444-51794-4
3398:10.1130/G24635A.1
3265:(5839): 793–796.
3229:978-0-12-617331-4
3114:978-1-4020-4551-6
3023:978-0-12-386913-5
2970:Paleotempestology
2940:Cyclostratigraphy
2898:greenhouse effect
2873:. The weathering
2827:External forcings
2752:radiative balance
2740:radiative forcing
2695:geological period
2631:methane clathrate
2400:atmosphere to an
2332:of Earth by huge
2312:Second atmosphere
2251:
2250:
2235:million years ago
2226:
2225:
2205:
2204:
2181:
2180:
2160:
2159:
2140:
2139:
2132:Andean glaciation
2119:
2118:
2099:
2098:
2079:
2078:
2058:
2057:
2038:
2037:
2018:
2017:
1998:
1997:
1978:
1977:
1958:
1957:
1937:
1936:
1917:
1916:
1896:
1895:
1876:
1875:
1856:
1855:
1836:
1835:
1816:
1815:
1796:
1795:
1059:Timing of proxies
1006:Corals (see also
897:Dendroclimatology
891:Dendroclimatology
707:greenhouse effect
567:palaeoclimatology
551:
550:
477:Paleotempestology
462:Paleoneurobiology
417:Micropaleontology
16:(Redirected from
7569:
7557:Paleoclimatology
7539:
7538:
7537:
7527:
7526:
7518:
7498:
7497:
7486:
7485:
7474:
7473:
7463:
7462:
7461:
7426:Paleoclimatology
7243:
7232:
6993:Ecological grief
6976:Climate movement
6951:
6937:
6917:Plant-based diet
6808:Renewable energy
6686:
6673:
6508:Economic impacts
6430:Invasive species
6286:Coastal flooding
6236:
6223:
6159:Svante Arrhenius
6135:
6105:from agriculture
6095:Carbon footprint
6080:Greenhouse gases
6029:
6016:
5968:
5953:
5946:
5939:
5930:
5914:
5913:
5902:
5901:
5891:
5890:
5826:Forensic geology
5796:Economic geology
5722:Gravity of Earth
5617:Paleoclimatology
5522:
5474:
5467:
5460:
5451:
5435:
5434:
5423:
5411:
5410:
5398:
5316:Paleoclimatology
5276:
5269:
5262:
5253:
5228:
5191:
5182:
5124:
5111:Paleoclimatology
5105:
5084:
5056:
5044:
5033:
5014:
4974:Paleoclimatology
4956:
4955:
4927:
4921:
4920:
4894:
4862:
4856:
4855:
4840:
4834:
4833:
4823:
4813:
4781:
4775:
4774:
4764:
4754:
4722:
4716:
4715:
4704:10.1038/357578a0
4679:
4673:
4672:
4652:
4646:
4645:
4639:
4631:
4622:
4621:
4601:
4595:
4594:
4587:
4581:
4580:
4560:
4554:
4553:
4538:
4532:
4531:
4529:
4527:
4518:. Archived from
4504:
4498:
4497:
4495:
4463:
4457:
4456:
4438:
4406:
4400:
4399:
4373:
4347:
4338:
4332:
4331:
4281:
4272:
4266:
4265:
4255:
4237:
4205:
4199:
4198:
4188:
4178:
4146:
4140:
4139:
4137:
4097:
4091:
4090:
4048:
4035:
4029:
4028:
4027:
4025:
4000:
3994:
3993:
3992:
3990:
3966:Paleoclimatology
3957:
3951:
3950:
3940:
3908:
3902:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3874:Paleoclimatology
3865:
3859:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3831:Paleoclimatology
3822:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3811:
3750:
3740:
3734:
3733:
3731:
3729:
3715:
3709:
3703:
3697:
3696:
3680:
3667:
3661:
3654:
3648:
3641:
3635:
3628:
3622:
3621:
3611:
3575:
3566:
3560:
3554:
3553:
3542:
3536:
3535:
3519:
3513:
3512:
3486:
3480:
3479:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3416:
3410:
3409:
3373:
3367:
3366:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3305:
3299:
3298:
3256:
3247:
3241:
3240:
3238:
3236:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3202:
3187:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3157:
3151:
3150:
3130:
3119:
3118:
3100:
3089:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3066:
3049:(1636): 759–65.
