1191:"There is considerable confidence that climate models provide credible quantitative estimates of future climate change, particularly at continental scales and above. This confidence comes from the foundation of the models in accepted physical principles and from their ability to reproduce observed features of current climate and past climate changes. Confidence in model estimates is higher for some climate variables (e.g., temperature) than for others (e.g., precipitation). Over several decades of development, models have consistently provided a robust and unambiguous picture of significant climate warming in response to increasing greenhouse gases."
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911:(which must be reduced by the fourth power of the ratio of cloud absolute temperature to average surface absolute temperature) and an average cloud temperature of about 258 K (−15 °C; 5 °F). Taking all this properly into account results in an effective earth emissivity of about 0.64 (earth average temperature 285 K (12 °C; 53 °F)).
931:, which may be readily extended to an arbitrary number of atmospheric layers. The surface and atmospheric layer(s) are each characterized by a corresponding temperature and emissivity value, but no thickness. Applying radiative equilibrium (i.e conservation of energy) at the interfaces between layers produces a set of coupled equations which are solvable.
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states, the constituent and dimensional complexities of the system needed to be reduced. A simple quantitative model that balanced incoming/outgoing energy was first developed for the atmosphere in the late 19th century. Other EBMs similarly seek an economical description of surface temperatures by
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The calculated emissivity can be compared to available data. Terrestrial surface emissivities are all in the range of 0.96 to 0.99 (except for some small desert areas which may be as low as 0.7). Clouds, however, which cover about half of the planet's surface, have an average emissivity of about 0.5
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view while highly limited is still useful in that the laws of physics are applicable in a bulk fashion to unknown objects, or in an appropriate lumped manner if some major properties of the object are known. For example, astronomers know that most planets in our own solar system feature some kind
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or climate model is a method of replacing processes that are too small-scale or complex to be physically represented in the model by a simplified process. This can be contrasted with other processes—e.g., large-scale flow of the atmosphere—that are explicitly resolved within the models. Associated
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Techniques that could lead to energy savings, include for example: "reducing floating point precision computation; developing machine learning algorithms to avoid unnecessary computations; and creating a new generation of scalable numerical algorithms that would enable higher throughput in terms of
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operating at the highest spatial and temporal resolution currently feasible. Models of intermediate complexity bridge the gap. One example is the
Climber-3 model. Its atmosphere is a 2.5-dimensional statistical-dynamical model with 7.5° × 22.5° resolution and time step of half a day; the ocean is
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Box 2.3. 'Models' are typically numerical simulations of real-world systems, calibrated and validated using observations from experiments or analogies, and then run using input data representing future climate. Models can also include largely descriptive narratives of possible futures, such as
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Simple box models, i.e. box model with a small number of boxes whose properties (e.g. their volume) do not change with time, are often useful to derive analytical formulas describing the dynamics and steady-state abundance of a species. More complex box models are usually solved using numerical
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Radiative-convective models have advantages over simpler models and also lay a foundation for more complex models. They can estimate both surface temperature and the temperature variation with elevation in a more realistic manner. They also simulate the observed decline in upper atmospheric
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Big climate models are essential but they are not perfect. Attention still needs to be given to the real world (what is happening and why). The global models are essential to assimilate all the observations, especially from space (satellites) and produce comprehensive analyses of what is
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report discussed how the large and diverse U.S. climate modeling enterprise could evolve to become more unified. Efficiencies could be gained by developing a common software infrastructure shared by all U.S. climate researchers, and holding an annual climate modeling forum, the report found.
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in the model's atmosphere gave a roughly 2 °C rise in global temperature. Several other kinds of computer models gave similar results: it was impossible to make a model that gave something resembling the actual climate and not have the temperature rise when the
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is a main determinant of the emissivity of Earth's atmosphere. It both influences the flows of radiation and is influenced by convective flows of heat in a manner that is consistent with its equilibrium concentration and temperature as a function of elevation (i.e.
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averaged. This model has the advantage of allowing a rational dependence of local albedo and emissivity on temperature – the poles can be allowed to be icy and the equator warm – but the lack of true dynamics means that horizontal transports have to be specified.
1166:. The latest update (version 3.1) of the standalone CAM was issued on 1 February 2006. In 1986, efforts began to initialize and model soil and vegetation types, resulting in more realistic forecasts. Coupled ocean-atmosphere climate models, such as the
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of Earth's combined surface and atmosphere (including clouds). It is a quantity between 0 and 1 that is calculated from the equilibrium to be about 0.61. For the zero-dimensional treatment it is equivalent to an average value over all viewing
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This very simple model is quite instructive. For example, it shows the temperature sensitivity to changes in the solar constant, Earth albedo, or effective Earth emissivity. The effective emissivity also gauges the strength of the atmospheric
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AOGCMs represent the pinnacle of complexity in climate models and internalise as many processes as possible. However, they are still under development and uncertainties remain. They may be coupled to models of other processes, such as the
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Simulation of the climate system in full 3-D space and time was impractical prior to the establishment of large computational facilities starting in the 1960s. In order to begin to understand which factors may have changed Earth's
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is therefore uniform. However, the abundance of a species within a given box may vary as a function of time due to the input to (or loss from) the box or due to the production, consumption or decay of this species within the box.
1289:. Radiative parameterizations are important to both atmospheric and oceanic modeling alike. Atmospheric emissions from different sources within individual grid boxes also need to be parameterized to determine their impact on
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In 1956, Norman
Phillips developed a mathematical model that realistically depicted monthly and seasonal patterns in the troposphere. This was the first successful climate model. Several groups then began working to create
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happening, and then they can be used to make predictions/projections. Simple models have a role to play that is widely abused and fails to recognize the simplifications such as not including a water cycle.
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transfer model treats the Earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy. This can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models) and horizontally. More complex models are the coupled atmosphere–ocean–
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Other parameters are sometimes included to simulate localized effects in other dimensions and to address the factors that move energy about Earth. For example, the effect of ice-albedo feedback on global
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distribution). This has been shown by refining the zero dimension model in the vertical to a one-dimensional radiative-convective model which considers two processes of energy transport:
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505:. A variety of these and other reduced system models can be useful for specialized tasks that supplement GCMs, particularly to bridge gaps between simulation and understanding.
441:, ARPEGE-Climat) combine the two models. The first general circulation climate model that combined both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the
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1370:"AR5 Synthesis Report - Climate Change 2014. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change"
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Depending on the nature of questions asked and the pertinent time scales, there are, on the one extreme, conceptual, more inductive models, and, on the other extreme,
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Layered models produce temperatures that better estimate those observed for Earth's surface and atmospheric levels. They likewise further illustrate the radiative
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339:. To "run" a model, scientists divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid, apply the basic equations, and evaluate the results. Atmospheric models calculate
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1966:"METEO 469: From Meteorology to Mitigation - Understanding Global Warming - Lesson 5 - Modelling of the Climate System - One-Layer Energy Balance Model"
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processes which underlie the greenhouse effect. Quantification of this phenomenon using a version of the one-layer model was first published by
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Dimensionless models have also been constructed with functionally separated atmospheric layers from the surface. The simplest of these is the
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The zero-dimensional model may be expanded to consider the energy transported horizontally in the atmosphere. This kind of model may well be
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used in the simplified processes. Examples include the descent rate of raindrops, convective clouds, simplifications of the atmospheric
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103:. Climate models can also be qualitative (i.e. not numerical) models and contain narratives, largely descriptive, of possible futures.
