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non-programmatic policy, clientelism is then distinguished from 'pork-barrel politics' in that voters are given a benefit or are able to avoid a cost conditional on their returning the favor with a vote. The patron/client system can be defined as a mutual arrangement between a person that has authority, social status, wealth, or some other personal resource (patron) and another who benefits from their support or influence (client). The patron provides selective access to goods and opportunities, and place themselves or their support in positions from which they can divert resources and services in their favor. Their partners-clients- are expected to buy support, and in some cases, votes. Patrons target low-income families to exchange their needed resources for their abundant resources: time, a vote, and insertion into networks of other potential supporters whom they can influence; however, patrons are unable to access the information needed to effectively form the exchange; thus they hire intermediaries, brokers, that more equipped to find out what the targeted voter needs, which voters will require less prodding, and if the voter followed through on their end of the bargain. As Stokes, Dunning, Nazareno, and Brusco emphasize, brokers in turn serve political leaders, and they may also not target resources exactly as leaders would wish; the resulting
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solve the commitment problems that are so critical to making clientelism work. Some of the more contemporary work underscores the salience of partisan loyalties: politicians direct the bulk of their vote-buying efforts at persuadable swing voters, those who are either indifferent to the party's professed programmatic goals or moderately opposed to them. Some studies have challenged those claims but suggest that most instances of vote-buying in clientelist democracies might actually be instances of turnout-buying in which parties shower benefits on their most loyal supporters in the hope they will show up at the polling booth on election day. However, the lack of well-developed political machines does not preclude clientelist targeting. Recent studies have shown that in many emerging democracies, parties often lack the organizational capacity to monitor individual-level voting behavior and so they finetune their targeting strategies by updating their beliefs about what sorts of groups have been most responsive to their clientelist appeals.
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factors. In some contexts, clientelistic behavior is almost expected, as such interactions can become embedded in the formal political structures. Some types of leaders such as hereditary traditional leaders, who remain in power for extended periods of time, are more effective in carrying out clientelistic relationships than others such as elected officials. Research has also shown that politicians can benefit electorally from clientelistic relationships by gaining support from those who receive goods from them, but there are also potential costs since clientelistic politicians may lose support from wealthier voters, who do not engage in clientelistic relationships themselves view the practice negatively. Not all voters view clientelistic behavior as a positive trait in politicians, especially voters of higher socioeconomic statuses. In short, there is no single factor that causes clientelism to take hold.
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clientelism is seen as "the distribution of benefits targeted to individuals or groups in exchange for electoral support". It is common to associate the two together because they moderately overlap. There are different forms of corruption that have nothing to do with clientelism, such as voter intimidation or ballot stuffing. "Clientelism is considered negative because its intention is to generate 'private' revenue for patrons and clients and, as a result obstruct 'public' revenue for members of the general community who are not a part of the patron-client arrangement."
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politician in the next election. Individual level clientelism can also be carried out through coercion where citizens are threatened with lack of goods or services unless they vote for a certain politician or party. The relationship can also work in the opposite direction, where voters pressure politicians into clientelistic relationships in exchange for electoral support.
792:: and then everybody would shamelessly cry, "Long live the King!" The fools did not realize that they were merely recovering a portion of their own property, and that their ruler could not have given them what they were receiving without having first taken it from them. A man might one day be presented with a sesterce and gorge himself at the public feast, lauding
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find out who committed to supporting them. Thus, Stokes concluded that to be one of the reasons that vote buying is more frequent in relatively small communities. Another reason is that smaller communities are generally poorer. Furthermore, smaller communities, which are generally poorer and have a greater need for resources, are a more attractive target.
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benefits while also holding voters accountable, ensuring that they keep their commitments. That leads parties to hire intermediaries, often referred to as 'brokers', who supply them with fine-grained information about who needs what and what sorts of voters will and will not vote for them, regardless of the benefit(s) provided.
