61:
41:
778:, which is based on the stock prices of 30 companies, is used to represent the fluctuations of stock prices in general, climate indices are used to represent the essential elements of climate. Climate indices are generally devised with the twin objectives of simplicity and completeness, and each index typically represents the status and timing of the climate factor it represents. By their very nature, indices are simple, and combine many details into a generalized, overall description of the atmosphere or ocean which can be used to characterize the factors which effect the global climate system.
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forecasting as pattern recognition, which remains a useful method of estimating rainfall over data voids such as oceans using knowledge of how satellite imagery relates to precipitation rates over land, as well as the forecasting of precipitation amounts and distribution of the future. A variation of this theme, used for medium range forecasting, is known as
653:
balance, incoming energy as short wave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to the Earth with outgoing energy as long wave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the Earth. Any unbalance results in a change of the average temperature of the Earth. Most climate models include the radiative effects of
309:, typically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of at least 30 years. Climate concerns the atmospheric condition during an extended to indefinite period of time; weather is the condition of the atmosphere during a relative brief period of time. The main topics of research are the study of
692:
Additionally, they are available with different resolutions ranging from >100 km to 1 km. High resolutions in global climate models are computational very demanding and only few global datasets exists. Examples are ICON or mechanistically downscaled data such as CHELSA (Climatologies at
652:
Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice. They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate. All climate models balance, or very nearly
476:
During the early 20th century, climatology mostly emphasized the description of regional climates. This descriptive climatology was mainly an applied science, giving farmers and other interested people statistics about what the normal weather was and how great chances were of extreme events. To do
945:
A relative difficult method of forecast, the analog technique requires remembering a previous weather event which is expected to be mimicked by an upcoming event. What makes it a difficult technique is that there is rarely a perfect analog for an event of the future. Some refer to this type of
515:
for instance identifies descriptive climatology, scientific climatology and applied climatology as the three subcategories of climatology, a categorization based on the complexity and the purpose of the research. Applied climatologists apply their expertise to different industries such as
883:
systems lasting no more than a few weeks, climatology studies the frequency and trends of those systems. It studies the periodicity of weather events over years to millennia, as well as changes of long-term average weather patterns in relation to atmospheric conditions.
829:. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. Climate change also influences the average
820:
patterns that remain for an extended period of time. This duration of time can be as brief as a few decades to as long as millions of years. The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also gives off energy to
390:
The Greeks began the formal study of climate; in fact the word climate is derived from the Greek word klima, meaning "slope", referring to the slope or inclination of the Earth's axis. Arguably the most influential classic text concerning climate was
613:
The collection of a long record of climate variables is essential for the study of climate. Climatology deals with the aggregate data that meteorologists have recorded. Scientists use both direct and indirect observations of the climate, from
577:
The study of contemporary climates incorporates meteorological data accumulated over many years, such as records of rainfall, temperature and atmospheric composition. Knowledge of the atmosphere and its dynamics is also embodied in
757:
producer will require different information (wind) in a classification than someone more interested in agriculture, for whom precipitation and temperature are more important. The most widely used classification, the
950:, when systems in other locations are used to help determine the location of a system within the regime surrounding. One method of using teleconnections are by using climate indices such as ENSO-related phenomena.
1410:
Dipankar, A.; Heinze, Rieke; Moseley, Christopher; Stevens, Bjorn; Zängl, Günther; Brdar, Slavko (2015). "A Large Eddy
Simulation Version of ICON (ICOsahedral Nonhydrostatic): Model Description and Validation".