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1132:. The first general circulation climate model combined oceanic and atmospheric processes and was developed in the late 1960s at the
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This article is about the theories and mathematics of climate modeling. For computer-driven prediction of Earth's climate, see
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471:. These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical, chemical and sometimes biological equations.
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in the climate system and has been considered foundational for the energy balance models since its publication in 1969.
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Sarmiento, J.L.; Toggweiler, J.R. (1984). "A new model for the role of the oceans in determining atmospheric P CO 2".
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had developed the
Community Atmosphere Model (CAM), which can be run by itself or as the atmospheric component of the
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Proceedings of the
Eleventh Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Science Team Meeting March 2001 Atlanta, Georgia
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North, Gerald R.; Stevens, Mark J. (2006), "Energy-balance climate models", in Kiehl, J. T.; Ramanathan, V. (eds.),
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upwelling and downwelling radiative transfer through atmospheric layers that both absorb and emit infrared radiation
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1080:) linked by fluxes. The boxes are assumed to be mixed homogeneously. Within a given box, the concentration of any
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Proceedings of the Eighth
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Science Team Meeting March 1998 Tucson, Arizona
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1810:"An Improved Land Surface Emissivity Parameter for Land Surface Models Using Global Remote Sensing Observations"
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Essential features of EBMs include their relative conceptual simplicity and their ability to sometimes produce
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2086:"Effect of ice-albedo feedback on global sensitivity in a one-dimensional radiative-convective climate model"
2064:"Pubs.GISS: Wang and Stone 1980: Effect of ice-albedo feedback on global sensitivity in a one-dimensional..."
907:, since it is the ratio of the thermal emissions escaping to space versus those emanating from the surface.
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the right hand side represents the total outgoing longwave power (in Watts) from Earth, calculated from the
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Universities: Relevant departments include atmospheric sciences, meteorology, climatology, and geography.
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187:. Scientists divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid and apply the basic equations to those grids.
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There are three major types of institution where climate models are developed, implemented and used:
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1888:"Microwave and IR Radiometry for Estimation of Atmospheric Radiation Balance and Sea Ice Formation"
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Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by
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those used in scenario construction. Quantitative and descriptive models are often used together.
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upward transport of heat by air and vapor convection, which is especially important in the lower
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Box models are used extensively to model environmental systems or ecosystems and in studies of
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consumes 29 MW. It can simulate a year’s worth of climate at cloud resolving scales in a day.
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Held, Isaac M. (2005). "The gap between simulation and understanding in climate modelling".
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The IPCC stated in 2010 it has increased confidence in forecasts coming from climate models:
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within each grid and evaluate interactions with neighboring points. These are coupled with
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1972:
College of
Mineral and Earth Sciences - Department of Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences
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and radiant exchange. In addition, other types of models can be interlinked. For example
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2014:
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the left hand side represents the total incoming shortwave power (in Watts) from the Sun
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1999:"Thermal Equilibrium of the Atmosphere with a Given Distribution of Relative Humidity"
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Polvani, L. M.; Clement, A. C.; Medeiros, B.; Benedict, J. J.; Simpson, I. R. (2017).
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1916:"ACS Climate Science Toolkit - Atmospheric Warming - A Single-Layer Atmosphere Model"
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2178:"A Global Climatic Model Based on the Energy Balance of the Earth-Atmosphere System"
1965:
1941:"ACS Climate Science Toolkit - Atmospheric Warming - A Multi-Layer Atmosphere Model"
1693:
1241:(billion billion – i.e., a quintillion – calculations per second). For example, the
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the left hand side represents the incoming shortwave energy flux from the Sun in W·m
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the right hand side represents the outgoing longwave energy flux from Earth in W·m.
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T.R. Shippert; S.A. Clough; P.D. Brown; W.L. Smith; R.O. Knuteson; S.A. Ackerman.
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Box models are simplified versions of complex systems, reducing them to boxes (or
990:
has been investigated using a one-dimensional radiative-convective climate model.
2859:
Primary research GCM developed by NASA/GISS (Goddard
Institute for Space Studies)
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1503:"On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground"
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that gave a roughly accurate representation of the current climate. Doubling CO
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from the Sun as well as outgoing energy from Earth. An imbalance results in a
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Zero-dimensional models consider Earth as a point in space, analogous to the
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The remaining variable parameters which are specific to the planet include
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can be factored out, giving a nildimensional equation for the equilibrium
164:. This allows researchers to predict the interactions between climate and
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the Earth's atmosphere or oceans. Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs (AGCM and
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National meteorological services: Most national weather services have a
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1208:(WMO), coordinates research activities on climate modelling worldwide.
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National and international research laboratories: Examples include the
176:
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76:
48:
2620:
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J. Graham Cogley (1990). "Twenty-five years of physical climatology".
2145:"The effect of solar radiation variations on the climate of the Earth"
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4803:
4735:
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1581:, Wiley Series in Atmospheric Physics and Remote Sensing, Wiley-VCH,
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Climate models divide the planet into a 3-dimensional grid and apply
2582:"Impact of vegetation properties on U. S. summer weather prediction"
1502:
429:
as boundary conditions. Coupled atmosphere-ocean GCMs (AOGCMs, e.g.
148:. These types of models solve the full equations for mass transfer,
2808:"Cloud-resolving climate model meets world's fastest supercomputer"
2307:"The general circulation of the atmosphere: a numerical experiment"
2244:
1715:"Scientists Watch Dark Side of the Moon to Monitor Earth's Climate"
1444:
1442:
1411:
Trenberth, Kevin E. (2022). "Chapter 1: Earth and
Climate System".
359:
within each grid and evaluate interactions with neighboring points.
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CarbonBrief, Guest post by
Belcher, Boucher, Sutton, 21 March 2019
2783:"Frontier to Meet 20MW Exascale Power Target Set by DARPA in 2008"
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Cloud-resolving climate models are nowadays run on high intensity
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The
Emergence of Numerical Weather Prediction: Richardson's Dream
490:
constraint to individual columns of the Earth-atmosphere system.
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By 1975, Manabe and Wetherald had developed a three-dimensional
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655:– the incoming solar radiation per unit area—about 1367 W·m
442:
404:
114:. The incoming energy from the Sun is in the form of short wave
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1630:"When less is more: opening the door to simpler climate models"
617:{\displaystyle (1-a)S\pi r^{2}=4\pi r^{2}\epsilon \sigma T^{4}}
391:). These equations are the basis for computer programs used to
2520:"Description of the NCAR Community Atmosphere Model (CAM 3.0)"
4133:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
2835:
Why results from the next generation of climate models matter
1481:"NOAA 200th Top Tens: Breakthroughs: The First Climate Model"
95:. Scientists use climate models to study the dynamics of the
2454:
Concentration on the Climate of a General Circulation Model"
526:
of solid/liquid surface surrounded by a gaseous atmosphere.