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et al. distinguish clientelism as a form of non-programmatic policy within distributive politics. It meets the criteria through failing to meet the two requirements of programmatic distribution, that are (1) 'formalized and public' and (2) 'shape actual distribution of benefits or resources'. Within
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and the perception of corruption have also been established as strongly correlated with clientelist systems for many reasons. One is that patrons often appear above the law in many clientelist systems. Also, some acts in clientelist systems such as vote buying, could be inherently illegal. Finally,
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Scholarly consensus has thus far eluded the question of why parties channel clientelist benefits to certain groups more than others. Some of the earlier work on group-level targeting argues that politicians are more likely to direct party largesse to their co-ethnics because ethnicity helps parties
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are subcategories of clientelism. Patronage refers to an intra-party flow of benefits to members. Turnout buying, coined by
Nichter, treats or bribes voters to the polls whereas abstention buying treats or bribes voters to keep them from going to the polls. Vote buying is a direct transfer of goods
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Clientelism may not look the same from context to context. Several individual and country-level factors may shape if and how clientelism takes hold in a country including the types of individual leaders, socio-economic status of individuals, economic development, democratization, and institutional
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system. Stokes's argument was that the potential for vote buying depends on the accuracy with which the patron party, the
Peronists in the case of Argentina, can monitor votes. She uses evidence to show that overall smaller communities offer less anonymity, which makes it easier for the patrons to
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was providing financial support to prospective voters to buy their votes. It was hypothesized that
Peronists targeted moderately opposed voters because they were thought to be easily persuaded to change sides at the party's minimal expense. Stokes elaborated on the need of the Peronist Party to be
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In many young low-income democracies, clientelism may assume the form of group-level targeting in which parties channel benefits to specific groups of voters that are conditional on past or future electoral support. For group-based targeting to work, parties must find efficient ways to distribute
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Clientelism as a strategy of political organisation is substantially different from other strategies which rely on appeals to wider programmatic objectives or simply emphasize higher degrees of competence. It is often assumed that clientelism is a vestige of political underdevelopment, a form of
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It is common to link clientelism with corruption; both involve political actors using public and private resources for personal gain, but they are not synonymous. Corruption is commonly defined as "dishonest and fraudulent conduct by those in power, typically involving bribery", while political
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Research by
Nichter promoted a simpler hypothesis for the Argentinian election cycle: to prove Peronists that were solely buying supporting voters' turnout, not all of their votes. He dismissed Stokes's arguments on patrons spying on smaller and poorer communities and instead said the Peronists
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would dissolve in the absence of such monitoring, rendering clientelism highly inefficient at best and completely ineffective at worst; however, evidence suggests that systematic monitoring of voter choice at the polls is surprisingly uncommon. Patronage, turnout buying, abstention buying, and
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Politicians can engage in clientelism on either (or both) a group or individual level. One way individual level clientelism can manifest itself is in a vote buying relationship: a politician gives a citizen goods or services, and, in exchange, that individual citizen promises to vote for that
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for handsome liberality, who on the morrow, would be forced to abandon his property to their avarice, his children to their lust, his very blood to the cruelty of these magnificent emperors, without offering any more resistance than a stone or a tree stump. The mob has always behaved in this
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Clientelism has generally negative consequences on democracy and government and has more uncertain consequences on the economy. The accountability relationship in a democracy in which voters hold elected officials accountable for their actions, is undermined by clientelism. That is because
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rely on the subordination and dependence of the clients. In return for receiving some benefits the clients should provide political support. Standard modeling of clientelism assumes that politicians are able to monitor votes, and in turn reward or punish voters based on their choices.
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A key to understanding clientelism might come in stressing not only the mutually beneficial relationships of exchange but also asymmetries in power or standing. Implied is a certain selectivity in access to key resources and markets. Those with access, the
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were seen as crucial to understanding the political process. While the obligations between these were mutual, the key point is they were hierarchical. These relationships might be best viewed not as an entity but rather as a network
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resources needed for patrons to maintain the clientelist system may require illicit means to obtain goods. A 2021 study found that voters in clientelist systems are less willing to punish corrupt politicians electorally.
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688:. Although many definitions for clientelism have been proposed, according to the political scientist Allen Hicken, it is generally thought that there are four key elements of clientelistic relationships:
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corruption, and that political modernization will reduce or end it. But alternative views stressing the persistence of clientelism – and the patronage associated with it – have been recognized.
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initially targeted votes assumed to be their strong supporters. In that case, the patrons would be reasonably sure that they received a vote from a person who receives a good from them.
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Roniger, Luis. Political
Clientelism, Democracy, and Market Economy. 3rd ed. Vol. 36. New York: : PhD. Program in Political Science of the City U of New York, 2004. 353-375. Print.
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and corruption, prevalent in clientelist systems, could negatively impact the economy as well. Nevertheless, there is still great uncertainty in the economic effects of clientelism.