403:. This work commented on the effect of climate on human health and cultural differences between Asia and Europe. This idea that climate controls which populations excel depending on their climate, or
593:
Climate research is made difficult by the large scale, long time periods, and complex processes which govern climate. Climate is governed by physical principles which can be expressed as
784:(ENSO) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean responsible for much of the global variability of temperature, and has a cycle between two and seven years. The
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study both the nature of climates – local, regional or global – and the natural or human-induced factors that cause climates to change. Climatology considers the past and can help
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There are different types of variability: recurring patterns of temperature or other climate variables. They are quantified with different indices. Much in the way the
491:, the concept of climate as changing only very gradually was useful for descriptive climatology. This started to change during the decades that followed, and while the
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553:
Boundary-layer climatology concerns exchanges in water, energy and momentum near surfaces. Further identified subtopics are physical climatology, dynamic climatology,
1376:
590:, which help by integrating different observations and testing how well they match. Modeling is used for understanding past, present and potential future climates.
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Map of the average temperature over 30 years. Data sets formed from the long-term average of historical weather parameters are sometimes called a "climatology".
1915:
630:. As measuring technology changes over time, records of data often cannot be compared directly. As cities are generally warmer than the areas surrounding,
1204:
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show little variation of temperature over a year. Another major variable of climate is continentality: the distance to major water bodies such as
1850:
Waters of the World: The Story of the
Scientists Who Unraveled the Mysteries of Our Oceans, Atmosphere, and Ice Sheets and Made the Planet Whole
511:
Various subtopics of climatology study different aspects of climate. There are different categorizations of the sub-topics of climatology. The
60:
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over long time scales is sometimes termed hydroclimatology, in particular when studying the effects of climate change on the water cycle.
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353:
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Various factors affect the average state of the atmosphere at a particular location. For instance, midlatitudes will have a pronounced
1709:
1638:
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Karger, D.N.; Lange, S.; Hari, C.; Reyer, C.P.O.; Zimmermann, N.E. (2021). "CHELSA-W5E5 v1.0: W5E5 v1.0 downscaled with CHELSA v2.0".
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The Royal
Netherlands Meteorological Institute's Climate Explorer graphs climatological relationships of spatial and temporal data.
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are used for a variety of purposes from studying the dynamics of the weather and climate system to predictions of future climate.
1908:
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Karger, D.N.; Conrad, O.; Böhner, J.; Kawohl, T.; Kreft, H.; Soria-Auza, R.W.; Zimmermann, N.E.; Linder, P.; Kessler, M. (2017).
801:
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44:
40:
762:, was developed during the late nineteenth century and is based on vegetation. It uses monthly data concerning temperature and
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started earlier, climate change only became one of the main topics of study for climatologists during the 1970s and afterward.
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597:. These equations are coupled and nonlinear, so that approximate solutions are obtained by using numerical methods to create
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can be interpreted in terms of knowledge of longer-term phenomena of climate, for instance climatic cycles such as the
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1901:
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allowed for systematic recordkeeping, that began as early as 1640–1642 in
England. Early climate researchers include
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900:
785:
725:. Oceans act as a moderating factor, so that land close to it has typically less difference of temperature between
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is the study of climate as related to human history and is thus concerned mainly with the last few thousand years.
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but this is generally accepted as an approximation to processes that are otherwise too complicated to analyze.
847:. Increasing temperature is only one aspect of modern climate change, which also includes observed changes of
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A simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the Earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy.
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413:(1031–1095) inferred that climates naturally shifted over an enormous span of time, after observing
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Amer. Inst. of
Physics account of the history of the discipline of climatology in the 20th century
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923:), interactions between the atmosphere and the oceans and land surface (particularly vegetation,
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The Role of
Teleconnections & Ensemble Forecasting in Extended- to Medium-Range Forecasting.
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over a period of typically 30 years. While scientists knew of past climate change such as the
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discretise and solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange.
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Scientific study of climate, defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time
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and summer than areas further from it. The atmosphere interacts with other parts of the
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is the attempt to reconstruct and understand past climates by examining records such as
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Classification is an important method of simplifying complicated processes. Different
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2003:
1998:
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can create changes in the
Pacific Ocean and lower atmosphere on decadal time scales.
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Other
Forecasting Methods: climatology, analogue and numerical weather prediction.