4479:
Atmospheric, oceanographic, cryospheric, and climate models
2479:
10.1175/1520-0469(1975)032<0003:teodtc>2.0.co;2
2203:
10.1175/1520-0450(1969)008<0392:AGCMBO>2.0.CO;2
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10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<0545:EOIAFO>2.0.CO;2
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10.1175/1520-0469(1967)024<0241:TEOTAW>2.0.CO;2
667:
75:
that can simulate the interactions of important drivers of
47:
to each grid. The equations are based on the basic laws of
978:
amounts of other non-condensible greenhouse gases such as
4309:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
2746:"Earth System Modeling Must Become More Energy Efficient"
2580:
Yongkang Xue & Michael J. Fennessey (20 March 1996).
1345:
Verification and validation of computer simulation models
521:
or an astronomer's view of very distant objects. This
425:
Atmospheric GCMs (AGCMs) model the atmosphere and impose
137:
Climate models vary in complexity. For example, a simple
295:
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement
130:
electromagnetic energy. These processes are part of the
126:. The outgoing energy is in the form of long wave (far)
1886:
A.G. Gorelik; V. Sterljadkin; E. Kadygrov; A. Koldaev.
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Earth systems models of intermediate complexity (EMICs)
1414:
The Changing Flow of Energy Through the Climate System
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4150:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
2870:
CCCma model info and interface to retrieve model data
2866:(GCM) with a user-friendly interface for PCs and Macs
2315:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
1233:
which have a high power consumption and thus cause CO
878:
846:
818:
743:
709:
680:
547:
1659:"Earthshine Observations of the Earth's Reflectance"
1045:) with a 3.75° × 3.75° grid and 24 vertical levels.
915:
Models with separated surface and atmospheric layers
219:
that occurs on different timescales due to shifting
5260:
5214:
5188:
5132:
5084:
4971:
4955:
4929:
4898:
4812:
4763:
4705:
4643:
4587:
4327:
4212:
4181:
4110:
4045:
3967:
3889:
3840:
3757:
3714:
3624:
3531:
3394:
3341:
3184:
3008:
2977:
1057:Schematic of a simple box model used to illustrate
2714:A National Strategy for Advancing Climate Modeling
2684:A National Strategy for Advancing Climate Modeling
1859:"Spectral Cloud Emissivities from LBLRTM/AERI QME"
884:
852:
824:
786:
726:
686:
616:
2712:"U.S. National Research Council Report-in-Brief,
1168:Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research
974:temperature and rise in surface temperature when
283:Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research
99:and to make projections of future climate and of
4350:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
2560:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
2527:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
2424:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1603:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
1138:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
663:is Earth's radius—approximately 6.371×10 m
367:(GCM) is a type of climate model. It employs a
1767:"Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System"
1032:Earth systems model of intermediate complexity
235:better accounts for long term effects such as
5062:
4464:
3095:History of climate change policy and politics
2890:
2518:William D. Collins; et al. (June 2004).
1507:Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
787:{\displaystyle (1-a)S=4\epsilon \sigma T^{4}}
18:Quantitative methods used to simulate climate
8:
1989:
1987:
410:GCMs and global climate models are used for
231:of change may also be applied. Including an
3212:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
5069:
5055:
5047:
4584:
4573:
4485:
4471:
4457:
4449:
4431:
4419:
4178:
4167:
3886:
3872:
3621:
3608:
3181:
3168:
3080:
2974:
2961:
2913:
2897:
2883:
2875:
1417:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
1183:Increase of forecasts confidence over time
530:Model with combined surface and atmosphere
371:of the general circulation of a planetary
3977:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
3120:United Nations Climate Change conferences
2757:
2610:
2477:
2201:
2160:
2109:
2022:
1641:
1577:North, Gerald R.; Kwang-Yul, Kim (2017),
1552:
1530:
1528:
1273:with these parameterizations are various
877:
845:
817:
778:
742:
718:
713:
708:
679:
608:
592:
573:
546:
3681:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
2848:NCAR/UCAR Community Climate System Model
2682:"U.S. National Research Council Report,
1496:
1494:
1160:National Center for Atmospheric Research
1061:in geochemical cycles, showing a source
263:National Center for Atmospheric Research
106:Climate models take account of incoming
28:For broader coverage of this topic, see
5310:
4037:National Adaptation Programme of Action
3826:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
2864:Original NASA/GISS global climate model
1904:from the original on 25 September 2006.
1875:from the original on 25 September 2006.
1360:
671:is the mathematical constant (3.141...)
5237:Construction and management simulation
3686:Economics of climate change mitigation
3649:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
3000:Scientific consensus on climate change
2355:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p.
1997:; Wetherald, Richard T. (1 May 1967).
1393:
1382:
4345:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
2739:
2737:
2650:"Climate Models and Their Evaluation"
1249:simulated years per wall clock day."
1134:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
1018:). This work also showed the role of
465:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
446:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
271:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
7:
5348:Numerical climate and weather models
5273:List of computer simulation software
4764:Regional and mesoscale oceanographic
4367:Representative Concentration Pathway
3318:Tipping points in the climate system
2994:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
1745:"Climate Change: Global Temperature"
1539:, Cambridge University, p. 52,
1283:atmospheric radiative transfer codes
1174:model, are being used as inputs for
1121:Atmospheric model § Climate modeling
923:One-layer EBM with blackbody surface
291:Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
4138:Nationally determined contributions
3848:Individual action on climate change
3063:World energy supply and consumption
2556:"CAM3.0 COMMUNITY ATMOSPHERE MODEL"
2458:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
2448:Manabe S.; Wetherald R. T. (1975).
2003:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
1006:Early examples include research of
4706:Regional and mesoscale atmospheric
4277:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
1703:from the original on 22 July 2018.
1657:Goode, P. R.; et al. (2001).
1260:Parametrization (climate modeling)
383:terms for various energy sources (
14:
4204:Satellite temperature measurement
3809:forestry for carbon sequestration
3100:History of climate change science
2854:Do it yourself climate prediction
2305:Norman A. Phillips (April 1956).
1846:from the original on 4 June 2007.
1791:"Seawater Samples - Emissivities"
1340:Tropical cyclone prediction model
1314:Atmospheric Radiation Measurement
1206:World Meteorological Organization
1114:History of climate change science
929:zero-dimensional, one-layer model
306:General circulation models (GCMs)
5325:
5313:
4430:
4418:
4407:
4406:
4394:
4055:Climate Change Performance Index
1258:This section is an excerpt from
1202:World Climate Research Programme
1119:This section is an excerpt from
642:The constant parameters include
399:) are key components along with
311:This section is an excerpt from
5201:Integrated assessment modelling
4530:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
4525:Tropical cyclone forecast model
4194:Instrumental temperature record
4145:Sustainable Development Goal 13
2590:Journal of Geophysical Research
2450:"The Effects of Doubling the CO
2084:Wang, W.C.; P.H. Stone (1980).
1808:Jin M, Liang S (15 June 2006).
1721:. 17 April 2001. Archived from
1452:. NOAA 200th Celebration. 2007.