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clientelism makes votes contingent on gifts to clients, rather than the performance of elected officials in office. Clientelism also degrades democratic institutions such as the
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system, such as in the United States, where lobbying can have considerable power shaping public policy. The opposite of client politics is entrepreneurial politics, or
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Gottlieb, Jessica; Larreguy, Horacio (2020). "An
Informational Theory of Electoral Targeting in Young Clientelistic Democracies: Evidence from Senegal".
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Roniger, Luis; Briquet, Jean-Louis; Sawicki, Frederic; Auyero, Javier; Piattoni, Simona (2004). "Political
Clientelism, Democracy, and Market Economy".
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acted as restrictions on their autonomy but allowed a more complex society to develop. Historians of the late medieval period evolved the concept into
2018:
Baldwin, Kate (2019). "Elected MPs, Traditional Chiefs, and Local Public Goods: Evidence on the Role of
Leaders in Co-Production From Rural Zambia".
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or services, in exchange for one's support and vote. The result for the good or service is a question of "did you or will you vote for me?"
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780:, but described the practice of emperors who used gifts to the public to gain loyalty from those who were eager to accept what amounted to
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Lindberg, Staffan I. (March 2010). "What accountability pressures do MPs in Africa face and how do they respond? Evidence from Ghana*".
753:. There is, as is usual, ambiguity in the use of political terminology and the terms "clientelism", the "patron–client relationship", "
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and administrative oversight. Such factors both weaken democratic institutions and negatively impact the efficiency of government.
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Gans-Morse, Jordan; Mazzuca, Sebastián; Nichter, Simeon (2014). "Varieties of
Clientelism: Machine Politics during Elections".
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perhaps having more than one patron. These extensions increase the possibilities of conflicting interests arising. While the
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Stokes, Susan C. (August 2005). "Perverse
Accountability: A Formal Model of Machine Politics with Evidence from Argentina".
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Kawata, Junʼichi. Comparing Political Corruption and Clientelism. Aldershot, Hampshire, England: Ashgate, 2006. Print.
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Larreguy, Horacio A. (January 2013). "Monitoring Political Brokers: Evidence from Clientelistic Networks in Mexico".
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Some scholars believe that because patrons focus on the control and procurement of private goods, they also neglect
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772:(14–16 AD) have been characterized as examples of widespread clientelism. In the 1500s, French political theorist
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Graham, Richard (1997) Clientelismo na cultura política brasileira. Toma lá dá cá, Braudel Center Papers No. 15
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Nichter, Simeon (February 2008). "Vote Buying or Turnout Buying? Machine Politics and the Secret Ballot".
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Nichter, Simeon (February 2008). "Vote Buying or Turnout Buying? Machine Politics and the Secret Ballot".
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benefits at the expense of the public. Client politics may have a strong interaction with the dynamics of
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Kitschelt, Herbert (September 2000). "Linkages between Citizens and Politicians in Democratic Polities".
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on the citizen's actions on behalf of the politician or party through which they are receiving services.
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is the exchange of goods and services for political support, often involving an implicit or explicit
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1316:"Clientelism's Red Herrings: Dead Ends and New Directions in the Study of Nonprogrammatic Politics"
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2105:. Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association Meeting – via Researchgate.
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Contingency and iteration are the two components shared across most definitions of clientelism.
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Clientelism involves an asymmetric relationship between groups of political actors described as
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Weitz-Shapiro, Rebecca (2012). "What Wins Votes: Why Some Politicians Opt Out of Clientelism".
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Goodin, Robert E. The Oxford Handbook of Political Science. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. Print.
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are not the only type of intermediaries that mediate clientelist exchanges. There are also
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The origin of the practice has been traced to ancient Rome. Here relationships between the
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such as roads and public schools, which aid economic development. Scholars also note that
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who neither represent specific group interests nor exhibit stable partisan attachments.
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who also represent specific interest groups but demonstrate strong party loyalties, and
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1409:
1144:"Clientelism from the Client's Perspective: A Meta-Analysis of Ethnographic Literature"
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477:
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292:
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Stokes, Susan C.; Dunning, Thad; Nazareno, Marcelo; Brusco, Valeria (September 2013).
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Stokes, Susan C.; Dunning, Thad; Nazareno, Marcelo; Brusco, Valeria (September 2013).
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Hierarchy: The politician or party is in a higher position of power than the citizen.
401:
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2118:"Why Do Voters Support Corrupt Politicians? Experimental Evidence from South Africa"
2004:
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Buying Voters with Dirty Money: The Relationship between Clientelism and Corruption
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810:
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164:
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Hicken, Allen; Aspinall, Edward; Weiss, Meredith L.; Muhtadi, Burhanuddin (2022).