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The main methods employed by climatologists are the analysis of observations and
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province), a dry-climate area unsuitable at that time for the growth of bamboo.
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is a mode of variability that is mainly contained to the lower atmosphere, the
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This can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models), or horizontally.
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uses these same records to help determine hurricane frequency over millennia.
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Pattern
Recognition Techniques Applied to the NASA-ACTS Order-Wire Problem.
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Heymann, Matthias (2010). "The evolution of climate ideas and knowledge".
1979:
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and cloudiness. Warmer temperatures are causing further changes of the
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665:, as well as a more rapid increase of temperature at higher latitudes.
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is also capable of creating its own variability, most importantly the
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1339:"How do weather observations become climate data? | NOAA Climate.gov"
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714:
417:
30:"Climate Research" redirects here. For the journal of that name, see
753:. How climates are classified depends on what the application is. A
1432:"Climatologies at high resolution for the Earth land surface areas"
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722:
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39:
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Topics that climatologists study comprise three main categories:
931:), and the chemical and physical composition of the atmosphere.
705:, mechanisms of climatic change, and modern changes of climate.
1897:
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have been developed over the centuries, with the first ones in
409:, remained influential throughout history. Chinese scientist
1601:"ENSO FAQ: How often do El Niño and La Niña typically occur?"
800:(MJO), which has a cycle of approximately 30 to 60 days. The
348:
of the physical processes that determine climate. Short term
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280:
1773:
Robinson, Peter J. Robinson; Henderson-Sellers, Ann (1999).
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and scientific instrumentation such as a global network of
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1502:
Oblack, Rachelle; McDougal, Holt; weather. (3 July 2019).
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has made it necessary to constantly correct data for this
1874:
1263:
1251:
1369:"What kinds of data do scientists use to study climate?"
1858:, vol. LXVI, no. 20 (19 December 2019), pp. 56–58.
1281:"Climatology - Geography - Oxford Bibliographies - obo"
372:(PDO), and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO).
455:
for use in sending mail from North
America to Europe.
1038:
1036:
693:
high resolution for the Earth's land surface areas).
1750:
Teleconnections: Linking El Niño with Other Places.
668:
Models can range from relatively simple to complex:
1796:(fourth ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
688:Earth system models further include the biosphere.
1815:(second ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
899:Phenomena of climatological interest include the
321:. This topic of study is regarded as part of the
1820:Wang, Shih-Yu; Gillies, Robert R., eds. (2012).
1094:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
843:from the burning of fossil fuel which increases
1852:, University of Chicago Press, 2019, 332 pp.),
1504:"How Climatology Is Different From Meteorology"
1118:Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change
1848:, "What the Weather Is" (review of Sarah Dry,
1076:. Archived from the original on 6 October 2006
1001:List of women climate scientists and activists
812:Climate change occurs when changes of Earth's
661:. These models predict a trend of increase of
1909:
1605:National Centers for Environmental Prediction
1413:Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems
254:
8:
1811:Rohli, Robert. V.; Vega, Anthony J. (2011).
1792:Rohli, Robert. V.; Vega, Anthony J. (2018).
839:is caused largely by the human emissions of
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451:(1706–1790) first mapped the course of the
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1902:
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1777:. Harlow, England: Pearson Prentice Hall.
261:
247:
50:
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1571:
1559:
1544:
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1397:
1373:Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet
1325:
1279:Collins, Jennifer M. (25 October 2018).
1166:History of palaeobotany: selected essays
1163:; C. V. Burek; Richard Wilding (2005).
1013:
420:found underground near Yanzhou (modern
333:. Climatology includes some aspects of
209:
191:
144:
102:
1087:
737:that transport heat around the globe.