1243:Frontier exascale supercomputer
4262:Climate variability and change
3303:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
2182:Journal of Applied Meteorology
1537:Frontiers in Climate Modelling
1213:U.S. National Research Council
1164:Community Climate System Model
756:
744:
699:—approximately 5.67×10 J·K·m·s
560:
548:
323:Climate models are systems of
279:Los Alamos National Laboratory
217:climate variability and change
171:Climate models are systems of
1:
4372:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
3907:Climate emergency declaration
1970:Pennsylvania State University
1579:Energy Balance Climate Models
1237:emissions. They require
1158:By the early 1980s, the U.S.
1156:concentration was increased.
865:, measured as about 288
223:and the much larger combined
5170:Hydrological transport model
5124:Protein structure prediction
5119:Modelling biological systems
4930:Land surface parametrization
4520:Numerical weather prediction
4355:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
3581:Middle East and North Africa
2231:10.1016/0921-8181(90)90001-S
1772:. NASA. 2013. Archived from
1545:10.1017/CBO9780511535857.004
1330:Numerical Weather Prediction
476:Energy balance models (EBMs)
293:in Hamburg, Germany, or the
5114:Metabolic network modelling
2219:Global and Planetary Change
2176:William D. Sellers (1969).
2162:10.3402/tellusa.v21i5.10109
946:Radiative-convective models
863:average surface temperature
727:{\displaystyle \pi \,r^{2}}
534:A very simple model of the
327:based on the basic laws of
175:based on the basic laws of
5369:
5227:Business process modelling
4189:Global surface temperature
4080:Popular culture depictions
3992:Ecosystem-based adaptation
3722:Carbon capture and storage
3644:Carbon offsets and credits
2842:Climate models on the web:
2393:Cambridge University Press
1719:American Geophysical Union
1257:
1136:, a component of the U.S.
1130:general circulation models
1118:
1111:
1100:. They are instances of a
1038:general circulation models
1029:
379:on a rotating sphere with
310:
27:
20:
5099:Chemical process modeling
5016:
4583:
4572:
4555:Meteorological reanalysis
4495:
4484:
4401:Climate change portal
4388:
4294:Extreme event attribution
4177:
4166:
3917:School Strike for Climate
3885:
3871:
3796:Climate-smart agriculture
3620:
3607:
3180:
3167:
3090:
3079:
2973:
2960:
2943:Climate change adaptation
2938:Climate change mitigation
2933:Effects of climate change
2923:
2912:
2428:"The First Climate Model"
1945:American Chemical Society
1920:American Chemical Society
1519:10.1080/14786449608620846
1501:Svante Arrhenius (1896).
1467:27 September 2007 at the
1450:"The First Climate Model"
885:{\displaystyle \epsilon }
697:Stefan–Boltzmann constant
365:general circulation model
313:General circulation model
116:electromagnetic radiation
23:General circulation model
5145:Chemical transport model
5109:Infectious disease model
4540:Upper-atmospheric models
4535:Chemical transport model
4304:Global warming potential
4111:International agreements
3758:Preserving and enhancing
3202:Arctic methane emissions
3124:Years in climate change
3031:Greenhouse gas emissions
2928:Causes of climate change
2781:Trader, Tiffany (2021).
2385:"The ENIAC Integrations"
1335:Static atmospheric model
1309:Chemical transport model
1196:Coordination of research
427:sea surface temperatures
225:volume and heat capacity
79:. These drivers are the
4550:Model output statistics
4335:Climate change scenario
3987:Disaster risk reduction
3639:Carbon emission trading
3449:U.S. insurance industry
3429:Civilizational collapse
3276:sea surface temperature
2126:"Energy Balance Models"
1615:10.1175/BAMS-86-11-1609
1225:Electricity consumption
1102:multi-compartment model
994:Higher-dimension models
687:{\displaystyle \sigma }
509:Zero-dimensional models
377:Navier–Stokes equations
4813:Atmospheric dispersion
4328:Research and modelling
4012:Nature-based solutions
3832:Nature-based solutions
3774:Carbon dioxide removal
3691:Fossil fuel divestment
3676:Climate risk insurance
3586:Small island countries
3207:Arctic sea ice decline
2744:Loft, Richard (2020).
2336:10.1002/qj.49708235202
2039:"Syukuro Manabe Facts"
1392:Cite journal requires
1304:Atmospheric reanalysis
1204:(WCRP), hosted by the
1193:
1073:
924:
886:
854:
826:
788:
728:
688:
618:
488:conservation of energy
375:or ocean. It uses the
360:
325:differential equations
227:of the global ocean.
173:differential equations
122:and short-wave (near)
60:
45:differential equations
5278:Mathematical modeling
5222:Biopsychosocial model
4289:Earth's energy budget
4172:Background and theory
4060:Climate crisis (term)
3732:Fossil fuel phase-out
3626:Economics and finance
3591:by individual country
3533:By country and region
3508:Security and conflict
3503:Psychological impacts
3192:Abrupt climate change
3115:Charles David Keeling
2948:By country and region
1423:10.1017/9781108979030
1325:Climateprediction.net
1320:Climate Data Exchange
1189:
1056:
922:
887:
855:
837:, measured to be 0.3.
827:
789:
729:
689:
619:
536:radiative equilibrium
469:Princeton, New Jersey
322:
275:Princeton, New Jersey
146:global climate models
112:change in temperature
69:climate system models
42:
5232:Catastrophe modeling
5078:Scientific modelling
5031:Scientific modelling
4545:Ensemble forecasting
4118:Glasgow Climate Pact
3779:Carbon sequestration
3354:Mass mortality event
2759:10.1029/2020EO147051
2662:on 22 September 2010
2536:on 26 September 2019
2383:Peter Lynch (2006).
2349:John D. Cox (2002).
2143:M.I. Budyko (1969).
1779:on 18 February 2013.
1686:10.1029/2000GL012580
1643:10.1029/2017EO079417
1145:global climate model
1016:Budyko-Sellers model
895:effective emissivity
876:
844:
816:
741:
707:
678:
636:Stefan–Boltzmann law
545:
495:analytical solutions
414:, understanding the
5175:Modular Ocean Model
5036:Computer simulation
4505:Oceanographic model
4257:Climate sensitivity
4032:The Adaptation Fund
3488:Infectious diseases
3395:Social and economic
2603:1996JGR...101.7419X
2470:1975JAtS...32....3M
2328:1956QJRMS..82..123P
2276:1984Natur.308..621S
2194:1969JApMe...8..392S
2102:1980JAtS...37..545W
2015:1967JAtS...24..241M
1829:2006JCli...19.2867J
1725:on 27 February 2009
1678:2001GeoRL..28.1671G
1043:Modular Ocean Model
988:climate sensitivity
833:is Earth's average
412:weather forecasting
154:Earth System Models
73:mathematical models
5268:Data visualization
5252:Input–output model
5165:Hydrological model
5155:Geologic modelling
5021:Mathematical model
4956:Cryospheric models
4899:Chemical transport
3828:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
3800:Forest management
3784:Direct air capture
3749:Sustainable energy
3706:Net zero emissions
3701:Low-carbon economy
3696:Green Climate Fund
3483:Indigenous peoples
3386:Plant biodiversity
3174:Effects and issues
2722:on 18 October 2012
2494:"CAM 3.1 Download"
1837:10.1175/JCLI3720.1
1666:Geophys. Res. Lett
1350:CICE sea ice model
1287:cloud microphysics
1279:radiative transfer
1239:exascale computing
1074:
1014:who worked on the
1012:William D. Sellers
925:
882:
850:
822:
784:
724:
684:
614:
418:, and forecasting
369:mathematical model
361:
189:Atmospheric models
61:
5301:
5300:
5180:Wildfire modeling
5160:Groundwater model
5140:Atmospheric model
5044:
5043:
5026:Statistical model
5012:
5011:
5008:
5007:
4568:
4567:
4510:Cryospheric model
4500:Atmospheric model
4446:
4445:
4384:
4383:
4380:
4379:
4319:Radiative forcing
4162:
4161:
4158:
4157:
3982:Adaptive capacity
3867:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3727:Energy transition
3603:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3323:Tropical cyclones
3249:Urban heat island
3163:
3162:
3075:
3074:
3071:
3070:
3036:Carbon accounting
2990:Greenhouse effect
2956:
2955:
2692:on 3 October 2012
2621:10.1029/95JD02169
2498:www.cesm.ucar.edu
2402:978-0-521-85729-1
2366:978-0-471-38108-2
1609:(11): 1609–1614.