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problems can have important implications for understanding how clientelism works.
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who represent specific interest groups but mobilize voters for multiple parties,
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Holland, Alisha C.; Palmer-Rubin, Brian (12 April 2015). "Beyond the Machine".
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Money for Votes: The Causes and Consequences of Electoral Clientelism in Africa
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Money for Votes: The Causes and Consequences of Electoral Clientelism in Africa
17:
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Tornquist, Olle (1999) Politics and Development: A Critical Introduction, SAGE
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Tyrants would distribute largesse, a bushel of wheat, a gallon of wine, and a
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1996:
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1614:
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1214:
1191:"Buying Brokers: Electoral Handouts beyond Clientelism in a Weak-Party State"
1167:
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Contingency: Delivery of a service to a citizen by a politician or broker is
2519:
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2407:
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1142:
Pellicer, Miquel; Wegner, Eva; Bayer, Markus; Tischmeyer, Christian (2021).
963:
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341:
224:
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Iteration: The relationship is not a one-off exchange, but rather, ongoing.
2215:"Corruption" Def. 1. Oxford Dictionary Online, n.d., Mon. 1 November 2014.
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1247:
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1953:
1117:; Dunning, Thad; Nazareno, Marcelo; Brusco, Valeria (16 September 2013).
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2903:
Commission for the Prevention of Corruption of the Republic of Slovenia
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1371:
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was the basic unit underlying Roman society, the interlocking networks
481:
139:
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1858:
Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India
1770:
Brokers, Voters, and Clientelism: The Puzzle of Distributive Politics
1545:
Brokers, Voters, and Clientelism: The Puzzle of Distributive Politics
1119:
Brokers, Voters, and Clientelism: The Puzzle of Distributive Politics
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himself perhaps being obligated to someone of greater power, and the
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473:
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2133:
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2163:
Stokes, Susan (July 2009). Boix, Carles; Stokes, Susan C (eds.).
2437:
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2281:
1435:
The Politics of Obedience: The Discourse of Voluntary Servitude
857:
Stokes' research on clientelism in Argentina assumed that the
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Dyadic relationships: Simply, these are two-way relationships.
2277:
761:
are sometimes used to describe similar or related concepts.
2828:
Special Investigation Service of the Republic of Lithuania
3025:
International Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities
1424:, University of California Press, Vol. 1, pp. 162–163.
2822:
Governance and Economic Management Assistance Program
2781:
Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)
2763:
Anti-corruption and Economic Malpractice Observatory
27:
Exchange of goods and services for political support
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Citizen's Charter and Grievance Redressal Bill 2011
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1624:
1437:(Harry Kurz, transl.), New York: Free Life, p. 40
1582:
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2932:Central Steering Committee for Anti-Corruption
2799:Fiji Independent Commission Against Corruption
2730:UNCAC Coalition of Civil Society Organisations
2116:Bøttkjær, Louise; Justesen, Mogens K. (2021).
2293:
2247:
1587:Mares, Isabela; Young, Lauren (11 May 2016).
1273:
1271:
1269:
1267:
617:
8:
3035:United Nations Convention against Corruption
3015:Inter-American Convention Against Corruption
1422:The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome
3073:Movement for Peace with Justice and Dignity
2908:Anti-Corruption and Civil Rights Commission
2752:Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission
1589:"Buying, Expropriating, and Stealing Votes"
1383:
1381:
2951:
2920:National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine
2816:Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau
2689:
2378:
2300:
2286:
2278:
676:. This is particularly common in an elite
624:
610:
31:
1604:
1345:
1343:
1331:
1295:
1242:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2850:Independent Corrupt Practices Commission
1309:
1307:
862:able to track its clientele despite the
2892:Sierra Leone Anti-corruption Commission
2757:Anti-Corruption Commission (Bangladesh)
2249:Scambio illecito se il metodo è mafioso
2173:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566020.001.0001
1314:Hicken, Allen; Nathan, Noah L. (2020).
1091:
42:
2980:Freedom of information laws by country
2897:Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau
2198:
2188:
1942:Quarterly Journal of Political Science
2844:Anti-Corruption Commission of Myanmar
2786:Commission Against Corruption (Macau)
2715:International Anti-Corruption Academy
2253:, Diritto e giustizia,13 maggio 2000.