1871:– U.S. Global Change Research Program
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1272:
1264:Robinson & Henderson-Sellers 1999
1252:Robinson & Henderson-Sellers 1999
986:Tropical cyclone rainfall climatology
792:. The layer of atmosphere above, the
477:this, climatologists had to define a
7:
2074:
1514:from the original on 23 October 2019
1379:from the original on 13 January 2020
1349:from the original on 13 January 2020
1295:from the original on 25 October 2019
1111:
1109:
1107:
1105:
601:. Climate is sometimes modeled as a
45:Köppen-Geiger climate classification
1641:from the original on 2 October 2019
1631:"Climate and Earth's Energy Budget"
305:is the scientific study of Earth's
1054:from the original on 2 August 2019
225:Glossary of tropical cyclone terms
25:
1667:. 14 January 2019. Archived from
1229:. American Institute of Physics.
493:history of climate change science
386:History of climate change science
2073:
2061:
2050:
2049:
2036:
845:global mean surface temperatures
802:Interdecadal Pacific oscillation
469:(1906–1985) fostered the use of
59:
1233:from the original on 9 May 2020
867:and shifts of flora and fauna.
513:American Meteorological Society
483:, or an average of weather and
2112:Climate and weather statistics
1869:Climate Science Special Report
1759:Retrieved on 16 February 2007.
1739:Retrieved on 16 February 2007.
1719:Retrieved on 16 February 2007.
1699:Retrieved on 16 February 2006.
1289:10.1093/obo/9780199874002-0096
879:, which emphasises short term
565:climatology. The study of the
459:(1822–1911) invented the term
167:Climate variability and change
1:
1223:"Climatology as a Profession"
760:Köppen climate classification
315:mechanisms of climate changes
1855:The New York Review of Books
871:Differences with meteorology
782:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
776:Dow Jones Industrial Average
354:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
1881:Climatology as a Profession
1824:. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech.
1211:Retrieved on 19 April 2007.
1020:Climate Prediction Center.
966:Climate as complex networks
861:widespread melt of glaciers
370:Pacific decadal oscillation
2133:
996:List of climate scientists
938:
935:Use in weather forecasting
901:atmospheric boundary layer
786:North Atlantic oscillation
645:
616:Earth observing satellites
383:
362:North Atlantic oscillation
291:
281:
235:Glossary of climate change
29:
2045:
2034:
1931:
1728:Weather Associates, Inc.
1635:earthobservatory.nasa.gov
1597:Climate Prediction Center
798:Madden–Julian oscillation
678:Coupled atmosphere–ocean–
393:On Airs, Water and Places
358:Madden–Julian oscillation
230:Glossary of tornado terms
1775:Contemporary Climatology
1661:"Global Warming Effects"
733:, with winds generating
709:Climatological processes
557:, regional climatology,
1314:Wang & Gillies 2012
1221:Weart, Spencer (2008).
747:climate classifications
717:of temperature whereas
220:Glossary of meteorology
1489:10.48364/ISIMIP.836809
1448:10.1038/sdata.2017.122
1044:"What is Climatology?"
971:Climatic geomorphology
741:Climate classification
595:differential equations
548:Historical climatology
508:
329:, which is one of the
48:
1875:KNMI Climate Explorer
1755:20 April 2007 at the
1584:Rohli & Vega 2018
1572:Rohli & Vega 2018
1560:Rohli & Vega 2018
1545:Rohli & Vega 2018
1533:Rohli & Vega 2018
1398:Rohli & Vega 2011
1326:Rohli & Vega 2018
837:Modern climate change
827:Earth's energy budget
683:global climate models
599:global climate models
506:
441:Scientific Revolution
384:Further information:
325:and a subdivision of
319:modern climate change
88:Atmospheric chemistry
43:
2107:Atmospheric sciences
1715:14 July 2007 at the
1599:(19 December 2005).
905:circulation patterns
663:surface temperatures
471:statistical analysis
406:climatic determinism
323:atmospheric sciences
76:Atmospheric dynamics
53:Atmospheric sciences
2117:Natural environment
1936:Atmospheric science
1665:National Geographic
1637:. 14 January 2009.