3034:
3028:
3027:
3009:
2958:Paleothermometer
2952:Paleoceanography
2900:, by emitting CO
2760:greenhouse gases
2716:Climate forcings
2646:Permian-Triassic
2638:meteorite impact
2486:Karoo glaciation
2379:Third atmosphere
2270:first atmosphere
2259:History of Earth
2212:
2207:
2188:
2183:
2167:
2162:
2147:
2142:
2126:
2121:
2106:
2101:
2086:
2081:
2065:
2060:
2051:Earliest animals
2045:
2040:
2025:
2020:
2005:
2000:
1985:
1980:
1965:
1960:
1944:
1939:
1924:
1919:
1903:
1898:
1883:
1878:
1863:
1858:
1849:Earliest fossils
1843:
1838:
1823:
1818:
1803:
1798:
1783:
1778:
1757:
1726:
1688:
1686:
1660:
1658:
1565:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1266:
1259:
1252:
1246:
1236:
1229:
1196:(~7000–3000 BCE)
1102:History of Earth
1041:relict landforms
1008:sclerochronology
1001:Sclerochronology
994:sedimentary rock
962:
955:
853:
773:
700:Heinrich Schwabe
649:mass extinctions
563:British spelling
559:Paleoclimatology
543:
536:
529:
492:Sclerochronology
220:Mosaic evolution
157:Paleoclimatology
127:Extinction event
46:
27:
21:
7577:
7576:
7572:
7571:
7570:
7568:
7567:
7566:
7562:Climate history
7547:
7546:
7545:
7535:
7533:
7521:
7513:
7511:
7506:
7459:
7457:
7440:
7387:
7378:Orbital forcing
7272:
7237:
7218:
7192:Paris Agreement
7170:
7166:Warming stripes
7105:
7071:Managed retreat
7066:Loss and damage
7027:
6961:Business action
6945:
6923:
6900:
6823:
6817:
6774:
6735:Climate finance
6680:
6659:
6591:
6444:
6420:Extinction risk
6396:Flora and fauna
6391:
6352:Permafrost thaw
6347:Ozone depletion
6276:Extreme weather
6230:
6213:
6140:
6121:
6058:
6023:
6006:
5973:
5962:
5957:
5927:
5922:
5885:
5876:
5850:
5846:Mineral physics
5779:
5741:
5688:
5662:
5648:Plate tectonics
5626:
5622:Palaeogeography
5593:
5569:Crystallography
5552:
5524:
5523:
5514:
5483:
5478:
5448:
5443:
5399:
5390:
5320:Palaeogeography
5285:
5280:
5250:
5236:
5231:
5194:
5185:
5179:
5166:
5121:
5108:
5102:
5087:
5081:
5059:
5053:
5036:
5030:
5017:
5011:
4998:
4994:
4993:
4992:
4977:
4976:
4972:
4965:
4960:
4959:
4929:
4928:
4924:
4892:10.1.1.933.8880
4864:
4863:
4859:
4842:
4841:
4837:
4783:
4782:
4778:
4724:
4723:
4719:
4681:
4680:
4676:
4669:
4654:
4653:
4649:
4637:
4633:
4632:
4625:
4618:
4603:
4602:
4598:
4589:
4588:
4584:
4577:
4562:
4561:
4557:
4540:
4539:
4535:
4525:
4523:
4506:
4505:
4501:
4465:
4464:
4460:
4408:
4407:
4403:
4345:
4340:
4339:
4335:
4279:
4274:
4273:
4269:
4207:
4206:
4202:
4148:
4147:
4143:
4109:
4099:
4098:
4094:
4046:
4043:
4037:
4036:
4032:
4023:
4021:
4019:
4002:
4001:
3997:
3988:
3986:
3984:
3959:
3958:
3954:
3910:
3909:
3905:
3896:
3894:
3892:
3867:
3866:
3862:
3853:
3851:
3849:
3824:
3823:
3819:
3809:
3807:
3748:
3742:
3741:
3737:
3727:
3725:
3717:
3716:
3712:
3704:
3700:
3693:
3671:Beerling, David
3669:
3668:
3664:
3655:
3651:
3642:
3638:
3629:
3625:
3594:(10): a004895.
3577:
3576:
3569:
3561:
3557:
3544:
3543:
3539:
3521:
3520:
3516:
3509:
3488:
3487:
3483:
3469:
3468:
3464:
3427:(6946): 271–6.
3418:
3417:
3413:
3375:
3374:
3370:
3328:
3327:
3323:
3313:
3311:
3307:
3306:
3302:
3254:
3249:
3248:
3244:
3234:
3232:
3230:
3215:
3214:
3210:
3200:
3198:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3174:
3172:
3165:www.climate.gov
3159:
3158:
3154:
3147:
3132:
3131:
3122:
3115:
3102:
3101:
3092:
3084:
3080:
3036:
3035:
3031:
3024:
3011:
3010:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2946:Paleoatmosphere
2936:
2929:
2925:
2915:
2903:
2891:
2887:
2878:
2867:tectonic plates
2855:
2829:
2776:
2745:
2724:
2722:Climate forcing
2718:
2693:The Quaternary
2691:
2685:
2668:
2658:
2584:plate tectonics
2575:
2557:
2540:
2539:
2519:
2513:
2460:
2446:
2407:
2385:plate tectonics
2381:
2314:
2266:
2261:
2247:
2246:
2238:
2222:
2221:
2210:
2201:
2200:
2186:
2177:
2176:
2165:
2156:
2155:
2145:
2136:
2135:
2124:
2115:
2114:
2104:
2095:
2094:
2092:Ediacaran biota
2084:
2075:
2074:
2063:
2054:
2053:
2043:
2034:
2033:
2031:Earliest plants
2023:
2014:
2013:
2003:
1994:
1993:
1983:
1974:
1973:
1963:
1954:
1953:
1942:
1933:
1932:
1922:
1913:
1912:
1901:
1892:
1891:
1889:Earliest oxygen
1881:
1872:
1871:
1861:
1852:
1851:
1841:
1832:
1831:
1821:
1812:
1811:
1801:
1792:
1791:
1781:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1728:
1727:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1702:
1701:
1700:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1695:
1691:
1690:
1689:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1662:
1661:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1639:
1638:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1622:
1621:
1620:
1613:
1612:
1611:
1606:
1605:
1604:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1588:
1587:
1586:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1548:
1547:
1546:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1516:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1508:
1507:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1477:
1476:
1475:
1468:
1467:
1466:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1270:
1244:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1104:
1090:
1061:
1033:
1003:
960:
953:
916:
899:
893:
851:
802:
793:
788:
768:
753:
751:Proxy (climate)
719:
671:
663:Main articles:
661:
579:Earth's history
554:
547:
515:
507:
506:
402:Biostratigraphy
397:
389:
388:
374:
366:
365:
336:
328:
327:
243:
235:
234:
225:Nervous systems
180:
172:
171:
147:History of life
142:Geologic record
117:
116:Natural history
109:
108:
84:List of fossils
54:
23:
22:
18:Climate history
15:
12:
11:
5:
7575:
7573:
7565:
7564:
7559:
7549:
7548:
7544:
7543:
7531:
7508:
7507:
7505:
7504:
7492:
7480:
7468:
7453:
7450:
7449:
7446:
7445:
7442:
7441:
7439:
7438:
7433:
7428:
7423:
7422:
7421:
7411:
7406:
7401:
7395:
7393:
7389:
7388:
7386:
7385:
7380:
7375:
7370:
7365:
7360:
7355:
7350:
7345:
7344:
7343:
7333:
7331:Cloud feedback
7328:
7323:
7318:
7313:
7312:
7311:
7306:
7301:
7296:
7286:
7280:
7278:
7274:
7273:
7271:
7270:
7265:
7260:
7255:
7249:
7247:
7239:
7238:
7235:
7228:
7227:
7224:
7223:
7220:
7219:
7217:
7216:
7211:
7206:
7205:
7204:
7199:
7189:
7187:Kyoto Protocol
7184:
7178:
7176:
7172:
7171:
7169:
7168:
7163:
7162:
7161:
7156:
7151:
7141:
7139:Media coverage
7136:
7131:
7129:Climate spiral
7126:
7121:
7115:
7113:
7107:
7106:
7104:
7103:
7098:
7093:
7088:
7083:
7078:
7073:
7068:
7063:
7058:
7053:
7048:
7043:
7037:
7035:
7029:
7028:
7026:
7025:
7020:
7018:Public opinion
7015:
7010:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6990:
6985:
6984:
6983:
6973:
6968:
6966:Climate action
6963:
6957:
6955:
6947:
6946:
6940:
6933:
6932:
6929:
6928:
6925:
6924:
6922:
6921:
6920:
6919:
6908:
6906:
6902:
6901:
6899:
6898:
6893:
6887:
6886:
6885:
6880:
6878:REDD and REDD+
6875:
6870:
6862:
6857:
6855:Carbon farming
6852:
6851:
6850:
6845:
6835:
6829:
6827:
6819:
6818:
6816:
6815:
6810:
6805:
6800:
6799:
6798:
6788:
6782:
6780:
6776:
6775:
6773:
6772:
6767:
6762:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6742:
6737:
6732:
6727:
6722:
6717:
6716:
6715:
6705:
6700:
6694:
6692:
6682:
6681:
6676:
6669:
6668:
6665:
6664:
6661:
6660:
6658:
6657:
6652:
6647:
6642:
6637:
6632:
6627:
6622:
6617:
6612:
6607:
6601:
6599:
6593:
6592:
6590:
6589:
6587:Water security
6584:
6582:Water scarcity
6579:
6577:Urban flooding
6574:
6569:
6564:
6559:
6554:
6549:
6544:
6539:
6538:
6537:
6527:
6522:
6517:
6516:
6515:
6505:
6500:
6495:
6490:
6485:
6480:
6475:
6470:
6469:
6468:
6463:
6452:
6450:
6446:
6445:
6443:
6442:
6437:
6432:
6427:
6425:Forest dieback
6422:
6417:
6412:
6411:
6410:
6399:
6397:
6393:
6392:
6390:
6389:
6384:
6379:
6374:
6369:
6364:
6362:Sea level rise
6359:
6354:
6349:
6344:
6343:
6342:
6337:
6335:stratification
6332:
6327:
6322:
6317:
6307:
6306:
6305:
6300:
6290:
6289:
6288:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6248:
6242:
6240:
6232:
6231:
6226:
6219:
6218:
6215:
6214:
6212:
6211:
6210:
6209:
6204:
6199:
6194:
6189:
6184:
6176:
6171:
6166:
6161:
6156:
6151:
6145:
6142:
6141:
6138:
6131:
6130:
6127:
6126:
6123:
6122:
6120:
6119:
6114:
6113:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6100:Carbon leakage
6097:
6092:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6066:
6064:
6060:
6059:
6057:
6056:
6051:
6041:
6039:Climate system
6035:
6033:
6025:
6024:
6019:
6012:
6011:
6008:
6007:
6005:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5978:
5975:
5974:
5971:
5964:
5963:
5960:Climate change
5958:
5956:
5955:
5948:
5941:
5933:
5924:
5923:
5921:
5920:
5908:
5896:
5881:
5878:
5877:
5875:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5858:
5856:
5852:
5851:
5849:
5848:
5843:
5841:Mining geology
5838:
5833:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5813:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5793:
5787:
5785:
5781:
5780:
5778:
5777:
5775:Tectonophysics
5772:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5751:
5749:
5743:
5742:
5740:
5739:
5737:Geopositioning
5734:
5732:Remote sensing
5729:
5724:
5719:
5714:
5709:
5704:
5698:
5696:
5690:
5689:
5687:
5686:
5684:Marine geology
5681:
5676:
5670:
5668:
5664:
5663:
5661:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5640:
5634:
5632:
5628:
5627:
5625:
5624:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5603:
5601:
5595:
5594:
5592:
5591:
5586:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5566:
5564:Cosmochemistry
5560:
5558:
5554:
5553:
5551:
5550:
5545:
5540:
5534:
5532:
5526:
5525:
5517:
5515:
5513:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5497:
5491:
5489:
5485:
5484:
5479:
5477:
5476:
5469:
5462:
5454:
5445:
5444:
5442:
5441:
5429:
5417:
5404:
5401:
5400:
5393:
5391:
5389:
5388:
5383:
5378:
5369:
5364:
5359:
5354:
5349:
5344:
5331:
5322:
5309:
5307:Phytogeography
5300:
5290:
5287:
5286:
5281:
5279:
5278:
5271:
5264:
5256:
5249:
5248:
5243:
5237:
5235:
5234:External links
5232:
5230:
5229:
5217:10.1086/500992
5203:(3): 325–339.
5192:
5183:
5177:
5164:
5150:
5149:
5148:
5125:
5119:
5106:
5100:
5085:
5079:
5061:Margulis, Lynn
5057:
5051:
5034:
5028:
5015:
5009:
4995:
4991:
4990:
4985:
4979:
4978:
4967:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4958:
4957:
4922:
4877:(4): 298–310.
4857:
4835:
4776:
4717:
4674:
4667:
4647:
4623:
4616:
4596:
4582:
4575:
4555:
4533:
4499:
4478:(2): 609–623.
4458:
4401:
4333:
4267:
4200:
4141:
4107:
4092:
4041:
4030:
4017:
3995:
3982:
3952:
3903:
3890:
3860:
3847:
3817:
3735:
3710:
3698:
3691:
3662:
3649:
3636:
3623:
3567:
3555:
3537:
3514:
3507:
3481:
3462:
3411:
3368:
3355:10.1002/wcc.53
3341:(4): 507–516.