2066:American Journal of Political Science
2059:
2057:
1720:
1718:
1674:
1672:
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1633:The Journal of Modern African Studies
1606:10.1146/annurev-polisci-060514-120923
1509:American Journal of Political Science
1333:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032657
1297:10.1146/annurev.polisci.031908.220508
7:
3063:2012 Indian anti-corruption movement
3058:2011 Indian anti-corruption movement
2839:Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission
2769:National Anti-Corruption Observatory
1109:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
2985:The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013
2880:National Anticorruption Directorate
2874:Anti-Corruption General Directorate
668:. In client politics, an organized
2710:Group of States Against Corruption
1593:Annual Review of Political Science
1433:Étienne de La Boétie (1552–1553).
1320:Annual Review of Political Science
1284:Annual Review of Political Science
25:
2886:Investigative Committee of Russia
1899:American Political Science Review
1727:American Political Science Review
1681:American Political Science Review
492:Biology and political orientation
3078:Russian anti-corruption campaign
3068:Anti-austerity movement in Spain
2975:Foreign Extortion Prevention Act
2099:Singer, Matthew (January 2009).
2078:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00578.x
593:
2914:Servicio de Vigilancia Aduanera
2775:National Supervisory Commission
2862:Investigation Task Force Sweep
2856:National Accountability Bureau
2328:Corruption in local government
2316:Corruption in different fields
1121:. Cambridge University Press.
487:Theories of political behavior
113:Political history of the world
1:
2970:Foreign Corrupt Practices Act
2868:Central Anticorruption Bureau
2020:Comparative Political Studies
1977:Comparative Political Studies
1811:Comparative Political Studies
502:Critique of political economy
3030:OECD Anti-Bribery Convention
3020:International asset recovery
2804:Central Vigilance Commission
2359:Corruption Perceptions Index
1396:Clapham, Christopher (1985)
83:Outline of political science
3088:2017–2019 Romanian protests
1278:Hicken, Allen (June 2011).
959:Big man (political science)
801:way—eagerly open to bribes.
649:. It is closely related to
3144:
3093:2017–2018 Russian protests
2725:Transparency International
2700:Global Financial Integrity
1989:10.1177/001041400003300607
88:Index of politics articles
3053:2011 Azerbaijani protests
2530:Offshore financial centre
2333:Interest group corruption
1911:10.1017/S0003055408080106
1739:10.1017/S0003055408080106
1693:10.1017/S0003055405051683
1645:10.1017/S0022278X09990243
1207:10.1017/S0043887121000216
1160:10.1017/S153759272000420X
1004:Interest group liberalism
2995:Whistleblower protection
2483:Cryptocurrency and crime
2032:10.1177/0010414018774372
1823:10.1177/0010414015574883
1778:10.1017/cbo9781107324909
1553:10.1017/cbo9781107324909
1148:Perspectives on Politics
2364:Economics of corruption
2122:The Journal of Politics
497:Political organisations
260:International relations
98:Politics by subdivision
2990:UK Bribery Act of 2010
2746:Oficina Anticorrupción
2495:Noble cause corruption
2352:Measures of corruption
2248:
899:Clientelism in context
881:organizational brokers
3118:Political terminology
2720:Mo Ibrahim Foundation
2500:Professional courtesy
2463:Honest services fraud
2165:Political Clientelism
1867:10.1017/9781108573481
1477:10.1017/9781108149839
1465:Kramon, Eric (2018).
1248:10.1017/9781108149839
1236:Kramon, Eric (2017).
969:Politics of the belly
776:did not use the term
577:Political campaigning
317:Public administration
150:Collective leadership
3128:Public choice theory
3123:Political corruption
2684:Institutions dealing
2418:Conflict of interest
2343:Political corruption
1954:10.1561/100.00019018
1398:Third World Politics
1352:Comparative Politics
1034:Political corruption
849:Forms of clientelism
774:Étienne de La Boétie
427:Separation of powers
298:Political psychology
273:Comparative politics
251:political scientists
238:Academic disciplines
118:Political philosophy
2525:Offshore investment
889:independent brokers
686:conviction politics
600:Politics portal
449:Election commission
420:Government branches
303:Political sociology
155:Confessional system
93:Politics by country
2926:Warioba Commission
2864:(Papua New Guinea)
2608:Regulatory capture
2413:Commercial bribery
1861:. Cambridge Core.
1521:10.1111/ajps.12058
1471:. Cambridge Core.