1588:978-3-527-41132-0
1432:978-1-108-97903-0
1316:(ARM) (in the US)
1094:ocean circulation
1020:positive feedback
956:relative humidity
905:greenhouse effect
853:{\displaystyle T}
825:{\displaystyle a}
353:relative humidity
267:Boulder, Colorado
205:relative humidity
132:greenhouse effect
30:Atmospheric model
5360:
5353:Climate modeling
5330:
5329:
5318:
5317:
5309:
5293:Visual analytics
5288:Systems thinking
5206:Population model
5071:
5064:
5057:
5048:
4585:
4574:
4486:
4473:
4466:
4459:
4450:
4434:
4433:
4422:
4421:
4410:
4409:
4399:
4398:
4397:
4362:Paleoclimatology
4179:
4168:
3929:Ecological grief
3912:Climate movement
3887:
3873:
3853:Plant-based diet
3744:Renewable energy
3622:
3609:
3444:Economic impacts
3376:Invasive species
3232:Coastal flooding
3182:
3169:
3105:Svante Arrhenius
3081:
3051:from agriculture
3041:Carbon footprint
3026:Greenhouse gases
2975:
2962:
2914:
2899:
2892:
2885:
2876:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2804:
2798:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2778:
2772:
2771:
2761:
2741:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2718:. Archived from
2708:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2697:
2688:. Archived from
2678:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2661:
2655:. Archived from
2654:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2629:
2623:. Archived from
2614:
2586:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2535:
2529:. Archived from
2524:
2515:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2504:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2445:
2439:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2420:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2380:
2371:
2370:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2322:(352): 123–154.
2311:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2284:10.1038/308621a0
2270:(5960): 621–24.
2259:
2253:
2252:
2241:
2235:
2234:
2225:(3–4): 213–216.
2214:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2073:on 30 July 2012.
2069:. Archived from
2060:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2026:
1991:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1912:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1892:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1863:
1854:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1814:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1771:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1741:
1735:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1702:
1663:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1645:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1556:
1554:2060/19810008165
1532:
1523:
1522:
1513:(251): 237–276.
1498:
1489:
1488:
1477:
1471:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1446:
1437:
1436:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1395:
1390:
1388:
1380:
1374:
1365:
1281:on the basis of
1266:Parameterization
1082:chemical species
982:are included.
940:Svante Arrhenius
891:
889:
888:
883:
859:
857:
856:
851:
831:
829:
828:
823:
793:
791:
790:
785:
783:
782:
733:
731:
730:
725:
723:
722:
693:
691:
690:
685:
623:
621:
620:
615:
613:
612:
597:
596:
578:
577:
538:of the Earth is
229:External drivers
162:land use changes
5368:
5367:
5363:
5362:
5361:
5359:
5358:
5357:
5338:
5337:
5336:
5324:
5312:
5304:
5302:
5297:
5256:
5210:
5196:Energy modeling
5184:
5128:
5104:Ecosystem model
5080:
5075:
5045:
5040:
5004:
4967:
4951:
4925:
4894:
4808:
4759:
4701:
4639:
4579:
4578:Specific models
4564:
4560:Parametrization
4491:
4480:
4477:
4447:
4442:
4395:
4393:
4376:
4323:
4314:Orbital forcing
4208:
4173:
4154:
4128:Paris Agreement
4106:
4102:Warming stripes
4041:
4007:Managed retreat
4002:Loss and damage
3963:
3897:Business action
3881:
3859:
3836:
3759:
3753:
3710:
3671:Climate finance
3616:
3595:
3527:
3390:
3366:Extinction risk
3342:Flora and fauna
3337:
3298:Permafrost thaw
3293:Ozone depletion
3222:Extreme weather
3176:
3159:
3086:
3067:
3004:
2969:
2952:
2919:
2908:
2903:
2831:
2826:
2816:
2814:
2806:
2805:
2801:
2791:
2789:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2743:
2742:
2735:
2725:
2723:
2710:
2709:
2705:
2695:
2693:
2680:
2679:
2675:
2665:
2663:
2659:
2652:
2648:
2647:
2643:
2633:
2631:
2630:on 10 July 2010
2627:
2584:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2564:
2562:
2554:
2553:
2549:
2539:
2537:
2533:
2522:
2517:
2516:
2512:
2502:
2500:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2432:
2430:
2426:(22 May 2008).
2422:
2421:
2417:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2395:. p. 208.
2382:
2381:
2374:
2367:
2348:
2347:
2343:
2309:
2304:
2303:
2299:
2261:
2260:
2256:
2243:
2242:
2238:
2216:
2215:
2211:
2175:
2174:
2170:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2047:
2045:
2037:
2036:
2032:
1995:Manabe, Syukuro
1993:
1992:
1985:
1975:
1973:
1964:
1963:
1959:
1949:
1947:
1939:
1938:
1934:
1924:
1922:
1914:
1913:
1909:
1901:
1890:
1885:
1884:
1880:
1872:
1861:
1856:
1855:
1851:
1843:
1823:(12): 2867–81.
1812:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1776:
1769:
1765:
1764:
1760:
1750:
1748:
1743:
1742:
1738:
1728:
1726:
1713:
1712:
1708:
1700:
1661:
1656:
1655:
1651:
1627:
1626:
1622:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1589:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1565:
1534:
1533:
1526:
1500:
1499:
1492:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1469:Wayback Machine
1461:
1457:
1448:
1447:
1440:
1433:
1410:
1409:
1405:
1391:
1381:
1372:
1367:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1300:
1295:
1294:
1263:
1255:
1253:Parametrization
1236:
1231:super-computers
1227:
1222:
1198:
1185:
1180:
1179:
1155:
1150:
1124:
1116:
1110:
1051:
1034:
1028:
996:
948:
917:
874:
873:
869:as of year 2020
842:
841:
814:
813:
774:
739:
738:
714:
705:
704:
676:
675:
604:
588:
569:
543:
542:
532:
511:
478:
473:
472:
316:
308:
297:(LSCE), France.