3321:
3300:
3242:
3228:
3208:
3182:
3152:
3145:
3120:
3113:
3090:
3078:
3029:
3022:
3003:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2990:
2985:
2979:
2973:
2967:
2964:Paleohydrology
2961:
2955:
2949:
2943:
2935:
2932:
2927:
2923:
2913:
2901:
2889:
2885:
2876:
2854:
2851:
2850:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2817:
2780:climate system
2775:
2772:
2746:amount in the
2743:
2728:radiant energy
2720:Main article:
2717:
2714:
2681:Main article:
2666:
2657:
2654:
2611:supercontinent
2571:Main article:
2556:
2553:
2545:Snowball Earth
2537:
2536:
2515:Main article:
2512:
2509:
2505:climate states
2497:
2496:
2489:
2482:
2475:
2468:
2445:
2442:
2405:
2380:
2377:
2322:carbon dioxide
2313:
2310:
2265:
2262:
2249:
2248:
2239:
2232:
2231:
2228:
2227:
2224:
2223:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2203:
2202:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2179:
2178:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2158:
2157:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2138:
2137:
2130:
2129:
2127:
2117:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2097:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2077:
2076:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2056:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2036:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2016:
2015:
2011:Earliest fungi
2009:
2008:
2006:
1996:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1976:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1956:
1955:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1935:
1934:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1915:
1914:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1894:
1893:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1874:
1873:
1869:LHB meteorites
1867:
1866:
1864:
1854:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1844:
1834:
1833:
1827:
1826:
1824:
1814:
1813:
1809:Earliest water
1807:
1806:
1804:
1794:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1775:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1694:
1693:
1692:
1666:
1665:
1664:
1643:
1642:
1641:
1634:
1633:
1632:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1600:
1599:
1598:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1535:
1534:
1533:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1519:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1511:
1510:
1505:Photosynthesis
1503:
1502:
1501:
1496:
1495:
1494:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1480:
1479:
1478:
1471:
1470:
1469:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1460:
1457:0 —
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1272:
1271:
1269:
1268:
1261:
1254:
1243:
1240:
1239:
1232:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1221:
1215:
1212:Little Ice Age
1209:
1203:
1197:
1191:
1185:
1179:
1165:
1159:
1153:
1147:
1141:
1135:
1128:Snowball Earth
1124:
1114:
1089:
1086:
1076:. In the air,
1060:
1057:
1032:
1029:
1012:
1011:
1002:
999:
982:
981:
967:
966:
949:
934:
927:
915:
912:
895:Main article:
892:
889:
881:
880:
873:
862:
844:
841:
838:
808:and the polar
801:
798:
792:
789:
787:
784:
749:Main article:
718:
715:
711:climate change
660:
657:
653:global warming
552:
549:
548:
546:
545:
538:
531:
523:
520:
519:
509:
508:
505:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
469:
467:Paleopathology
464:
459:
454:
452:Paleolimnology
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
427:Palaeoxylology
424:
419:
414:
409:
404:
398:
395:
394:
391:
390:
387:
386:
381:
375:
372:
371:
368:
367:
364:
363:
358:
353:
348:
346:Common descent
343:
337:
334:
333:
330:
329:
326:
325:
320:
315:
310:
305:
300:
295:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
244:
241:
240:
237:
236:
233:
232:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
181:
178:
177:
174:
173:
170:
169:
164:
159:
154:
152:Origin of life
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
118:
115:
114:
111:
110:
107:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
55:
52:
51:
48:
47:
39:
38:
32:
31:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7574:
7563:
7560:
7558:
7555:
7554:
7552:
7542:
7532:
7530:
7525:
7520:
7516:
7503:
7502:
7493:
7491:
7490:
7481:
7479:
7478:
7469:
7467:
7466:
7455:
7454:
7451:
7437:
7434:
7432:
7429:
7427:
7424:
7420:
7417:
7416:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7404:Climate model
7402:
7400:
7397:
7396:
7394:
7390:
7384:
7381:
7379:
7376:
7374:
7371:
7369:
7366:
7364:
7361:
7359:
7356:
7354:
7351:
7349:
7346:
7342:
7339:
7338:
7337:
7336:Cloud forcing
7334:
7332:
7329:
7327:
7324:
7322:
7319:
7317:
7314:
7310:
7307:
7305:
7302:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7292:
7291:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7281:
7279:
7275:
7269:
7266:
7264:
7261:
7259:
7256:
7254:
7251:
7250:
7248:
7244:
7240:
7233:
7229:
7215:
7212:
7210:
7207:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7195:
7194:
7193:
7190:
7188:
7185:
7183:
7180:
7179:
7177:
7173:
7167:
7164:
7160:
7157:
7155:
7152:
7150:
7147:
7146:
7145:
7142:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7127:
7125:
7122:
7120:
7117:
7116:
7114:
7112:
7111:Communication
7108:
7102:
7099:
7097:
7094:
7092:
7091:Vulnerability
7089:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7079:
7077:
7074:
7072:
7069:
7067:
7064:
7062:
7061:Flood control
7059:
7057:
7054:
7052:
7049:
7047:
7044:
7042:
7039:
7038:
7036:
7034:
7030:
7024:
7021:
7019:
7016:
7014:
7011:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6996:
6994:
6991:
6989:
6986:
6982:
6979:
6978:
6977:
6974:
6972:
6969:
6967:
6964:
6962:
6959:
6958:
6956:
6952:
6948:
6944:
6938:
6934:
6918:
6915:
6914:
6913:
6910:
6909:
6907:
6903:
6897:
6894:
6891:
6888:
6884:
6883:reforestation
6881:
6879:
6876:
6874:
6871:
6869:
6868:afforestation
6866:
6865:
6863:
6861:
6858:
6856:
6853:
6849:
6846:
6844:
6841:
6840:
6839:
6836:
6834:
6831:
6830:
6828:
6826:
6820:
6814:
6811:
6809:
6806:
6804:
6803:Nuclear power
6801:
6797:
6794:
6793:
6792:
6789:
6787:
6784:
6783:
6781:
6777:
6771:
6768:
6766:
6763:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6746:
6743:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6733:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6718:
6714:
6711:
6710:
6709:
6706:
6704:
6701:
6699:
6698:Carbon budget
6696:
6695:
6693:
6691:
6687:
6683:
6679:
6674:
6670:
6656:
6653:
6651:
6648:
6646:
6643:
6641:
6638:
6636:
6633:
6631:
6628:
6626:
6623:
6621:
6618:
6616:
6613:
6611:
6608:
6606:
6603:
6602:
6600:
6598:
6594:
6588:
6585:
6583:
6580:
6578:
6575:
6573:
6570:
6568:
6565:
6563:
6560:
6558:
6555:
6553:
6550:
6548:
6545:
6543:
6540:
6536:
6535:Mental health
6533:
6532:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6521:
6518:
6514:
6511:
6510:
6509:
6506:
6504:
6501:
6499:
6496:
6494:
6491:
6489:
6486:
6484:
6481:
6479:
6476:
6474:
6471:
6467:
6466:United States
6464:
6462:
6459:
6458:
6457:
6454:
6453:
6451:
6447:
6441:
6438:
6436:
6433:
6431:
6428:
6426:
6423:
6421:
6418:
6416:
6413:
6409:
6406:
6405:
6404:
6401:
6400:
6398:
6394:
6388:
6385:
6383:
6380:
6378:
6375:
6373:
6370:
6368:
6365:
6363:
6360:
6358:
6355:
6353:
6350:
6348:
6345:
6341:
6338:
6336:
6333:
6331:
6328:
6326:
6323:
6321:
6320:deoxygenation
6318:
6316:
6315:acidification
6313:
6312:
6311:
6308:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6295:
6294:
6291:
6287:
6284:
6283:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6244:
6243:
6241:
6237:
6233:
6229:
6224:
6220:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6180:
6179:
6177:
6175:
6172:
6170:
6167:
6165:
6162:
6160:
6157:
6155:
6152:
6150:
6147:
6146:
6143:
6136:
6132:
6118:
6115:
6111:
6110:from wetlands
6108:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6088:
6087:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6070:Deforestation
6068:
6067:
6065:
6061:
6055:
6052:
6049:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6036:
6034:
6030:
6026:
6022:
6017:
6013:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5979:
5976:
5969:
5965:
5961:
5954:
5949:
5947:
5942:
5940:
5935:
5934:
5931:
5919:
5918:
5909:
5907:
5906:
5897:
5895:
5894:
5889:
5883:
5882:
5879:
5873:
5872:Volcanologist
5870:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5860:
5859:
5857:
5853:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5817:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5804:
5802:
5799:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5788:
5786:
5782:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5756:
5753:
5752:
5750:
5748:
5744:
5738:
5735:
5733:
5730:
5728:
5725:
5723:
5720:
5718:
5715:
5713:
5710:
5708:
5707:Earth's orbit
5705:
5703:
5700:
5699:
5697:
5695:
5691:
5685:
5682:
5680:
5677:
5675:
5672:
5671:
5669:
5665:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5653:Geomorphology
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5636:
5635:
5633:
5631:Dynamic Earth
5629:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5604:
5602:
5600:
5596:
5590:
5589:Sedimentology
5587:
5585:
5582:
5580:
5577:
5575:
5572:
5570:
5567:
5565:
5562:
5561:
5559:
5555:
5549:
5546:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5538:Geochronology
5536:
5535:
5533:
5531:
5527:
5521:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5498:
5496:
5493:
5492:
5490:
5486:
5482:
5475:
5470:
5468:
5463:
5461:
5456:
5455:
5452:
5440:
5439:
5430:
5428:
5427:
5422:
5418:
5416:
5415:
5406:
5405:
5402:
5397:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5373:
5370:
5368:
5365:
5363:
5362:Geostatistics
5360:
5358:
5357:Geomorphology
5355:
5353:
5350:
5348:
5345:
5343:
5339:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5295:
5292:
5291:
5288:
5284:
5277:
5272:
5270:
5265:
5263:
5258:
5257:
5254:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5238:
5233:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5193:
5189:
5184:
5180:
5174:
5170:
5165:
5163:
5162:3-406-54746-X
5159:
5155:
5151:
5146:
5142:
5138:
5137:
5132:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5122:
5116:
5112:
5107:
5103:
5097:
5093:
5092:
5086:
5082:
5076:
5072:
5071:
5066:
5065:Sagan, Dorion
5062:
5058:
5054:
5048:
5043:
5042:
5035:
5031:
5025:
5021:
5016:
5012:
5006:
5002:
4997:
4996:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4962:
4953:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4926:
4923:
4918:
4914:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4861:
4858:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4839:
4836:
4831:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4787:
4780:
4777:
4772:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4748:
4744:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4721:
4718:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4678:
4675:
4670:
4664:
4660:
4659:
4651:
4648:
4644:
4636:
4630:
4628:
4624:
4619:
4613:
4609:
4608:
4600:
4597:
4592:
4586:
4583:
4578:
4572:
4568:
4567:
4559:
4556:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4537:
4534:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4503:
4500:
4494:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4462:
4459:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4405:
4402:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4344:
4337:
4334:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4278:
4271:
4268:
4263:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4245:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4204:
4201:
4196:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4145:
4142:
4136:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4104:(July 2004).