1064:Regulatory capture
984:Electoral district
979:Earmark (politics)
651:patronage politics
283:Political analysis
215:Semi-parliamentary
3105:
3104:
3101:
3100:
2941:
2940:
2679:
2678:
2656:Election security
2603:Political scandal
2338:Police corruption
2182:978-0-19-956602-0
2026:(12): 1925–1956.
1876:978-1-108-57348-1
1795:978-1-107-32490-9
1570:978-1-107-32490-9
1486:978-1-108-14983-9
1257:978-1-107-19372-7
1128:978-1-107-66039-7
1054:Political dynasty
1039:Political machine
1024:Neopatrimonialism
999:Identity politics
826:and/or sometimes
759:political machine
751:bastard feudalism
674:identity politics
634:
633:
582:Political parties
522:Electoral systems
246:Political science
220:Semi-presidential
132:Political systems
108:Political history
103:Political economy
16:(Redirected from
3135:
2952:
2690:
2671:Vote suppression
2558:Crony capitalism
2488:Hawala and crime
2478:Money laundering
2458:Graft (politics)
2438:Confidence trick
2379:
2373:Forms or aspects
2302:
2295:
2288:
2279:
2272:
2269:
2263:
2260:
2254:
2251:
2245:
2241:
2235:
2234:
2222:
2216:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2200:
2196:
2194:
2186:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2061:
2052:
2051:
2015:
2009:
2008:
1983:(6–7): 845–879.
1972:
1966:
1965:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1853:Chandra, Kanchan
1849:
1843:
1842:
1817:(9): 1186–1223.
1806:
1800:
1799:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1722:
1713:
1712:
1676:
1665:
1664:
1628:
1619:
1618:
1608:
1584:
1575:
1574:
1540:
1534:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1504:
1498:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1462:
1456:
1453:
1447:
1444:
1438:
1431:
1425:
1407:
1401:
1394:
1388:
1385:
1376:
1375:
1347:
1338:
1337:
1335:
1311:
1302:
1301:
1299:
1275:
1262:
1261:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1139:
1133:
1132:
1111:
1049:Political family
768:(49–44 BCE) and
662:patrons, brokers
626:
619:
612:
598:
597:
388:
333:
288:Political theory
278:Election science
268:
254:
32:
21:
3143:
3142:
3138:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3133:
3132:
3108:
3107:
3106:
3097:
3045:
3039:
3007:
3005:
2999:
2956:
2947:Anti-corruption
2937:
2734:
2686:with corruption
2685:
2675:
2651:Electoral fraud
2646:Ballot stuffing
2634:
2536:
2374:
2368:
2347:
2323:Corporate crime
2311:
2306:
2276:
2275:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2257:
2243:
2242:
2238:
2224:
2223:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2197:
2187:
2183:
2167:. Vol. 1.
2162:
2161:
2157:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2098:
2097:
2093:
2063:
2062:
2055:
2017:
2016:
2012:
1974:
1973:
1969:
1939:
1938:
1934:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1796:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1724:
1723:
1716:
1678:
1677:
1668:
1630:
1629:
1622:
1586:
1585:
1578:
1571:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1528:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1464:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1445:
1441:
1432:
1428:
1410:Gruen, Erich S.
1408:
1404:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1379:
1364:10.2307/4150135
1349:
1348:
1341:
1313:
1312:
1305:
1277:
1276:
1265:
1258:
1235:
1234:
1230:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1141:
1140:
1136:
1129:
1115:Stokes, Susan C
1113:
1112:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1014:Minoritarianism
954:
941:
910:
901:
851:
816:principal-agent
808:
715:
641:client politics
630:
592:
587:
586:
517:
516:
507:
506:
464:
463:
454:
453:
422:
421:
412:
411:
407:Public interest
392:Domestic policy
382:
375:
374:
363:
362:
327:
320:
319:
308:
307:
269:
262:
255:
248:
240:
239:
230:
229:
135:
134:
123:
122:
78:
77:
68:
37:Politics series
28:
23:
22:
18:Client politics
15:
12:
11:
5:
3141:
3139:
3131:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3110:
3109:
3103:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3049:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3011:
3009:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2960:
2958:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2935:
2929:
2923:
2917:
2911:
2905:
2900:
2894:
2889:
2883:
2877:
2871:
2865:
2859:
2853:
2847:
2841:
2836:
2830:
2825:
2819:
2813:
2807:
2801:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2783:
2772:
2766:
2760:
2754:
2749:
2742:
2740:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2705:Global Witness
2702:
2696:
2694:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2661:Gerrymandering
2658:
2653:
2648:
2642:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2621:
2620:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2578:Ghost soldiers
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2544:
2542:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2527:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2485:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2428:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2391:
2385:
2383:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2319:
2317:
2313:
2312:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2297:
2290:
2282:
2274:
2273:
2264:
2255:
2236:
2217:
2208:
2199:|journal=
2181:
2155:
2134:10.1086/710146
2128:(2): 788–793.