941:Weather forecasting
770:Climate variability
703:climate variability
626:ice extracted from
555:tornado climatology
350:weather forecasting
311:climate variability
71:Atmospheric physics
55:
2028:Quaternary science
1925:Physical geography
1886:2007-07-13 at the
1822:Modern Climatology
1735:2007-06-22 at the
1708:Kenneth C. Allen.
1695:2007-05-19 at the
1671:on 2 December 2019
1442:(170122): 170122.
1207:2019-01-20 at the
1171:Geological Society
1027:2006-10-06 at the
976:Climate reanalysis
697:Topics of research
603:stochastic process
567:hydrological cycle
509:
366:Arctic oscillation
327:physical geography
49:
2089:
2088:
2023:Landscape ecology
1967:Coastal geography
1831:978-953-51-0095-9
1611:on 27 August 2009
1481:ISIMIP Repository
1180:978-1-86239-174-1
1022:Climate Glossary.
991:Urban climatology
636:urban heat island
544:Paleotempestology
540:dendroclimatology
449:Benjamin Franklin
431:The invention of
271:
270:
18:Climate scientist
16:(Redirected from
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2077:
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1958:Paleoclimatology
1918:
1911:
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1748:Thinkquest.org.
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1607:. Archived from
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719:tropical regions
655:greenhouse gases
528:Paleoclimatology
485:weather extremes
473:in climatology.
467:Helmut Landsberg
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130:Tropical cyclone
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33:Climate Research
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1962:Palaeogeography
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1888:Wayback Machine
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1840:Further reading
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1757:Wayback Machine
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1436:Scientific Data
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1343:www.climate.gov
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1227:history.aip.org
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1209:Wayback Machine
1202:Francis Galton.
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1072:
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1055:
1048:drought.unl.edu
1042:
1041:
1034:
1029:Wayback Machine
1019:
1015:
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961:Biogeochemistry
956:
948:teleconnections
943:
937:
875:In contrast to
873:
810:
772:
743:
711:
699:
650:
644:
611:
575:
501:
388:
382:
339:biogeochemistry
303:climate science
289:, "slope"; and
267:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2130:
2128:
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2071:
2059:
2046:
2043:
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2035:
2033:
2031:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1973:
1964:
1951:
1949:Phytogeography
1942:
1932:
1929:
1928:
1923:
1921:
1920:
1913:
1906:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1878:
1872:
1864:
1863:External links
1861:
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1762:
1761:
1741:
1721:
1701:
1682:
1652:
1622:
1588:
1586:, p. 160.
1576:
1574:, p. 159.
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1471:
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1390:
1360:
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1200:Life Stories.
1193:
1179:
1159:A. J. Bowden;
1151:
1130:10.1002/wcc.61
1124:(4): 581–597.
1101:
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939:Main article:
936:
933:
894:climate change
886:Climatologists
872:
869:
865:sea level rise
859:, such as the
857:climate system
841:greenhouse gas
816:result in new
814:climate system
809:
808:Climate change
806:
771:
768:
751:Ancient Greece
742:
739:
735:ocean currents
731:climate system
715:seasonal cycle
710:
707:
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659:carbon dioxide
648:Climate models
646:Main article:
643:
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574:
571:
559:bioclimatology
500:
497:
480:climate normal
457:Francis Galton
381:
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374:Climate models
331:Earth sciences
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2004:Geostatistics
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1999:Geomorphology
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1562:, p. 54.
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870:
868:
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858:
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850:
849:precipitation
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803:
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764:precipitation
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518:manufacturing
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445:Edmund Halley
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136:
133:
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128:
124:
121:
119:
116:
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111:
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109:
108:
105:
101:
94:
91:
90:
89:
86:
82:
79:
78:
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72:
69:
68:
67:
66:
62:
58:
57:
54:
46:
42:
36:
34:
19:
2078:
2066:
2054:
1976:Soil science
1971:Oceanography
1953:
1945:Biogeography
1853:
1849:
1821:
1812:
1793:
1774:
1744:
1724:
1704:
1685:
1673:. Retrieved
1669:the original
1664:
1655:
1643:. Retrieved
1634:
1625:
1613:. Retrieved
1609:the original
1591:
1579:
1567:
1540:
1528:
1516:. Retrieved
1507:
1497:
1480:
1474:
1439:
1435:
1425:
1416:
1412:
1405:
1400:, p. 8.