4103:
4096:
4093:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4045:
4034:
4031:
4020:
4014:
4010:
4006:
3999:
3996:
3985:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3956:
3953:
3948:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3907:
3904:
3893:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3864:
3861:
3850:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3821:
3818:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3781:11577/3351324
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3747:
3739:
3736:
3724:
3720:
3714:
3711:
3707:
3702:
3699:
3694:
3692:9780192806024
3688:
3684:
3679:
3678:
3672:
3666:
3663:
3659:
3653:
3650:
3646:
3640:
3637:
3633:
3627:
3624:
3619:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3574:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3559:
3556:
3551:
3547:
3541:
3538:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3518:
3515:
3510:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3485:
3482:
3477:
3473:
3466:
3463:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3415:
3412:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3372:
3369:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3325:
3322:
3310:
3304:
3301:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3253:
3246:
3243:
3231:
3225:
3221:
3220:
3212:
3209:
3197:
3193:
3186:
3183:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3156:
3153:
3148:
3146:9780231503044
3142:
3138:
3137:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3121:
3116:
3110:
3106:
3099:
3097:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3082:
3079:
3074:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3033:
3030:
3025:
3019:
3015:
3008:
3005:
2998:
2993:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2980:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2968:
2965:
2962:
2959:
2956:
2953:
2950:
2947:
2944:
2941:
2938:
2937:
2933:
2931:
2921:
2917:
2911:
2907:
2899:
2895:
2883:
2879:
2875:sequesters CO
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2852:
2847:
2844:
2841:
2838:
2835:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2818:
2816:(Hydrosphere)
2815:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2782:involves the
2781:
2773:
2771:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2723:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2706:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2690:
2684:
2675:
2662:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2634:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2596:
2594:
2591:were home to
2590:
2585:
2579:
2574:
2566:
2561:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2518:
2510:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2494:
2490:
2487:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2466:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2450:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2421:Carboniferous
2417:
2415:
2414:metazoan life
2411:
2404:atmosphere. O
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2386:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2370:
2369:isotope ratio
2366:
2362:
2358:
2357:cyanobacteria
2354:
2350:
2345:
2343:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2263:
2260:
2256:
2245:
2244:
2236:
2229:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2208:
2199:
2195:
2194:Earliest apes
2190:
2185:
2184:
2174:
2173:Karoo ice age
2169:
2164:
2163:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2143:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2122:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2102:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2082:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2061:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2041:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2021:
2012:
2007:
2002:
2001:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1981:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1961:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1940:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1920:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1899:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1879:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1859:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1839:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1819:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1799:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1779:
1776:
1756:
1725:
1687:
1659:
1637:
1628:
1619:
1603:
1594:
1585:
1582:
1566:
1538:
1522:
1506:
1490:
1474:
1461:
1274:
1273:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1255:
1253:
1248:
1247:
1241:
1237:
1235:Life timeline
1230:
1224:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1188:Younger Dryas
1186:
1184:(~23,000 BCE)
1183:
1180:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1122:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1065:geochronology
1063:The field of
1058:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1009:
1005:
1004:
1000:
998:
995:
991:
987:
980:
977:
976:
971:
964:
957:
950:
947:
943:
939:
935:
932:
928:
925:
921:
920:
919:
913:
911:
907:
903:
898:
890:
888:
886:
877:
874:
871:
866:
863:
859:
855:
848:
845:
842:
839:
835:
831:
830:
829:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
799:
797:
790:
785:
783:
779:
777:
772:million years
771:
766:
762:
761:precipitation
758:
752:
743:
735:
728:
723:
716:
714:
712:
708:
703:
701:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
675:ancient Egypt
670:
666:
658:
656:
654:
650:
646:
642:
641:Younger Dryas
638:
633:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
594:life sciences
591:
588:methods from
587:
582:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
544:
539:
537:
532:
530:
525:
524:
522:
521:
518:
514:
511:
510:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
472:Paleopedology
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
457:Paleomycology
455:
453:
450:
448:
447:Paleogenetics
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
399:
393:
392:
385:
382:
380:
377:
376:
370:
369:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
338:
332:
331:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
245:
239:
238:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
182:
176:
175:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
132:Geochronology
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
119:
113:
112:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
70:
67:
65:
62:
60:
59:Fossilization
57:
56:
50:
49:
45:
41:
40:
37:
33:
29:
28:
19:
7541:Paleontology
7499:
7487:
7475:
7456:
7425:
7289:Carbon cycle
7246:Measurements
6941:Society and
6825:carbon sinks
6730:Climate debt
6720:Carbon price
6542:Human rights
6367:Season creep
6325:heat content
6251:Anoxic event
6164:James Hansen
5915:
5903:
5884:
5784:Applications
5755:Geomagnetism
5679:Hydrogeology
5616:
5612:Paleontology
5607:Stratigraphy
5574:Geochemistry
5436:
5424:
5412:
5334:Soil science
5329:Oceanography
5315:
5303:Biogeography
5200:
5196:
5187:
5168:
5153:
5135:
5127:
5110:
5090:
5069:
5040:
5019:
5000:
4973:
4963:Bibliography
4935:
4931:
4925:
4874:
4870:
4860:
4844:James Hansen
4838:
4793:
4789:
4779:
4734:
4730:
4720:
4687:
4683:
4677:
4657:
4650:
4641:
4640:. IPCC AR5.
4606:
4599:
4585:
4565:
4558:
4536:
4524:. Retrieved
4520:the original
4502:
4475:
4471:
4461:
4418:
4414:
4404:
4353:
4349:
4336:
4287:
4283:
4270:
4217:
4213:
4203:
4158:
4154:
4144:
4117:
4113:
4095:
4054:
4050:
4033:
4022:, retrieved
4008:
3998:
3987:, retrieved
3965:
3955:
3920:
3916:
3906:
3895:, retrieved
3873:
3863:
3852:, retrieved
3830:
3820:
3808:. Retrieved
3756:
3752:
3738:
3726:. Retrieved
3722:
3713:
3701:
3676:
3665:
3652:
3644:
3639:
3631:
3630:B. Windley:
3626:
3591:
3587:
3580:Schaefer, L.
3578:Zahnle, K.;
3558:
3549:
3546:Goudie, A.S.