2108:
2091:
2072:(3): 568–583.
2053:
2010:
1967:
1932:
1889:
1875:
1855:(March 2004).
1844:
1801:
1794:
1760:
1714:
1687:(3): 315–325.
1666:
1639:(1): 117–142.
1620:
1599:(1): 267–288.
1576:
1569:
1535:
1526:
1515:(2): 415–432.
1499:
1485:
1457:
1448:
1439:
1426:
1402:
1389:
1377:
1358:(3): 353–375.
1339:
1303:
1263:
1256:
1228:
1195:World Politics
1181:
1154:(3): 931–947.
1134:
1127:
1090:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1006:
1001:
996:
991:
986:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
955:
953:
950:
940:
937:
909:
906:
900:
897:
885:hybrid brokers
859:Peronist Party
850:
847:
807:
804:
803:
802:
764:The reigns of
714:
711:
707:
706:
703:
700:
693:
670:interest group
632:
631:
629:
628:
621:
614:
606:
603:
602:
589:
588:
585:
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
563:
562:
546:
541:
536:
535:
534:
524:
518:
514:
513:
512:
509:
508:
505:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
471:
465:
462:Related topics
461:
460:
459:
456:
455:
452:
451:
446:
441:
436:
430:
429:
423:
419:
418:
417:
414:
413:
410:
409:
404:
399:
397:Foreign policy
394:
389:
376:
370:
369:
368:
365:
364:
361:
360:
359:
358:
344:
339:
334:
321:
315:
314:
313:
310:
309:
306:
305:
300:
295:
293:Policy studies
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
258:
256:
244:
241:
237:
236:
235:
232:
231:
228:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
142:
136:
130:
129:
128:
125:
124:
121:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
79:
76:Primary topics
75:
74:
73:
70:
69:
67:
66:
61:
56:
50:
47:
46:
40:
39:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3140:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3113:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3042:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3004:International
3002:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2944:
2933:
2930:
2927:
2924:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2910:(South Korea)
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2887:
2884:
2881:
2878:
2875:
2872:
2869:
2866:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2808:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2794:
2791:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2770:
2767:
2764:
2761:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2693:International
2691:
2688:
2682:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2625:State capture
2623:
2619:
2616:
2615:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2568:Elite capture
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2539:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2480:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2380:
2377:
2375:of corruption
2371:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2320:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2303:
2298:
2296:
2291:
2289:
2284:
2283:
2280:
2268:
2265:
2259:
2256:
2252:
2250:
2240:
2237:
2232:
2228:
2221:
2218:
2212:
2209:
2204:
2192:
2184:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2159:
2156:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2109:
2104:
2103:
2095:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2014:
2011:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1948:(1): 53–104.
1947:
1943:
1936:
1933:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1893:
1890:
1878:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1859:
1854:
1848:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1805:
1802:
1797:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1764:
1761:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1627:
1625:
1621:
1616:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1539:
1536:
1530:
1527:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1500:
1488:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1461:
1458:
1452:
1449:
1443:
1440:
1436:
1430:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1406:
1403:
1399:
1393:
1390:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1334:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1298:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1280:"Clientelism"
1274:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1240:
1232:
1229:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1201:(1): 77–120.
1200:
1196:
1192:
1185:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1138:
1135:
1130:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1085:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
990:
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
956:
951:
949:
945:
938:
936:
934:
930:
925:
922:
918:
916:
915:secret ballot
907:
905:
898:
896:
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2835:(Madagascar)
2759:(Bangladesh)
2666:Vote pairing
2618:Rent-setting
2613:Rent-seeking
2573:Failed state
2547:
2473:Match fixing
2443:Embezzlement
2422:Corporation
2394:Black market
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2244:(in Italian)
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2013:
1980:
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1905:(1): 19–31.