245:
233:ice-sheet model
150:energy transfer
37:
26:
19:
12:
11:
5:
5366:
5364:
5356:
5355:
5350:
5340:
5339:
5335:
5334:
5332:Global warming
5322:
5299:
5298:
5296:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5283:Systems theory
5280:
5275:
5270:
5264:
5262:
5261:Related topics
5258:
5257:
5255:
5254:
5249:
5247:Economic model
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5218:
5216:
5212:
5211:
5209:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5192:
5190:
5189:Sustainability
5186:
5185:
5183:
5182:
5177:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5152:
5147:
5142:
5136:
5134:
5130:
5129:
5127:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5094:Cellular model
5090:
5088:
5082:
5081:
5076:
5074:
5073:
5066:
5059:
5051:
5042:
5041:
5039:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5017:
5014:
5013:
5010:
5009:
5006:
5005:
5003:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4979:
4975:
4973:
4969:
4968:
4966:
4965:
4959:
4957:
4953:
4952:
4950:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4933:
4931:
4927:
4926:
4924:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4908:
4902:
4900:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4872:
4867:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4816:
4814:
4810:
4809:
4807:
4806:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4767:
4765:
4761:
4760:
4758:
4757:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4741:
4738:
4733:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4709:
4707:
4703:
4702:
4700:
4699:
4696:
4691:
4688:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4647:
4645:
4644:Global weather
4641:
4640:
4638:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4591:
4589:
4581:
4580:
4577:
4570:
4569:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4496:
4493:
4492:
4489:
4482:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4475:
4468:
4461:
4453:
4444:
4443:
4441:
4440:
4428:
4416:
4404:
4389:
4386:
4385:
4382:
4381:
4378:
4377:
4375:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4358:
4357:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4331:
4329:
4325:
4324:
4322:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4280:
4279:
4269:
4267:Cloud feedback
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4248:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4222:
4216:
4214:
4210:
4209:
4207:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4185:
4183:
4175:
4174:
4171:
4164:
4163:
4160:
4159:
4156:
4155:
4153:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4141:
4140:
4135:
4125:
4123:Kyoto Protocol
4120:
4114:
4112:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4104:
4099:
4098:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4077:
4075:Media coverage
4072:
4067:
4065:Climate spiral
4062:
4057:
4051:
4049:
4043:
4042:
4040:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3973:
3971:
3965:
3964:
3962:
3961:
3956:
3954:Public opinion
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3920:
3919:
3909:
3904:
3902:Climate action
3899:
3893:
3891:
3883:
3882:
3876:
3869:
3868:
3865:
3864:
3861:
3860:
3858:
3857:
3856:
3855:
3844:
3842:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3834:
3829:
3823:
3822:
3821:
3816:
3814:REDD and REDD+
3811:
3806:
3798:
3793:
3791:Carbon farming
3788:
3787:
3786:
3781:
3771:
3765:
3763:
3755:
3754:
3752:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3735:
3734:
3724:
3718:
3716:
3712:
3711:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3652:
3651:
3641:
3636:
3630:
3628:
3618:
3617:
3612:
3605:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3537:
3535:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3525:
3523:Water security
3520:
3518:Water scarcity
3515:
3513:Urban flooding
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3474:
3473:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3452:
3451:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3415:
3414:
3409:
3398:
3396:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3371:Forest dieback
3368:
3363:
3358:
3357:
3356:
3345:
3343:
3339:
3338:
3336:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3308:Sea level rise
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3289:
3288:
3283:
3281:stratification
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3246:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3188:
3186:
3178:
3177:
3172:
3165:
3164:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3084:
3077:
3076:
3073:
3072:
3069:
3068:
3066:
3065:
3060:
3059:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3046:Carbon leakage
3043:
3038:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3005:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2987:
2985:Climate system
2981:
2979:
2971:
2970:
2965:
2958:
2957:
2954:
2953:
2951:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2924:
2921:
2920:
2917:
2910:
2909:
2906:Climate change
2904:
2902:
2901:
2894:
2887:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2839:
2838:
2830:
2829:External links
2827:
2825:
2824:
2799:
2773:
2733:
2703:
2673:
2641:
2612:10.1.1.453.551
2572:
2547:
2510:
2485:
2451:
2440:
2415:
2401:
2372:
2365:
2352:Storm Watchers
2341:
2297:
2254:
2249:pik-potsdam.de
2236:
2209:
2188:(3): 392–400.
2168:
2155:(5): 611–619.
2135:
2117:
2076:
2055:
2043:nobelprize.org
2030:
2009:(3): 241–259.
1983:
1957:
1932:
1907:
1878:
1849:
1800:
1782:
1758:
1736:
1706:
1649:
1620:
1593:
1587:
1569:
1563:
1524:
1490:
1472:
1455:
1438:
1431:
1403:
1394:|journal=
1359:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1311:
1306:
1299:
1296:
1264:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1234:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1197:
1194:
1184:
1181:
1176:climate change
1153:
1148:
1125:
1117:
1109:
1106:
1069:and reservoir
1050:
1047:
1030:Main article:
1027:
1024:
1008:Mikhail Budyko
995:
992:
980:carbon dioxide
971:
970:
963:
947:
944:
942:in year 1896.