3540:
3517:
3490:
3484:
3475:
3465:
3424:
3420:
3414:
3381:
3377:
3371:
3338:
3334:
3324:
3314:22 September
3312:. Retrieved
3303:
3262:
3258:
3245:
3233:. Retrieved
3218:
3211:
3199:. Retrieved
3195:
3185:
3173:. Retrieved
3164:
3155:
3135:
3104:
3081:
3046:
3042:
3032:
3013:
3007:
2918:
2871:carbon cycle
2856:
2808:
2778:The Earth's
2777:
2768:
2725:
2711:
2707:
2692:
2635:
2615:
2597:
2580:
2576:
2520:
2498:
2418:
2382:
2373:carbon cycle
2365:stromatolite
2346:
2338:
2315:
2276:, primarily
2274:solar nebula
2267:
2241:
1789:Earth formed
1202:(535–536 CE)
1105:
1062:
1034:
1013:
983:
946:Foraminifera
917:
908:
904:
900:
882:
876:Volcanic ash
803:
794:
780:
754:
704:
691:Robert Hooke
683:Indus Valley
672:
634:
626:microfossils
583:
566:
558:
557:
555:
482:Paleozoology
442:Paleoecology
432:Paleobiology
185:Avian flight
156:
122:Biogeography
79:Index fossil
64:Trace fossil
36:Paleontology
7316:Carbon sink
7294:atmospheric
7159:video games
6833:Blue carbon
6456:Agriculture
6435:Marine life
6382:Water cycle
6340:temperature
6075:Fossil fuel
5855:Occupations
5836:Meteoritics
5702:Cartography
5658:Volcanology
5643:Geodynamics
5312:Climatology
5298:Meteorology
4120:(3): 4–10.
3705:Peter Ward:
3643:J. Schopf:
3563:Cronin 2010
3088:, p. 1
3086:Cronin 2010
2822:(Biosphere)
2800:lithosphere
2796:hydrosphere
2573:Phanerozoic
2563:Changes in
2517:Precambrian
2410:Phanerozoic
1245:This box:
1214:(1300–1800)
1152:(251.9 Mya)
1078:cosmic rays
757:temperature
679:Mesopotamia
637:glaciations
437:Paleobotany
258:Cephalopods
253:Butterflies
69:Microfossil
7551:Categories
7348:Cryosphere
7309:permafrost
7081:Resilience
7033:Adaptation
7008:Litigation
6998:Governance
6943:adaptation
6725:Carbon tax
6678:Mitigation
6615:Antarctica
6503:Disability
5816:Geobiology
5791:Biogeology
5770:Seismology
5747:Geophysics
5674:Glaciology
5579:Mineralogy
5367:Glaciology
5347:Geobiology
5342:Edaphology
4871:Geobiology
4024:9 February
3989:9 February
3923:: 107286.
3897:9 February
3854:9 February
3384:(6): 463.
2994:References
2910:Jim Hansen
2906:glaciation
2863:subduction
2859:weathering
2853:Mechanisms
2809:Examples:
2792:cryosphere
2784:atmosphere
2756:insolation
2748:tropopause
2687:See also:
2683:Quaternary
2604:Cretaceous
2589:Antarctica
2531:biomarkers
2456:See also:
2306:solar wind
2292:, notably
2253:See also:
1581:Arthropods
1521:Eukaryotes
1208:(900–1300)
1146:(~300 Mya)
1140:(~450 Mya)
1092:See also:
1049:Quaternary
870:Palynology
822:Antarctica
814:ice sheets
776:diagenesis
614:tree rings
610:ice sheets
487:Palynology
356:Cladistics
195:Multicells
7363:Feedbacks
7134:Education
6635:Caribbean
6630:Australia
6557:Migration
6520:Fisheries
6461:Livestock
6387:Wildfires
6293:Heat wave
5862:Geologist
5717:Geomatics
5584:Petrology
5488:Overviews
5376:Limnology
5372:Hydrology
5225:128885809
4887:CiteSeerX
4445:0028-0836
4380:0028-0836
4312:0036-8075
4244:0027-8424
4114:GSA Today
3947:0301-9268
3810:8 October
3805:221593388
3789:0036-8075
3728:8 October
3406:129376515
3363:1757-7780
2920:Ice sheet
2894:volcanism
2788:biosphere
2705:Period).
2593:deciduous
2565:oxygen-18
2402:oxidizing
2334:asteroids
2326:volcanism
1602:Dinosaurs
1172:Paleocene
1025:coralline
986:sea level
940:ratio of
931:alkenones
861:detected.
858:Oxygen-16
847:Oxygen-18
828:project.
818:Greenland
804:Mountain
765:subducted
606:boreholes
602:sediments
497:Taphonomy
407:Ichnology
351:Phylogeny
335:Evolution
323:Tetrapods
268:Dinosaurs
263:Cetaceans
7489:Glossary
7477:Category
7299:biologic
7013:Politics
6905:Personal
6610:Americas
6473:Children
6239:Physical
6032:Overview
5972:Overview
5414:Category
5338:Pedology
5156:Herbst,
5067:(1986).
4917:32023645
4909:22353368
4852:Archived
4846:(2009).
4830:24616495
4771:18362343
4712:45143101
4544:(2007).
4526:14 April
4510:(2007).
4453:18385736
4388:18480821
4328:30125808
4320:17615306
4262:27790990
4195:24616495
4079:17851520
3797:32913105
3723:phys.org
3673:(2007).
3618:20573713
3449:12867972
3295:30125808
3287:17615306
3073:18198148
2976:Paleomap
2934:See also
2882:silicate
2764:aerosols
2732:sunlight
2699:ice ages
2600:Jurassic
2435:release
2398:reducing
2353:Archaean
2318:nitrogen
2282:hydrides
2278:hydrogen
2243:Ice Ages
1636:Primates
1584:Molluscs
1178:, 55Mya)
1164:(66 Mya)
1053:Holocene
810:ice caps
806:glaciers
571:climates
517:Category
313:Sea cows
308:Reptiles
298:Molluscs
205:Flagella
7529:Geology
7515:Portals
7304:oceanic
7154:fiction
7003:Justice
6954:Society
6562:Poverty
6271:Drought
6139:History
6063:Sources
5917:Geology
5905:Geology
5694:Geodesy
5481:Geology
5438:Commons
5352:Geology
5205:Bibcode
4940:Bibcode
4879:Bibcode
4821:3970481
4798:Bibcode
4762:2278177
4739:Bibcode
4692:Bibcode
4480:Bibcode
4423:Bibcode
4396:1382081
4358:Bibcode
4292:Bibcode
4284:Science
4253:5087067
4222:Bibcode
4186:3970481
4163:Bibcode
4122:Bibcode
4087:4388925
4059:Bibcode
3925:Bibcode
3761:Bibcode
3753:Science
3609:2944365
3457:6088699
3429:Bibcode
3386:Bibcode
3378:Geology
3343:Bibcode
3267:Bibcode
3259:Science
3235:1 April
3064:2596898
2703:Neogene
2619:ice age
2302:ammonia
2298:methane
2296:vapor,
2286:Jupiter
2211:←
2187:←
2166:←
2146:←
2125:←
2105:←
2085:←
2064:←
2044:←
2024:←
2004:←
1984:←
1964:←
1943:←
1923:←
1902:←
1882:←
1862:←
1842:←
1822:←
1802:←
1782:←
1618:Mammals
1593:Flowers
1452:–
1447:—
1442:–
1432:–
1427:—
1422:–
1412:–
1407:—
1402:–
1392:–
1387:—
1382:–
1372:–
1367:—
1362:–
1352:–
1347:—
1342:–
1332:–
1327:—
1322:–
1312:–
1307:—
1302:–
1292:–
1287:—
1282:–
1113:(start)
1035:Within
942:calcite
837:formed.