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1880:. Retrieved
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1074:Tammany Hall
1069:Rent-seeking
1059:Prebendalism
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933:rent-seeking
929:public goods
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908:Consequences
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330:street-level
205:Presidential
165:Dictatorship
35:Part of the
29:
3008:and efforts
3006:instruments
2957:enforcement
2899:(Singapore)
2812:(Indonesia)
2748:(Argentina)
2630:State crime
2588:Mafia state
2583:Kleptocracy
2548:Clientelism
2515:Tax evasion
2398:Grey market
1786:11086/18791
1561:11086/18791
1414:Patrocinium
1326:: 277–294.
1290:: 289–310.
1044:Pork barrel
1029:Pay to play
939:Controversy
842:vote buying
828:sub-patrons
778:clientelism
757:", and the
747:(clientela)
733:, with the
731:(clientela)
723:and client
682:duopolistic
680:or rigidly
655:vote buying
637:Clientelism
469:Sovereignty
434:Legislature
337:Technocracy
325:Bureaucracy
190:Meritocracy
170:Directorial
3112:Categories
3083:Yo Soy 132
2928:(Tanzania)
2858:(Pakistan)
2771:(Cameroon)
2598:Plutocracy
2553:Coronelism
2510:Slush fund
2309:Corruption
1882:6 December
1492:7 November
1446:webref.org
1086:References
1019:Money loop
974:Corruption
921:Corruption
721:(patronus)
697:contingent
559:Governance
549:Government
544:Federalism
145:City-state
3046:movements
2966:(pending)
2934:(Vietnam)
2922:(Ukraine)
2882:(Romania)
2876:(Romania)
2852:(Nigeria)
2846:(Myanmar)
2824:(Liberia)
2795:(Croatia)
2765:(Burundi)
2639:Elections
2520:Tax haven
2448:Extortion
2408:Collusion
2389:Baksheesh
2201:ignored (
2191:cite book
2150:188767507
2142:0022-3816
2086:1540-5907
2048:158062055
2040:0010-4140
1997:0010-4140
1962:214436911
1919:1537-5943
1839:156379074
1831:0010-4140
1747:1537-5943
1701:1537-5943
1653:1469-7777
1615:1094-2939
1418:clientela
1223:246488907
1215:0043-8871
1176:234377324
1168:1537-5927
964:Caciquism
806:Mechanics
755:patronage
678:pluralist
539:Unitarism
527:Elections
515:Subseries
444:Judiciary
439:Executive
342:Adhocracy
225:Theocracy
180:Feudalism
160:Democracy
2955:Laws and
2888:(Russia)
2870:(Poland)
2818:(Latvia)
2777:(China)
2739:National
2593:Nepotism
2563:Cronyism
2468:Kickback
2005:22282599
1927:54757367
1755:54757367
1709:36014179
1661:33722499
1412:(1986) "
1079:Votebank
1009:Lobbying
989:Cronyism
952:See also
794:Tiberius
790:sesterce
770:Tiberius
735:patronus
725:(cliens)
567:Ideology
385:doctrine
346:Service
210:Republic
195:Monarchy
175:Federacy
64:Category
44:Politics
3044:Protest
2916:(Spain)
2806:(India)
2505:Scandal
2403:Bribery
2382:General
2231:2225027
1372:4150135
832:brokers
824:patrons
782:bribery
743:familia
719:patron
713:Origins
666:clients
572:Culture
482:Country
140:Anarchy
54:Outline
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1420:," in
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739:cliens
664:, and
532:voting
474:Polity
372:Policy
351:Public
265:theory
2793:USKOK
2541:State
2453:Fraud
2431:Shell
2426:Dummy
2146:S2CID
2044:S2CID
2001:S2CID
1958:S2CID
1923:S2CID
1835:S2CID
1751:S2CID
1705:S2CID
1657:S2CID
1368:JSTOR
1219:S2CID
1172:S2CID
994:Graft
555:forms
478:State
355:Civil
59:Index
2227:SSRN
2203:help
2177:ISBN
2138:ISSN
2082:ISSN
2036:ISSN
1993:ISSN
1915:ISSN
1884:2019
1871:ISBN
1827:ISSN
1790:ISBN
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1697:ISSN
1649:ISSN
1611:ISSN
1565:ISBN
1494:2019
1481:ISBN
1416:and
1252:ISBN
1211:ISSN
1164:ISSN
1123:ISBN
798:Nero
796:and
653:and
2810:KPK
2169:doi
2130:doi
2074:doi
2028:doi
1985:doi
1950:doi
1907:doi
1903:102
1863:doi
1819:doi
1782:hdl
1774:doi
1735:doi
1731:102
1689:doi
1641:doi
1601:doi
1557:hdl
1549:doi
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