916:
913:
900:
899:
881:
870:
849:
838:
821:
806:
805:
802:
795:
794:
781:
777:
773:
770:
767:
764:
761:
758:
755:
752:
749:
746:
721:
717:
712:
701:
700:
683:
672:
664:
656:
653:solar constant
640:
639:
632:
625:
624:
611:
607:
603:
600:
595:
591:
587:
584:
581:
576:
572:
568:
565:
562:
559:
556:
553:
550:
531:
528:
510:
507:
477:
474:
457:Syukuro Manabe
420:climate change
355:, and surface
317:
309:
307:
304:
299:
298:
259:
256:
244:
241:
237:sea level rise
221:ocean currents
213:oceanic models
207:, and surface
101:climate change
97:climate system
65:climate models
17:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5365:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5345:
5343:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5307:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5265:
5263:
5259:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5242:Crime mapping
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5219:
5217:
5213:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5193:
5191:
5187:
5181:
5178:
5176:
5173:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5150:Climate model
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5137:
5135:
5133:Environmental
5131:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5091:
5089:
5087:
5083:
5079:
5072:
5067:
5065:
5060:
5058:
5053:
5052:
5049:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5018:
5015:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4980:
4977:
4976:
4974:
4970:
4964:
4961:
4960:
4958:
4954:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4934:
4932:
4928:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4903:
4901:
4897:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4817:
4815:
4811:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4769:
4768:
4766:
4762:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4742:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4704:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4646:
4642:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4592:
4590:
4586:
4582:
4575:
4571:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4515:Climate model
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4497:
4494:
4487:
4483:
4474:
4469:
4467:
4462:
4460:
4455:
4454:
4451:
4439:
4438:
4429:
4427:
4426:
4417:
4415:
4414:
4405:
4403:
4402:
4391:
4390:
4387:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4356:
4353:
4352:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4340:Climate model
4338:
4336:
4333:
4332:
4330:
4326:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4278:
4275:
4274:
4273:
4272:Cloud forcing
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4227:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4217:
4215:
4211:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4169:
4165:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4130:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4115:
4113:
4109:
4103:
4100:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4082:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4052:
4050:
4048:
4047:Communication
4044:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4027:Vulnerability
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3997:Flood control
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3974:
3972:
3970:
3966:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3918:
3915:
3914:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3894:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3874:
3870:
3854:
3851:
3850:
3849:
3846:
3845:
3843:
3839:
3833:
3830:
3827:
3824:
3820:
3819:reforestation
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3804:afforestation
3802:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3776:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3766:
3764:
3762:
3756:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3739:Nuclear power
3737:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3713:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3650:
3647:
3646:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3634:Carbon budget
3632:
3631:
3629:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3610:
3606:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
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3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3472:
3471:Mental health
3469:
3468:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3450:
3447:
3446:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3413:
3412:United States
3410:
3408:
3405:
3404:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3397:
3393:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
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3369:
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3364:
3362:
3359:
3355:
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3340:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3266:deoxygenation
3264:
3262:
3261:acidification
3259:
3258:
3257:
3254:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3240:
3237:
3233:
3230:
3229:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3170:
3166:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3089:
3082:
3078:
3064:
3061:
3057:
3056:from wetlands
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3016:Deforestation
3014:
3013:
3011:
3007:
3001:
2998:
2995:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2982:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2963:
2959:
2949:
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2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
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2915:
2911:
2907:
2900:
2895:
2893:
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2880:
2877:
2871:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
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2833:
2832:
2828:
2813:
2809:
2803:
2800:
2788:
2784:
2777:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2740:
2738:
2734:
2721:
2717:
2715:
2707:
2704:
2691:
2687:
2685:
2677:
2674:
2658:
2651:
2645:
2642:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2591:
2583:
2576:
2573:
2561:
2557:
2551:
2548:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2514:
2511:
2499:
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2404:
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2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2316:
2308:
2301:
2298:
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2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2258:
2255:
2250:
2246:
2240:
2237:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2213:
2210:
2204:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2172:
2169:
2163:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2121:
2118:
2112:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2096:(3): 545–52.
2095:
2091:
2090:J. Atmos. Sci
2087:
2080:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2065:
2059:
2056:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2031:
2025:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1971:
1967:
1961:
1958:
1946:
1942:
1936:
1933:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1908:
1900:
1896:
1889:
1882:
1879:
1871:
1867:
1860:
1853:
1850:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1811:
1804:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1786:
1783:
1775:
1768:
1762:
1759:
1746:
1740:
1737:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1710:
1707:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1672:(9): 1671–4.
1671:
1667:
1660:
1653:
1650:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1624:
1621:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1594:
1590:
1584:
1580:
1573:
1570:
1566:
1564:9780511535857
1560:
1555:
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1546:
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1538:
1531:
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1525:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1497:
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1466:
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1459:
1456:
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1443:
1439:
1434:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1415:
1407:
1404:
1399:
1386:
1379:
1371:
1368:IPCC (2014).
1364:
1361:
1355:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
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1318:
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1307:
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1224:
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1214:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1146:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1122:
1115:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1086:
1083:
1079:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1039:
1033:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1004:
1001:
993:
991:
989:
983:
981:
977:
968:
964:
961:
960:
959:
957:
952:
945:
943:
941:
937:
936:heat transfer
932:
930:
921:
914:
912:
908:
906:
896:
892:
879:
871:
868:
864:
860:
847:
839:
836:
832:
819:
811:
810:
809:
803:
800:
799:
798:
779:
775:
771:
768:
765:
762:
759:
753:
750:
747:
737:
736:
735:
719:
715:
710:
703:The constant
698:
694:
681:
673:
670:
669:
665:
662:
661:
657:
654:
650:
649:
645:
644:
643:
637:
633:
630:
629:
628:
609:
605:
601:
598:
593:
589:
585:
582:
579:
574:
570:
566:
563:
557:
554:
551:
541:
540:
539:
537:
529:
527:
524:
523:dimensionless
520:
516:
515:pale blue dot
508:
506:
504:
500:
496:
491:
489:
486:applying the
484:
475:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
452:
447:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
423:
421:
417:
413:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
381:thermodynamic
378:
374:
370:
366:
358:
354:
350:
346:
345:heat transfer
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
321:
314:
305:
303:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
257:
254:
250:
249:
248:
242:
240:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
197:heat transfer
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
169:
167:
163:
159:
156:include also
155:
151:
147:
144:
140:
135:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
104:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
58:
54:
50:
46:
41:
35:
34:Oceanic model
31:
24:
16:
5149:
4972:Discontinued
4845:DISPERSION21
4514:
4435:
4423:
4411:
4392:
4339:
4225:Carbon cycle
4182:Measurements
3877:Society and
3761:carbon sinks
3666:Climate debt
3656:Carbon price
3478:Human rights
3313:Season creep
3271:heat content
3197:Anoxic event
3110:James Hansen
2841:
2840:
2815:. Retrieved
2811:
2802:
2790:. Retrieved
2786:
2776:
2749:
2724:. Retrieved
2720:the original
2713:
2706:
2694:. Retrieved
2690:the original
2683:
2676:
2664:. Retrieved
2657:the original
2644:
2632:. Retrieved
2625:the original
2597:(D3): 7419.
2594:
2588:
2575:
2563:. Retrieved
2550:
2538:. Retrieved
2531:the original
2513:
2501:. Retrieved
2497:
2488:
2461:
2457:
2443:
2431:. Retrieved
2418:
2406:. Retrieved
2388:
2351:
2344:
2319:
2313:
2300:
2267:
2263:
2257:
2248:
2239:
2222:
2218:
2212:
2185:
2181:
2171:
2152:
2148:
2138:
2129:
2120:
2093:
2089:
2079:
2071:the original
2066:
2058:
2046:. Retrieved
2042:
2033:
2006:
2002:
1974:. Retrieved
1960:
1948:. Retrieved
1935:
1923:. Retrieved
1910:
1894:
1881:
1865:
1852:
1820:
1816:
1803:
1794:
1785:
1774:the original
1761:
1749:. Retrieved
1739:
1727:. Retrieved
1723:the original
1718:
1709:
1669:
1665:
1652:
1633:
1623:
1606:
1602:
1596:
1578:
1572:
1536:
1510:
1506:
1484:
1475:
1458:
1413:
1406:
1385:cite journal
1376:
1363:
1274:
1247:
1228:
1210:
1199:
1190:
1186:
1142:
1126:
1098:carbon cycle
1091:
1089:techniques.
1087:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1035:
1015:
1005:
997:
984:
972:
949:
933:
926:
909:
901:
872:
840:
812:
807:
796:
702:
674:
666:
658:
646:
641:
626:
533:
512:
503:carbon cycle
492:
483:paleoclimate
479:
451:carbon cycle
424:
409:
407:components.