659:History
318:Spiders
293:Mammals
288:Insects
53:Fossils
7284:Albedo
7277:Theory
6988:Denial
6779:Energy
6640:Europe
6620:Arctic
6605:Africa
6530:Health
6525:Gender
6478:Cities
6403:Biomes
6310:Oceans
6298:Marine
6021:Causes
5426:Portal
5223:
5175:
5160:
5143:
5117:
5098:
5077:
5049:
5026:
5007:
4971:about
4915:
4907:
4889:
4828:
4818:
4769:
4759:
4710:
4684:Nature
4665:
4614:
4573:
4451:
4443:
4415:Nature
4394:
4386:
4378:
4350:Nature
4326:
4318:
4310:
4260:
4250:
4242:
4193:
4183:
4085:
4077:
4051:Nature
4015:
3980:
3945:
3888:
3845:
3803:
3795:
3787:
3689:
3616:
3606:
3505:
3455:
3447:
3421:Nature
3404:
3361:
3293:
3285:
3226:
3201:3 June
3175:3 June
3143:
3111:
3071:
3061:
3020:
2798:, and
2648:, and
2608:Pangea
2437:sulfur
2429:pyrite
2300:, and
2290:Saturn
2198:humans
1771:
1764:
1610:
1573:
1545:
1529:
1513:
1497:
1481:
1465:
1220:(1816)
1176:Eocene
1100:, and
961:δ
954:δ
924:pollen
865:Pollen
852:δ
695:Dorset
681:, the
624:, and
622:shells
618:corals
303:Plants
283:Humans
273:Fishes
7501:Index
7263:Proxy
7023:Women
6488:Crime
6415:Birds
6281:Flood
5667:Water
5221:S2CID
4913:S2CID
4708:S2CID
4638:(PDF)
4392:S2CID
4346:(PDF)
4324:S2CID
4280:(PDF)
4083:S2CID
4047:(PDF)
3801:S2CID
3749:(PDF)
3453:S2CID
3402:S2CID
3291:S2CID
3255:(PDF)
2999:Notes
2359:(see
2294:water
1627:Birds
1473:Water
938:Mg/Ca
826:EPICA
687:China
598:rocks
590:Earth
586:proxy
278:Fungi
248:Birds
190:Cells
7086:Risk
6625:Asia
6207:2024
6202:2023
6197:2022
6192:2021
6187:2020
6182:2019
5173:ISBN
5158:ISBN
5141:ISBN
5115:ISBN
5096:ISBN
5075:ISBN
5047:ISBN
5024:ISBN
5005:ISBN
4905:PMID
4826:PMID
4790:PNAS
4767:PMID
4731:PNAS
4663:ISBN
4643:use.
4612:ISBN
4571:ISBN
4550:IPCC
4542:IPCC
4528:2014
4516:IPCC
4508:IPCC
4449:PMID
4441:ISSN
4384:PMID
4376:ISSN
4316:PMID
4308:ISSN
4258:PMID
4240:ISSN
4191:PMID
4155:PNAS
4075:PMID
4026:2024
4013:ISBN
3991:2024
3978:ISBN
3943:ISSN
3899:2024
3886:ISBN
3856:2024
3843:ISBN
3812:2020
3793:PMID
3785:ISSN
3730:2020
3687:ISBN
3614:PMID
3503:ISBN
3445:PMID
3359:ISSN
3316:2011
3283:PMID
3237:2024
3224:ISBN
3203:2024
3177:2024
3169:NOAA
3141:ISBN
3109:ISBN
3069:PMID
3018:ISBN
2832:The
2820:Life
2762:and
2602:and
2491:The
2484:The
2477:The
2470:The
2463:The
2431:and
2288:and
2268:The
2257:and
1829:LUCA
1265:edit
1258:talk
1251:view
879:ice.
834:snow
820:and
685:and
667:and
592:and
210:Hair
200:Eyes
7149:art
5213:doi
5201:114
4948:doi
4897:doi
4816:PMC
4806:doi
4794:111
4757:PMC
4747:doi
4735:105
4700:doi
4688:357
4488:doi
4431:doi
4419:452
4366:doi
4354:453
4300:doi
4288:317
4248:PMC
4230:doi
4218:113
4181:PMC
4171:doi
4159:111
4130:doi
4106:"CO
4067:doi
4055:449
3970:doi
3933:doi
3921:402
3878:doi
3835:doi
3777:hdl
3769:doi
3757:369
3604:PMC
3596:doi
3528:doi
3495:doi
3437:doi
3425:424
3394:doi
3351:doi
3275:doi
3263:317
3059:PMC
3051:doi
3047:275
2865:of
2344:".
1023:of
944:in
800:Ice
770:200
230:Sex
7553::
5374:/
5340:/
5336:/
5327:/
5318:/
5314:/
5305:/
5296:/
5219:.
5211:.
5199:.
5063:;
4946:.
4936:70
4934:.
4911:.
4903:.
4895:.
4885:.
4875:10
4873:.
4824:.
4814:.
4804:.
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1096:,
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1673:A
1657:n
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963:C
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