1393:
1381:. Retrieved
1372:
1363:
1351:. Retrieved
1342:
1333:
1321:
1309:
1297:. Retrieved
1259:
1247:
1235:. Retrieved
1226:
1216:
1196:
1184:. Retrieved
1165:
1154:
1121:
1117:
1078:. Retrieved
1068:
1056:. Retrieved
1047:
1016:
944:
898:
874:
853:storm tracks
835:
811:
794:stratosphere
780:
773:
744:
712:
700:
691:
667:
651:
632:urbanization
620:thermometers
612:
609:Climate data
592:
588:mathematical
576:
552:
526:
510:
478:
475:
460:
433:thermometers
430:
404:
392:
389:
356:(ENSO), the
343:
335:oceanography
302:
296:
286:
273:
272:
210:
145:
32:
2102:Climatology
1954:Climatology
1940:Meteorology
1846:Jenny Uglow
1813:Climatology
1794:Climatology
1328:, p. 6
1080:23 November
1058:27 February
877:meteorology
823:outer space
790:troposphere
755:wind energy
624:prehistoric
584:statistical
522:agriculture
462:anticyclone
453:Gulf Stream
439:during the
397:Hippocrates
395:written by
364:(NAO), the
360:(MJO), the
274:Climatology
146:Climatology
104:Meteorology
47:(1980–2016)
2096:Categories
2009:Glaciology
1989:Geobiology
1984:Edaphology
1784:0582276314
1645:3 December
1518:23 October
1383:13 January
1353:13 January
1299:25 October
1237:25 October
1074:"Glossary"
1008:References
981:Geophysics
929:topography
917:convective
536:tree rings
437:barometers
399:about 400
368:(AO), the
211:Glossaries
2018:Limnology
2014:Hydrology
1675:2 January
1508:ThoughtCo
1146:126580528
1138:1757-7799
913:radiative
831:sea level
582:, either
532:ice cores
499:Subfields
415:petrified
346:modelling
35:(journal)
2056:Category
1980:Pedology
1884:Archived
1753:Archived
1733:Archived
1713:Archived
1693:Archived
1639:Archived
1512:Archived
1466:28872642
1377:Archived
1347:Archived
1293:Archived
1231:Archived
1205:Archived
1090:cite web
1052:Archived
1025:Archived
954:See also
925:land use
657:such as
638:effect.
628:glaciers
563:synoptic
489:ice ages
411:Shen Kuo
202:Aeronomy
193:Aeronomy
177:category
160:category
135:category
118:category
93:category
81:category
2080:Commons
1994:Geology
1615:26 July
1457:5584396
1186:3 April
892:future
890:predict
881:weather
818:weather
680:sea ice
573:Methods
426:Shaanxi
418:bamboos
380:History
307:climate
155:Climate
113:Weather
2068:Portal
1828:
1800:
1781:
1464:
1454:
1177:
1144:
1136:
921:latent
727:winter
723:oceans
642:Models
580:models
561:, and
422:Yan'an
298:-logia
292:-λογία
276:(from
182:portal
123:portal
1767:Books
1142:S2CID
622:, to
301:) or
287:klima
282:κλίμα
278:Greek
1826:ISBN
1798:ISBN
1779:ISBN
1677:2020
1647:2021
1617:2009
1520:2019
1462:PMID
1385:2020
1355:2020
1301:2019
1239:2019
1188:2013
1175:ISBN
1134:ISSN
1096:link
1082:2006
1060:2017
927:and
919:and
534:and
520:and
435:and
337:and
317:and
1485:doi
1452:PMC
1444:doi
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586:or
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