405:land-surface
362:
333:fluid motion
300:
246:
215:to simulate
181:fluid motion
170:
139:radiant heat
136:
105:
89:land surface
68:
64:
62:
53:fluid motion
15:
4651:IFS (ECMWF)
4490:Model types
4252:Carbon sink
4230:atmospheric
4095:video games
3769:Blue carbon
3402:Agriculture
3381:Marine life
3328:Water cycle
3286:temperature
3021:Fossil fuel
2464:(3): 3–15.
2048:14 November
1291:air quality
967:troposphere
951:Water vapor
861:is Earth's
499:water cycle
389:latent heat
289:, UK), the
269:, US), the
253:climatology
160:as well as
5342:Categories
5086:Biological
4875:PUFF-PLUME
4835:AUSTAL2000
4694:GME / ICON
4661:GEM / GDPS
4610:GFDL CM2.X
4284:Cryosphere
4245:permafrost
4017:Resilience
3969:Adaptation
3944:Litigation
3934:Governance
3879:adaptation
3661:Carbon tax
3614:Mitigation
3551:Antarctica
3439:Disability
2817:8 December
2792:8 December
2696:18 January
2565:6 February
2408:6 February
2130:shodor.org
1817:J. Climate
1356:References
1275:parameters
1112:See also:
1078:reservoirs
1049:Box models
517:viewed by
467:(GFDL) in
461:Kirk Bryan
439:GFDL CM2.X
373:atmosphere
273:(GFDL, in
265:(NCAR, in
191:calculate
166:ecosystems
118:, chiefly
81:atmosphere
63:Numerical
4916:GEOS-Chem
4299:Feedbacks
4070:Education
3571:Caribbean
3566:Australia
3493:Migration
3456:Fisheries
3407:Livestock
3333:Wildfires
3239:Heat wave
2768:2324-9250
2726:3 October
2666:29 August
2634:6 January
2607:CiteSeerX
2540:3 January
2433:8 January
1976:2 October
1950:2 October
1925:2 October
880:ϵ
772:σ
769:ϵ
751:−
711:π
682:σ
602:σ
599:ϵ
586:π
567:π
555:−
519:Voyager 1
385:radiation
357:hydrology
349:radiation
337:chemistry
209:hydrology
201:radiation
185:chemistry
57:chemistry
4885:SAFE AIR
4718:RR / RAP
4425:Glossary
4413:Category
4235:biologic
3949:Politics
3841:Personal
3546:Americas
3419:Children
3185:Physical
2978:Overview
2918:Overview
2245:"emics1"
2067:nasa.gov
1899:Archived
1870:Archived
1841:Archived
1795:ucsb.edu
1698:Archived
1694:34790317
1485:noaa.gov
1465:Archived
1298:See also
1178:studies.
1096:and the
393:simulate
255:section.
158:land use
128:infrared
124:infrared
5306:Portals
4921:CHIMERE
4880:RIMPUFF
4860:MERCURE
4840:CALPUFF
4690:JMA-GSM
4605:HadGEM1
4588:Climate
4240:oceanic
4090:fiction
3939:Justice
3890:Society
3498:Poverty
3217:Drought
3085:History
3009:Sources
2812:LabNews
2787:HPCwire
2752:(101).
2599:Bibcode
2503:25 June
2466:Bibcode
2324:Bibcode
2292:4312683
2272:Bibcode
2190:Bibcode
2098:Bibcode
2011:Bibcode
1825:Bibcode
1729:1 March
1674:Bibcode
1270:weather
1211:A 2012
1108:History
1065:, sink
1041:MOM-3 (
1000:zonally
898:angles.
893:is the
695:is the
651:is the
463:at the
416:climate
401:sea ice
329:physics
277:, US),
177:physics
143:sea ice
120:visible
77:climate
49:physics
5320:Energy
5215:Social
4995:NOGAPS
4911:MOZART
4830:ATSTEP
4825:AERMOD
4804:ADCIRC
4794:MITgcm
4736:HIRLAM
4698:ARPEGE
4681:NAVGEM
4600:HadCM3
4220:Albedo
4213:Theory
3924:Denial
3715:Energy
3576:Europe
3556:Arctic
3541:Africa
3466:Health
3461:Gender
3424:Cities
3349:Biomes
3256:Oceans
3244:Marine
2967:Causes
2850:(CCSM)
2766:
2609:
2399:
2363:
2290:
2264:Nature
2149:Tellus
1751:6 July
1747:. NOAA
1692:
1636:(98).
1585:
1561:
1429:
1375:: 58.
1285:, and
1220:Issues
1172:HadCM3
1059:fluxes
835:albedo
797:where
627:where
431:HadCM3
335:, and
287:Exeter
281:, the
183:, and
108:energy
85:oceans
71:) are
55:, and
4942:CLASS
4937:JULES
4906:CLaMS
4890:SILAM
4799:FESOM
4789:FVCOM
4770:HyCOM
4756:HRDPS
4732:RAQMS
4676:NAEFS
4635:ECHAM
4630:CFSv2
4437:Index
4199:Proxy
3959:Women
3434:Crime
3361:Birds
3227:Flood
2660:(PDF)
2653:(PDF)
2628:(PDF)
2585:(PDF)
2534:(PDF)
2523:(PDF)
2310:(PDF)
2288:S2CID
1902:(PDF)
1891:(PDF)
1873:(PDF)
1862:(PDF)
1844:(PDF)
1813:(PDF)
1777:(PDF)
1770:(PDF)
1701:(PDF)
1690:S2CID
1662:(PDF)
1373:(PDF)
1268:in a
976:trace
435:EdGCM
341:winds
193:winds
4963:CICE
4947:ISBA
4870:OSPM
4865:NAME
4855:MEMO
4850:ISC3
4820:ADMS
4774:ROMS
4752:RGEM
4747:HWRF
4740:LAPS
4723:RAMS
4671:MPAS
4625:CESM
4620:CCSM
4615:CGCM
4595:IGCM
4022:Risk
3561:Asia
3153:2024
3148:2023
3143:2022
3138:2021
3133:2020
3128:2019
2819:2023
2794:2023
2764:ISSN
2728:2012
2698:2021
2668:2010
2636:2011
2567:2018
2542:2011
2505:2019
2435:2011
2410:2018
2397:ISBN
2361:ISBN
2050:2023
1978:2022
1952:2022
1927:2022
1753:2023
1731:2010
1583:ISBN
1559:ISBN
1427:ISBN
1398:help
1200:The
1010:and
459:and
443:NOAA
403:and
397:OGCM
285:(in
243:Uses
91:and
67:(or
32:and
5000:RUC
4990:NGM
4985:MM5
4981:LFM
4978:Eta
4784:MOM
4779:POM
4743:RPM
4728:WRF
4713:NAM
4666:GFS
4656:FIM
4085:art
2754:doi
2750:Eos
2617:doi
2595:101
2474:doi
2357:210
2332:doi
2280:doi
2268:308
2227:doi
2198:doi
2157:doi
2106:doi
2019:doi
1833:doi
1682:doi
1638:doi
1634:Eos
1611:doi
1549:hdl
1541:doi
1515:doi
1419:doi
1170:'s
1140:.
1071:(M)
1067:(S)
1063:(Q)
501:or
93:ice
5344::
4686:UM
2810:.
2785:.
2762:.
2748:.
2736:^
2615:.
2605:.
2593:.
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